Статті в журналах з теми "Moral Judgment and B.Ed Students"

Martínez Romero, Emma Lucía. "Cultura ciudadana para la resolución pacífica de conflictos saberes y prácticas que la fortalecen." Análisis 50, no. 92 (En-Ju) (2018): 239–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.15332/21459169.3544.

Muhammad Riaz and Dr. Muhammad Uzair ul Hassan. "Analysis of Professional Dispositions Taught to Prospective Teachers in Public Sector Universities of Punjab." Research Journal of Social Sciences and Economics Review (RJSSER) 1, no. 3 (2020): 255–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.36902/rjsser-vol1-iss3-2020(255-264).

Nasruddin, Muhammad, Endang Sriwinarsih, Yayah Rukhiyah, Supriyanti Supriyanti, and Nginayatul Khasanah. "Pengaruh Pendidikan Agama Islam Di Sekolah Terhadap Perilaku Anak Di Rumah." As-Sibyan: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini 6, no. 1 (2021): 77–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.32678/as-sibyan.v6i1.4592.

Aisyah, Siti, Sri Tatminingsih, Titi Chandrawati, and Dian Novita. "Stimulating Strategy High-order Thinking Skills in Early Childhood Education by Utilizing Traditional Games." JPUD - Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini 18, no. 1 (2024): 64–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.21009/jpud.181.05.

Sumadi, Tjipto, Elindra Yetti, Yufiarti Yufiarti, and Wuryani Wuryani. "Transformation of Tolerance Values (in Religion) in Early Childhood Education." JPUD - Jurnal Pendidikan Usia Dini 13, no. 2 (2019): 386–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.21009/jpud.132.13.

Co, Kimon Irvin. "correlation of human capital sustainability leadership style and resilience of the managers in airline operations group of an AIRLINE Company." Bedan Research Journal 7, no. 1 (2022): 89–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.58870/berj.v7i1.34.

Kalalo, Indah Nadya, Irawaty Irawaty, and Duhita Driyah Suprapti. "The Role of Law in Building Community Morality Indah Nadya Kalalo*, Irawaty, Duhita Driyah Suprapti* Building K, Semarang State University, Sekaran Campus, Gunungpati, Semarang City, Central Java, Indonesia *Corresponding Author DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010042 Received: 25 December 2024; Accepted: 28 December 2024; Published: 30 January 2025 ABSTRACT The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral degradation. This is evident in the many cases that have occurred, such as brawls between students, theft, robbery, rape, free sex, alcohol, drugs and the current trend is the proliferation of corruption in almost all state institutions. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by creating a law-abiding legal culture, increasing legal awareness, and seeking the implementation of policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. This study aims to determine the role of law in building morality in society. This research This research uses a literature study research method, while the data collection technique is carried out by exploring journals and other information relevant to the study. The results of this study indicate that the role of law in building community morality is to ensure certainty and justice, in people's lives there is always a difference between patterns of behavior or behavior that applies in society and patterns of behavior desired by norms (rules). law. Keywords- Law, Morality, Society, Moral Decadence INTRODUCTION The personality of the Indonesian nation is a manifestation of the character of the Indonesian nation, where the process starts from habituation in a synergistic and continuous manner which grouped into an Indonesian nation with a national character. Each individual has a personality that is manifested from within him. Personality thats manifests itself in various ways, some give bad dominance, some dominate good and some are not so good, all of which are influenced by genetic, environmental, family and local factors. Everyone has the right to manifest a personality with good character because personality is a gift from the Creator of the universe, which is human nature. Character is something that is very fundamental in terms of nation and state, therefore the loss of character will cause the loss of the nation's next generation. The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. In the Asian region, Indonesia is the friendliest country. The Legatum Institute, a research institution based in the UK in The Legatum Prosperity Index 2016 ranked Indonesia as the most friendly and sociable Asian country with a score of 61.88. The identified community outreach includes the scope of personal relationships, community participation, and support for social networks. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral decadence. Noble morals such as honesty, truth, justice, helping each other, tepo seliro (tolerance), and loving one another have begun to be eroded by fraud, deception, hostility, oppression, dropping each other, fawning, taking other people's rights by force and at will, and other actions. -another despicable act. Moral decline or what we often hear with the term 'moral decadence' now has not only hit adults, but has also hit students who are the nation's next generation. Parents, teachers, and several parties involved in education, religion and social affairs have complained a lot about the behavior of some students who behave outside the limits of decency and decency, such as: drinking, brawls, drug abuse, promiscuity and free sex. hedonists and hippies in the West, and so on. The crisis of public mentality at this time is part of a multidimensional crisis, namely a problem experienced by the country where there are many problems in various aspects of life, which are faced especially among the community. The implementation of moral teachings in the public has begun to decline, so that in order to have good and good morals it is not enough for individuals to only carry out activities that are carried out followed by belief and understanding regarding the goodness that is implemented in this activity. Morality is a crucial issue to be studied in the current era of globalization. This becomes crucial when we look at the behavior of the people and the next generation of this nation which seems to have started to abandon positive moral values. Morality is a benchmark to determine the right and wrong of human attitudes and actions, seen from the good and bad side as humans and not as actors of certain roles. Thus, morals contain values and norms that are sourced from the human conscience. So to build good public morality, it is necessary to have a smart solution that is able to change the Indonesian people to become moral and have character. