Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Sports compression garments"

Purpose Stretch fabrics are employed to create compression in garments for medical, sports, and fitness applications. Although potential correlations between wearing compression garments and physiological or performance metrics have been studied, such correlations require knowledge of the actual compression caused by garments. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate, compare, and contrast different methods for measuring compression delivered by an exemplar compression garment. Design/methodology/approach The exemplar compression garment is a plain jersey knit maternity band. The compression delivered by this garment was determined via three different methods – Tekscan pressure mapping system, Hohenstein Measurement System (HOSY), and a fabric-based analytical model employing uniaxial fabric tensile data. Findings HOSY and the fabric-based model, assuming a circular cross section for the garment, provided comparable results for compression versus garment height. However, these methods did not capture the varying compression delivered at different transverse locations when the subject was noncircular in cross section. Assuming an elliptical cross section, the fabric-based model predicted results that were comparable to those measured by the Tekscan system: for example, compressions were approximately 130-160 percent greater at the hip, and approximately 60-100 percent lower at the posterior, than HOSY revealed. Further, the Tekscan system allows the effect of movement on compression to be captured. Originality/value This paper compares and contrasts three compression measurement methods and demonstrates the importance of angular position and height dependencies. Further, the fabric-based model is presented as a tool to assist design of compression garments.

Background: The use of compression garments has spread rapidly among athletes, largely because of marketing and perceived benefits. Upon review, it is unclear whether compression garments have a significant effect on performance and recovery, although they have been found to enhance proprioception. Further, it is reported that compression of the knee joint improves both dynamic and static balance. However, there is currently a paucity of data demonstrating the effects of compression garments on the biomechanical risk factors of knee-related injuries in female athletes. Purpose: To evaluate the ability of a directional compression garment to alter hip and knee kinematics and kinetics during a drop vertical jump (DVJ) in healthy college-aged female athletes. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: A sample of 23 healthy female collegiate athletes (mean age, 19.6 ± 1.3 years) participating in jumping sports (volleyball, basketball, and soccer) was included in this analysis. Each athlete performed 2 sets of 3 DVJs with and without a directional compression garment. Three-dimensional hip and knee kinematics and kinetics were collected using a standard Helen-Hayes 29-marker set, which was removed and reapplied after the garment was fitted, as well as 8 visible-red cameras and 2 force platforms. Each participant was tested in a single session. Results: Hip abduction range of motion was significantly reduced from 12.6° ± 5.5° to 10.2° ± 4.6° ( P = .002) while performing DVJs without and with the compression garment, respectively. No statistically significant differences between conditions were found in peak hip abduction, knee valgus range of motion, peak valgus, peak hip abduction moment, and peak knee valgus moment. Conclusion: The results of this study show that wearing compression garments does have minimal effects on lower body mechanics during landing from a DVJ, partially supporting the idea that compression garments could acutely alter movement patterns associated with the knee injury risk. However, further research should focus on muscle activation patterns and adaptations over time. Clinical Relevance: The use of specifically designed compression garments could aid in the prevention of knee injuries by inducing changes in jumping mechanics.

Background: Compression garment utilization is very popular among runners despite a lack of consensus in the literature regarding a beneficial impact. The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of training and competing with compression garments on exercise-induced muscle damage and performance in ultramarathon runners. Hypothesis: Compression garments will reduce the severity of exercise-induced muscle damage and improve performance in long-distance runners compared with control conditions. Study Design: Prospective, randomized controlled trial. Level of Evidence: Level 1. Methods: The study was conducted in healthy, uninjured endurance runners (n = 41) participating in a 56-km ultramarathon. The experimental group (n = 20; 14 males, 6 females) trained for 6 weeks and participated in the race wearing below-knee compression garments while the control group (n = 21; 15 males, 6 females) did not. Participants were tested on 4 occasions for various markers of exercise-induced muscle damage and running performance. Results: Ankle circumference measurements increased significantly less ( P = 0.01, Cohen d = 0.9) in the experimental group from immediately after until 2 days post-race compared with the control group. No further statistically significant changes were detected over time in midcalf circumferences, muscle architecture, or race performance. Selected pain ratings were statistically significant and worse in the experimental group. Conclusion: There are limited indications of a beneficial impact of compression garments with improvements in ankle circumference measurements. No ergogenic impact was detected. Clinical Relevance: There is limited evidence to support the continued utilization of commercially available below-knee compression garments during running for the purpose of muscle recovery or as a performance aid.

Today, various kinds of pressure garments are designed for specific applications in medical and sports fields. Knitted garments are the most used in these applications due to their high extensibility. The objective of the investigation reported in this article was to develop a theoretical relationship based on Laplace’s law, which describes the compression behavior of knitted compression samples in quasi-static deformation from an initially relaxed state to an extended state. Even though several researchers have used Laplace’s law, there is some discord between theoretical and experimental results. So, it is essential to pinpoint the most important parameters that influence the mechanical properties of the compression knitted garment in order to better describe the interface pressure it applies to the human body. Fabric parameters that influenced the interface pressure, such as elasticity modulus, strain, and thickness, were determined and integrated into Laplace’s law.