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by implementing policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. The function of law is as a medium for regulating social interaction. In this arrangement, there are instructions on what to do, what to do and what not to do, in the hope that everything will run in an orderly and orderly manner. At the same time in the position of an orderly society, the law is used as a means to realize social justice, here the law is expected to be useful for people's lives. The community is protected, safe and comfortable. Law can also function as a driver of development, which can bring society in a more advanced direction. In addition, another legal function is to increase people's thinking power to become more critical. Therefore, this research has a goal, namely to understand the role of law in building public morality. Then, the discussion in this article is related to legal and moral theories to answer the relevant problems and have their validity tested. RESEARCH METHODS The research method used in this paper is the normative juridical method, which aims to the role of law in building community morality. This approach involves reviewing applicable laws and regulations, court decisions, and related legal literature to understand the legal principles underlying the role of law in building community morality. The data collected will be analyzed qualitatively, with a focus on the role of law in building community morality, in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the validity of legal arguments in the role of law in building community morality. DISCUSSION The Role of Law in Building Community Morality Functions of Law in Community Life Where there is society there is law (ubi societas ibi ius). Law exists in every society, whenever, wherever, and regardless of the circumstances of that society. it means that the existence of law is universal, apart from the existence of the law, it is greatly affected by the variety and color of the audience (law also has distinctive characteristics, according to the growth and changes that exist in an audience). In carrying out its role as a tool for regulating and social change, the law has the aim of implementing an orderly, peaceful, just audience that is encouraged through legal provisions so that individual and public needs can be maintained. Law has a regulatory nature because it contains a series of rules in commands and prohibitions that aim to regulate human behavior in the order of life in order to create order. That's why we as those who carry out the law must be really disciplined with the law, whether it's the law with humans or the law with the human creator. The law is formed to maintain the balance of the interests of the community, so as to create order and justice that can be felt by everyone in the community concerned. Even in the historical school it is stated that the whole law is actually formed through the habits and feelings of the people, namely through the secret operation of power. Law is rooted in history, where its roots are brought to life by the awareness, beliefs and habits of citizens. The law functions as the protection of human interests, so that their interests are protected, then the law should be implemented in real terms. The law functions as a regulator of peaceful social life. The law demands peace. Broadly speaking, the law functions to carry out social control, dispute settlement and social engineering or innovation. The function of the law as a means of social control, the law is tasked with keeping the community in the patterns of behavior that have been accepted by it. In this role, the law only maintains what has become something permanent and accepted in society or the law as a guardian of the status quo, but beyond that the law can still carry out other functions, namely with the aim of making changes in the environment. to the public After that, the role of law became a sign, by L.B. Curzon (to Achmad Ali, explained that what I meant by symbolic was "involving stages in which individuals simply take into account social correlations and other phenomena that arise through these interactions..." means simply related to social correlations and other symptoms that arise through it, their interactions with other individuals, such as in law, individuals who steal other individual goods intend to possess, through unlawful techniques, symbolized by criminal law as stealing activities that must be punished. Next, the function of law as a political tool, by Achmad Ali suggests that law (written law) as a political tool is universal. Moreover, it is associated with the function of law as a tool of social engineering, the role of political rulers over the law is very large. Likewise in our legal system in Indonesia, the law is a joint product between the people's representative council and the government. This fact is undeniable how all the politicians who pass the legislation . Meanwhile, according to Sukowati, the role of politics is to maintain and adapt the system, conversion and the role of capabilities. Relationship of Law and Morality Since ancient period, including in philosophy or theology, it is often debated whether something that is ordered is meant for good or because it is commanded to be good and vice versa whether something is not allowed because there is evil. Commands and prohibitions are rules in law, while good and bad are the moral values of an action. The existence of a law is basically realized in the context of creating a safe and peaceful life order in social life. Law is meaningless if it is not accompanied by ethics, so the quality of law is largely determined by moral quality. On the other hand, morality also requires law because morality will be in the air if it is not clearly expressed in society in the form of law. So, the law can increase the impact of morality. For example, respect for others is an important ethical principle, but not all ethics need to be translated into legal form because law must also be limited to regulating relevant human relations. In fact, morality and law are not always related because there are applicable laws (positive laws) that are contrary to ethics and therefore must be rejected. Leaving morals in judgment is tantamount to the law losing its soul. In Hart's view, the assertion that between law and morality there is a necessary or absolute relationship has many important understandings, but not all of these relationships are clearly visible. Departing from this obscurity Hart seeks to demonstrate and evaluate the reasons underlying this view. According to him, none of the reasons put forward to show the absolute relationship is adequate although he admits that some aspects of the arguments put forward have truth, in accordance with some facts that can be found in the legal system. Hart recognizes that law, justice, and morals have a very close relationship. Even one aspect of justice, namely administrative justice, and in the minimum natural law, law and morality are absolutely related. Administrative justice referred to here is nothing but justice in the application of law. The application of punishment to a person is based solely on the characteristics stated in the law. The law on murder, for example, stipulates that a person who intentionally takes the life of another person is sentenced to fifteen years, so from this provision we will know which characteristics are relevant and irrelevant to punish the perpetrators of murder. The perpetrator's skin color and hair type are irrelevant; while the person's decisions or intentions are relevant. If in deciding a particular case the characteristics mentioned in the law are ignored, then the application of the punishment is considered unfair. Justice in the application of this law according to Hart has an absolute relationship with the law. However, this absolute relationship only concerns the administration of law and this type of justice can also occur in a legal system which is full of unfair laws. Characteristics of a Moral Society Pestalozzi views humans as moral beings. Morality is the achievement of the human will, the result of good character triumphing over self-interested feelings. To grow morally, we must feel deeply. In other words, an action or behavior can be said to be moral to the extent that the action or behavior is carried out because it is forced by social customs or state law, but from a personal decision. Rousseau was a profound influence on Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. Pestalozzi followed Rousseau in his “recommendation” that children be educated using the senses. Pestalozzi reworked Rousseau's thinking, following Locke and calling it an "object lesson". Pestalozzi views humans as moral beings. Morality is the achievement of the human will, the result of good character triumphing over self-interested feelings. To grow morally, we must feel deeply. In other words, an action or behavior can be said to be moral to the extent that the action or behavior is carried out because it is forced by social customs or state law, but from a personal decision. Rousseau was a profound influence on Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. Pestalozzi followed Rousseau in his “recommendation” that children be educated using the senses. Pestalozzi reworked Rousseau's thinking, following Locke and calling it an "object lesson". Application of Law in Society Law enforcement is an attempt to bring ideas and concepts into reality. Law enforcement is a process to make legal wishes come true. What are called legal desires here are none other than the thoughts of making laws that are formulated in the legal regulations. The implementation of law in society, apart from depending on the legal awareness of the community, is also very much determined by law enforcement officers, because it often happens that some legal regulations cannot be implemented properly because there are several law enforcement officers who do not carry out a legal provision as it should. This is due to the implementation by law enforcement itself which is not appropriate and is a bad example and can degrade the image. In addition, good examples and the integrity and morality of law enforcement officers must absolutely be good, because they are very vulnerable and open to opportunities for bribery and abuse of authority. Money can affect the investigation process, prosecution process and the decision handed down. The discussion about the law enforcement process also extends to the making of laws. The formulation of the thoughts of the creators of the legislation described in the laws and regulations then determines how to enforce the law is implemented, while good law is created by taking into account the various needs that exist in the public, including public, national, and individual and state needs. personal. Thus, the formation of law must seek to balance these various interests. The main public interest is the interest of the state to protect the existence and nature of the state and the interest to monitor and promote social welfare. In people's lives there are always various kinds of norms that directly or indirectly affect the procedures for behaving or acting. The norms that are deeply felt in human life are customary norms, religious norms, moral norms and legal norms. The law of life in society can force people to obey the rules in society and provide strict sanctions (in the form of punishment) for anyone who violates and does not obey it. The purpose of the law itself is to ensure the continuity of balance in the relationship between members of the community. Good law is formed by considering the various interests that exist in society, both public interests (including the main one is the interest of the state), individual interests and personal interests. Thus, the formation of law must seek to balance these various interests. The main public interest is the interest of the state to protect the existence and nature of the state and the interest to monitor and promote social welfare. The formation of law must pay attention to the living law. There is a balance between written law and unwritten law. The development of law is strongly influenced by ideological, political, social, and cultural conditions. So, it's not just the government's wish. Efforts to Grow Community Morality with Law Law, which is seen as one of the important aspects in society that aims to realize the formation of a comfortable and just society, is sometimes ignored by a few people. Not infrequently the law is injured, violated, or even manipulated its function by people who do have an interest, or people who still consider the importance of a law that exists in society. These people are people who are not aware and do not obey the law. The role of public legal awareness as the purpose of the law itself is to guarantee certainty and justice. In the life of the community, there is always a difference between the patterns of behavior or behavior that apply in society and the patterns of behavior desired by legal norms (rules). This can lead to a problem in the form of social inequality so that at certain times conflicts and social tensions tend to occur which of course can disrupt the course of community change in the desired direction. This condition occurs because the law that is built can be a guide (principle) to act for the public, there may be legal awareness, to a tendency to obey the law. A sense of legal awareness in the public needs to be created and implemented so that the public is more obedient to the existing laws, including written or written laws that appear and grow in the audience and their existence is recognized through the audience. Legal awareness According to the KBBI, it is an individual's awareness of the insight that an action is specifically regulated by legislation . Legal awareness at a particular point, it is desired to be able to provide individual encouragement to obey and carry out or not carry out what is prohibited and or ordered through legislation. Thus, the growth of legal awareness becomes a crucial component in efforts to implement law enforcement. For Ewick and Silbey, “legal consciousness” is formed in action and is therefore a matter of practice to be studied empirically. In other words, legal awareness is a matter of "law as behavior", and not "law as a rule, norm or principle". The formation of a law-aware and law-abiding society is the ideal of the existence of norms that want a just society so that the joints of community culture will develop towards the creation of a community system that respects one another, making people aware of the law and obeying the law is not something easy by turning the palm of the hand hand, much must be sought by the founders or thinkers of this country to think about this. Law is not the only thing that functions to make people aware of the law and obey the law, Indonesia, which incidentally is a very heterogeneous country, seems to be in forming a positive legal formulation somewhat different from countries whose culture is homogeneous, it is very important before forming a law that will regulate the journey of society, it must be Excavated about the philosophy of law in a more comprehensive manner that will realize real justice for all groups, ethnicities, races, religions in Indonesia. Basically, law enforcement in Indonesia must include three very basic important aspects, namely: the culture of the community where legal values will be enforced, the structure of the law enforcement itself, and the substance of the law to be enforced. Building legal awareness is not easy, not everyone has that awareness. Law as a social phenomenon is an institution and control of society. In society, various institutions are found, each of which is needed in the community to meet their needs and facilitate the fulfillment of these needs, because of its function, the community needs the presence of institutions as an understanding of legal awareness. CONCLUSION The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral degradation. This is evident in the number of cases that have occurred, such as brawls between students, theft, robbery, rape, free sex, alcohol, drugs and the current trend of mushrooming corruption in almost all state institutions. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by creating a law-abiding legal culture, increasing legal awareness, and seeking the implementation of policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. The law is formed to maintain the balance of the interests of the community, so as to create order and justice that can be felt by everyone in the community concerned. Meanwhile, the role of law in building the morality of society is to guarantee certainty and justice, in people's lives there is always a difference between the patterns of behavior or behavior prevailing in society and the patterns of behavior desired by the norms (rules) of law. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Achmad, Ali. “Menguak Teori Hukum (Legal Theory) Dan Teori Peradilan (Judicial Prudence) Termasuk Interprestasi Undang-Undang.” Legisprudence, 2009, 511. 2. 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Patti-Signorelli, Anna, and José Javier Romero-Díaz de la Guardia. "CHAPTER 4: The biopsychosocial model and what it means for understanding inclusion in education - Brahm Norwich Introduction This chapter focuses on two specific pieces of Paul Cooper’s writing from 19 and 15 years ago respectively, namely his ideas about the biopsychosocial model and how he developed and used this perspective in unique ways to expand our thinking about inclusion and inclusive education. I believe this will give me the opportunity to show the detail of his analyses and way he engaged in the key debates going on in the field. It will also enable me to show the continuing relevance /of the arguments he voiced to current issues and concerns. Paul’s intellectual approach has been to oppose what he sees as false oppositions or dichotomies and this is something I have learned from and shared with him. The biopsychosocial model was for him a way to combine and bring together a more complex synthesis not just as an intellectual exercise, but as critical to enhancing educational practice, especially for those with disability and difficulties. A critical discussion of education, ADHD and the biopsychosocial (BPS) perspective Paul Cooper’s paper on the biopsychosocial perspective (Cooper, 2008) focuses on ADHD to propose a BPS model or what is called here a ‘paradigm’ as a way forward to address controversies amongst educationalists. Its argument had and continues to have much wider significance for the field of special educational needs and inclusive education. The main point in the paper was to show how the polarity between biological and social explanations for learning and behaviour problems had become redundant and unhelpful. ADHD it was stated was influenced by both biology and the social environment and indeed was ‘socially constructed’. But, this notion of social construction was not like the one adopted by the social model advocates referenced in the paper and still widely used in the 2020s. Shakespeare (2018, p. 68), for example, refers to the social model of disability as ‘the idea that people are disabled by society, rather than by their bodies’. What motivated Paul was the negativity towards the ADHD concept based on what he saw as: ‘outdated thinking and a lack of understanding of the diagnosis and the biopsychosocial paradigm through which it can be usefully understood’ (p. 457). Before examining the arguments about a social or a BPS model of ADHD, it worth exploring the usage of the terms in these models in written publications generally and in relation to academic research publications in education. Using the google ngram viewer system shows that the phrase ’social model of disability’ is used 114 times more in those texts covered within the google system than the phrase ‘biopsychosocial model of disability’ published in 2019. In addition, references to the phrase ‘social model of disability; increased 2.6 times from 2000 to 2019. By contrast, the use of the phrase ‘biopsychosocial model of disability’ increased more rapidly by 9.3 times, over the same period. Though this analysis is confined to those ngram accessed books in English, it does show that the ‘social model’ was used in this corpus considerably more than the ‘BPS model’. This is so even when the ‘BPS model’ had a greater increase in usage compared to the ‘social model’ over this almost two decade period. This picture is repeated when examining research literature references in education using the Education Research Complete database (ERC). In a search for literature with the terms ‘inclusive education or inclusion or mainstreaming or integration’ and either ‘biopsychosocial model’ or ‘social model’, it was found that there were 13 times as many references for social model than BPS model. It is clear from these analyses that Paul Cooper’s position has not been widely adopted since the 2000s and into the late 2010s, despite the international interest in the WHO International Classification of Functioning (ICF), which adopts a BPS model of disability (Hollenweger, 2012). My argument here is that this does not detract from the value and importance of the arguments in his paper. I am not going into the details of the case for the usefulness and risks in the use of medical classification systems that include ADHD as the most prevalent of childhood behaviour disorders. Cooper’s 2008 paper does this, and no doubt since then the current state of knowledge about ADHD has changed. What I will focus on is the argument made by Paul Cooper about the involvement of biological processes in functioning that comes to be identified as ADHD. Here he considered evidence for there being a problem in the response inhibition system, involving neuropsychological executive functioning mechanisms implicating physiological processes in the frontal lobes of the brain. In addition, he also implicates the genetic studies that have shown a much greater incidence of ADHD among identical than non-identical twins and among children who are biologically related as opposed to adopted. What he resists is the polarising between recognising these biological processes on human behaviour and the social processes; the either – or in favour of the both – and perspective. This is a central point in the commentary I am making of Paul Cooper’s positions and one which will be made too in relation to his ideas about inclusion in education below. The BPS model he is advocating rejects a biological determinism and represents biological factors as being mediated by psychosocial processes; the biological is subjected to social construction at various social and psychological levels. See Figure 4.1 which represents this kind of BPS model. In this respect the BPS model he advocates has strong links to Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 2006). It is notable that many references to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model have tended to also split the biological from the psycho-social (Tudge et al., 2009). Figure 4.1 Factors in interaction in the bio-psycho-social model of ADHD Critical reactions to ADHD have involved the dismissal of ADHD by some as a medical construct that individualises educational failure and disruptive behaviour. Part of the aversion to ADHD has been its use to legitimise the practice of using drugs as a form of social control of defiant children. Some argued this approach represented wrong-headed pseudo-science. The argument which Paul Cooper focussed on was the assertion that this individualised these problems, distract from how schools and teachers were involved in these problems, and so absolve them of responsibility to provide relevant opportunities for these groups. He countered this argument by claiming that the BPS model recognises that schools are a major setting through which institutional control and pedagogical practices contribute to the construction of ADHD. In his argument for a more complex BPS model, he countered the arguments of authors like Slee (1995) who were critical of what they portrayed as: ‘The monism of locating the nature of [classroom] disruption in the neurological infrastructure of the child is myopic and convenient’ (Slee, 1995, p. 74). Slee has continued this critical line of argument with his more recent views about the language of special educational needs in referring to: ‘the saturation of our discourse and thinking with the quasi-medical posturing of special educational needs. The conceptual foundations and usage of terms like special educational needs passes without a second thought’ (Slee, 2018; p. 78). Paul Cooper’s thorough response to four challenges from the critical perspective continue to be very relevant to the current circumstances. Firstly, it has been claimed that the ADHD diagnosis is somehow bogus or ‘illicit’ because there is an absence of neuro-scientific evidence. In this article he illustrates how this is ‘patently untrue’ (p. 463). Secondly, ADHD is sometimes claimed to be an example of biological determinism, a claim which expresses a fear of determinism and its associated denial of human agency. Here he has sympathy with this fear but shows how this is not well founded as regards developmental opportunities, given the interaction between biological inheritance and environmental factors in the development of behavioural difficulties. Paul Cooper argued that not only were there several biological pathways implicated in the development of ADHD, but that ADHD is not biologically determined in the simplistic sense suggested by some; see the Slee quote above. He turns the argument by ADHD critics about ADHD diverting attention from school factors against their position. He suggests that portraying ADHD as an example of biological determinism, itself diverts attention from converting a biopsychosocial account of ADHD into pedagogical and other interventions. By knowing more about the biological, psychological and social factors in ADHD enables us, he argued, to avoid aggravating experienced difficulties and promoting educational engagement. The third challenge he addressed was that an ADHD ‘diagnosis’ rests on value-laden, culturally-specific judgements about behavioural or cognitive norms. Here Paul Cooper adopts a perspective, not often found in debates about behaviour difficulties and school education norms. He recognised that children who are biologically predisposed to develop ADHD can be at a disadvantage by culturally based assumptions about appropriate school and classroom behaviour. But, this, he argues, does not reflect on the clinicians who identify ADHD, but reflects on the weaknesses of, what he called, ‘Western mass education’. This issue is about whether to change the educational environment to accommodate the student or to change the student to enable him or her to engage with an unchanging environment. As Paul Cooper recognised the attempt is often made to combine environmental and individual changes. He suggested that using medication can be seen as the failure of the school to make changes that enable the student with ADHD to engage effectively. The implications for those wanting to make schools more inclusive is to learn the lesson that ADHD teaches about shaping the educational environment to improve learning opportunities. In discussing how he approached this challenge, it is also notable that some psychologists have adopted more recently a BPS model of ADHD and supplemented the social aspects with a focus on the cultural aspects that relate to the mental health needs of culturally and linguistically diverse children and young people (Pham, 2015). The fourth challenge Paul Cooper responded to was that accepting an ADHD diagnosis ‘legitimise[s] the practice of drugging defiant children into docility’ (Skidmore, 2004, p. 4). To this he points out that informed opinion does not consider medication for ADHD as an essential treatment, and that whatever is decided is to be in the context of a multi-modal treatment programme that includes psychosocial and educational interventions. In his paper he refers to the UK guidance from 2000 and this is still the current guidelines (NICE, 2018). How parents participate in intervention selection is also illustrated in Pham (2015). The linked and final challenge he dealt with was that ADHD represents the wrongful medicalisation of defiance in school children. Here Paul Cooper questioned the link between defiance and the functional issues associated with ADHD. He suggested that defiance is better considered as a cognitive distortion affecting social engagement rather than a deficit in executive functioning associated with ADHD. So, not complying with parent wishes is seen as non-volitional and not to be confused with defiance. For him what was concerning was the ‘high moral tone’ (p. 470) which concealed limited understanding about ADHD that he believed could be dangerous. A crucial difference between the social and BPS models In defending the BPS model from critical arguments, Paul Cooper did not examine the ideological or value basis for the knowledge claims in these debates. From a critical perspective, it has been suggested by Slee & Weiner (2001) that it is possible to identify two groups of researchers, which they characterise in these terms, namely those who work within, what they call the ‘positivist paradigm’, accept the way things are, attempt to make marginal reforms and who criticise ‘full inclusion’ as ideological; and those who see inclusive education as cultural politics and call for educational reconstruction. This distinction between a positivist / technical versus cultural political position can be aligned with one between an investigatory versus an emancipatory perspective to research about disability (Oliver, 1999). Oliver frames the research-as-investigation as the dominant form of social research which is unacceptable to oppressed groups, such as those with disabilities, who aim to collectively empower themselves. In this perspective the social model of disability expresses the emancipatory stance which is pursued through cultural politics. This contrasts with a technical – interventionist perspective that derives from what Slee and Weiner (2001) call a ‘positivist paradigm’ and is associated with what is called a medical or a bio-medical model. It can be seen that this dichotomy between research stances embraces the splitting which Paul Cooper argued against. Figure 4.2 below represents these distinct research stances as adopting emancipatory or investigatory values, while showing their main focus and linked assumptions. With emancipatory values the main focus is on reducing the oppression of the vulnerable with this being done through collective socio-political action and in doing so entailing a causal assumption that it is the dominant social system that oppresses. With investigatory values, the main focus is on identifying complex causal models of a phenomenon and in doing so assumes that this knowledge can be used for subsequent improvement interventions. Figure 4.2 Value bases underlying different research stances One of the main arguments in this chapter is that there are links and common elements to these two basic value positions, so raising questions about the split and opposition between them. Both connect knowledge with action for social change, on one hand, and both assume some causal processes, on the other. The difference is in the assumptions of their main focus. Identifying complex causal processes (e.g. that includes social processes as part of a BPS perspective) is the primary focus of the investigatory stance, while change depends on applying this knowledge in interventions. This stance represents an outsider-spectator-intervenor perspective. By contrast, reducing the oppression of the vulnerable is the primary focus of the emancipatory stance, with this being through collective political and social action. This stance represents an insider-participator perspective. So, while distinct, there are connections to be recognised between them which can help to understand what the social stands for in these two models. The social in the social model stands for where change is to be focussed; in the socio-political arena. The social, by contrast, in the BPS model stands for the social factors that need to be understood in their interaction with bio-psychological causal factors. Making use of the distinction between insider-outsider role perspectives enables us to see how these different value stances can be connected and not seen as opposites to select between. As Paul Cooper argued in his 2008 paper, informed opinion does not consider medication for ADHD as an essential treatment / intervention; the BPS model implies multi-modal methods including psychosocial and educational interventions (NICE, 2018). Intervention / treatment acceptability is also an important consideration when considering individual children with identified ADHD from a BPS perspective, as illustrated in Pham’s (2015) case study. This implies that parents and young people will participate in action decisions, which gives them an insider role. However, the social model goes beyond insider participation at the individual level, to involve collective participation at institutional and societal levels too. This is where the BPS model could be open to insider participation beyond the individual level, to see the value of institutional and societal participation too. And, as the BPS can be open to the collective action of the social model, so the social model can be open to the outsider perspective’s recognition of multi-level causal processes (including the bio-psychological levels) and their associated interventions. Inclusion as a buzz-word In this 2008 paper Paul Cooper suggested that the use of insights from the BPS model in developing educational provision is likely to lead to a more genuinely inclusive education system. This was written after an earlier editorial he wrote in the journal Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in 2004 (Cooper, 2004). Here he pointed to the overuse and misuse of the word inclusion, suggesting that it will lose its meaning and that the purposes for which it was coined will become neglected. One way of challenging this misuse, he mentioned, was to be vigilant about how it is used and to call for greater clarity. In this editorial he stated that social inclusion is about active participation and engagement with other people. With inclusive education, he continued, it is not just about social inclusion, but an individual’s active engagement in formal learning processes. Here Paul Cooper goes beyond common ideas about inclusion which are defined in terms of social and academic participation (as in the Inclusion Index; Booth and Ainscow, 2011), by clarifying that it is also about academic and social engagement. From this it was clear that inclusion was more than both location / placement and social interaction with other people; it was also about personal engagement with others and with formal learning. Paul Cooper was not alone in linking engagement with inclusion, he shared this with Mary Warnock, the chair of the Warnock Committee which in 1978 set out new policies about the education of children and young people with disabilities and difficulties (Warnock, 2005). In her 2005 policy paper she rejected the idea of educational inclusion as about ‘all children under the same roof’. She preferred a learning concept of inclusion, which was about: ‘including all children in the common educational enterprise of learning, wherever they learn best’ (Warnock, 2005). Though she does not use the term ‘engagement’ as such, her notion of learning where done best connects with ‘engagement’ and prioritises this over placement, a view which was also adopted later by Paul for the area of education of children and young people with social, emotional and behaviour difficulties (Cooper and Jacobs, 2011). Paul Cooper drew on the psychological ideas of Marjorie Boxall in the Boxall Profile (Bennathan and Boxall, 2003) to connect Inclusion with engagement, as he mentioned in his 2004 editorial. For him engagement was at the heart of educational inclusion from a cognitive perspective. He adopted the five subskills of what the Boxall Profile termed ‘the organization of experience’: whether the child gives purposeful attention, participates constructively, connects up experiences, shows insightful involvement and engages cognitively with peers. Within this framework he recognised that children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) can have problems with some or all of these skills. So, it can be argued that the child who experiences SEBD is socially, emotionally and cognitively excluded from what is going in class lessons; with SEBD being framed as a barrier to inclusion. This concept of a barrier is very different to that proposed from a social model perspective as in the Inclusion Index (Booth and Ainscow, 2011), in which barriers are only external to the person. But, Paul Cooper does not draw the conclusion that children with SEBD can never be ‘included’. Here he makes the distinction between inclusion-as-location and inclusion-as-engagement, with the implication that in some cases when there is not mainstream class inclusion this does not mean there cannot be some engagement inclusion. He also reminded us that inclusion is such that nobody is ever fully included in any situation all the time. In this sense his ideas resemble Qvortrup and Qvortrup’s (2018) argument that inclusion and exclusion are connected through peoples’ simultaneous involvement in different social arenas. With social interactions involving negotiations in all situations, Paul Cooper argued that any episode can result in tensions and the rejection of the people involved . This is a feature of our lives and in this respect the child experiencing SEBD is no different from others. However, he pointed out that the child or young person with a SEBD is at greater risk of rejection or exclusion, which may be attributed to individual characteristics in interaction with social circumstances (in line with a BPS model). Using this notion of engagement, he also approached the questions of teaching children and young people with SEBD in terms of the BPS model. In avoiding a focus just on problems located in the student, he adopted an interactionist perspective that combined specialist teaching knowledge about individual differences with teachers’ practical thinking about decision-making that led to adapted teaching (Cooper, 2004). He reviewed in this 2004 chapter and in his later 2008 paper discussed above, the various teaching strategies that research had shown to promote further engagement for children with ADHD. It is useful here to compare his engagement perspective to a well-known ‘Inclusive Pedagogy (IP) framework for participation in classrooms’ developed by Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011). This framework in covering access, collaboration, achievement and diversity aimed to extend what was typically available in the classroom community to all. It avoided having learning activities for most being alongside different activities for some who experience difficulties. It also proposed differentiation by pupil choice for everyone while rejecting ability grouping. This is an approach that required flexibility to be driven by need and not curriculum coverage, while seeing difficulties in learning as professional challenges rather than learner deficits. Though Paul Cooper’s perspective agreed with some elements of this inclusive pedagogy framework (e.g. flexibility and responding to learning difficulties as a challenge), his does not accept the either-or polarity at the core of the framework with the adoption of only one option: differentiation by choice v. by grouping and only opting for the former, or seeing learning difficulties as a professional challenge v. learner deficits and opting only for the challenge option). This IP framework reflects the medical v social model polarity that he argued against while favouring a BPS model. Based on his approach of seeing social and academic engagement as being at the heart of educational and social inclusion, he believed that it followed that: ‘students are best placed in educational settings where they have access to and support for maximum social and academic engagement’. (Cooper, 2004, p. 222). In his view, this meant that there was no simple way to decide about the provision setting. For some pupils this meant access to various forms of provision, but always a detailed analysis of individual capabilities and needs as well as what provision affords should determine the decisions. Conclusion This chapter has focussed on two of Paul Cooper’s papers in which he explained and justified his ideas about the biopsychosocial model and how he developed and used this perspective in unique ways to expand our thinking about inclusion and inclusive education. Through relating and contrasting these with other contemporary and current ideas I hope to have shown his distinctive and insightful contribution. I have also tried to extend his adoption of a both-and rather than an either-or approach by discussing the epistemological and value bases of different models, on one hand, and how difference and distinction does not imply irreconcilable opposition between the key models in the field. References: Bennathan, M. & Boxall, M. (2003) The Boxall Profile. East Sutton: SEBDA. Booth, T. and Ainscow, M. (2011) Index for Inclusion: developing learning and participation in schools. 3rd ed. Bristol: CSIE. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Morris, P. (2006) The bioecological model of human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Cooper, P. (2004) Is ‘inclusion’ just a buzz-word?, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 9:4, 219-222, DOI: 10.1177/1363275204051391 Cooper, P. (2004) ‘AD/HD’, in A. Lewis & B. Norwich (eds) Special Teaching for Special Children? Pedagogies for Inclusion. Buckingham: Open University Press. Cooper, P. (2008) Like Alligators Bobbing for Poodles? A Critical Discussion of Education, ADHD and the Biopsychosocial Perspective. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 3-4, 457-474. Cooper, P. and Jacobs, B. (2011) From Inclusion to Engagement: Helping Students Engage with Schooling Through Policy and Practice. London: Wiley. 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