Background: Some studies show that wearing compression garments (CGs) improves balance performance. However, the overall evidence supporting their use for balance improvement is inconclusive. Objective: This study aimed to further explore the effect of CGs on balance. Method: Using a cross sectional within subjects repeated measures design fourteen participants (27 ± 3 years) completed three trials for each of four balance tests, under three conditions: compression garment, no garment, and sham. Subjective performance and garment rating scores were also collected following each test condition. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was performed to compare derived variables between conditions for each balance test. Results: No significant differences were found across conditions or tests for either balance performance or subjective measures. Conclusions: This study demonstrated CGs did not influence dynamic or static balance performance in healthy young males. Further, in contrast to other research this study did not demonstrate an effect of compression garments on dynamic or static balance in healthy young males. However, it remains that CGs may provide benefit in other populations including those with balance and movement deficit disorders.

Abstract Limited practical recommendations related to wearing compression garments for athletes can be drawn from the literature at the present time. We aimed to identify the effects of compression garments on physiological and perceptual measures of performance and recovery after uphill running with different pressure and distributions of applied compression. In a random, double blinded study, 10 trained male runners undertook three 8 km treadmill runs at a 6% elevation rate, with the intensity of 75% VO2max while wearing low, medium grade compression garments and high reverse grade compression. In all the trials, compression garments were worn during 4 hours post run. Creatine kinase, measurements of muscle soreness, ankle strength of plantar/dorsal flexors and mean performance time were then measured. The best mean performance time was observed in the medium grade compression garments with the time difference being: medium grade compression garments vs. high reverse grade compression garments. A positive trend in increasing peak torque of plantar flexion (60o·s-1, 120o·s-1) was found in the medium grade compression garments: a difference between 24 and 48 hours post run. The highest pain tolerance shift in the gastrocnemius muscle was the medium grade compression garments, 24 hour post run, with the shift being +11.37% for the lateral head and 6.63% for the medial head. In conclusion, a beneficial trend in the promotion of running performance and decreasing muscle soreness within 24 hour post exercise was apparent in medium grade compression garments.

AbstractCompression garments have been used to minimise injury risk, through improvements in stability and joint positioning; yet, it is unclear whether there is an optimal length or tightness of these garments that may maximise observed benefits. This study measured the effect of three different garment types, at two different tightness levels, on lower extremity stability and alignment during a forward lunge movement. Sixteen healthy adults (7 female, 9 male; 24.3 ± 2.9 years) were recruited as participants. Stability of the lead foot, as well as lower body joint kinematics, were recorded using an Oqus 12-camera system, surrounding participants as they executed three forward lunges onto a Matscan pressure mat under seven compression conditions (Control, Light/Heavy Calf, Light/Heavy Socks, Light/Heavy Leggings). Mean minimum time-to-boundary (mmTtB) (derived from centre of pressure measures) and frontal plane kinematics (lateral pelvic tilt, knee valgus, ankle inversion/eversion) were used to assess the effect of garment tightness and length on lunge stability and joint alignment, respectively. A significant effect of tightness on mmTtB was observed (F(1,105) = 8.192; p = .005, η2 = .072), with Heavy garments eliciting longer mmTtB compared to their corresponding Light (-.18 ± .06 s; p = .015) or Control (-.28 ± .09 s; p = .007) conditions. No significant effects of garment tightness or length on lower body kinematics were evident. The results of this study suggest stability during a forward lunge is improved through the use of tight-fitted compression garments.

Sports compression garments (SCGs) are skin-tight, elastic garments that are designed to be smaller than the wearer's body to apply pressure to the underlying body. This is claimed to improve performance, shorten recovery and prevent injuries. The level of pressure applied by SCGs is affected by a complex interaction of body dimensions, garment characteristics and fabric properties. With most existing research on SCGs drawn from medical or sports science fields, studies frequently neglect considerations of users and the way SCGs behave on the body. Consequently, the SCG-body-relationship is not well understood and the pressures applied by commercial SCGs vary widely. This research set out to enhance theoretical and practical knowledge on the design of SCGs by defining a framework for the design of SCGs with controlled pressure. To achieve this, user experiences with SCGs were obtained through an online survey and wearer trials and the designs and pressure distributions of commercial SCGs were analysed. The research further assessed the feasibility of using the built-in pressure map of the commercial 3D CAD software Optitex PDS 11 to predict pressures applied by SCGs. Findings from the online survey revealed that respondents were overwhelmingly satisfied with commercial SGCs and that they wore SCGs mainly for their recovery-enhancing rather than performance-enhancing properties. Wearer trials with 33 physically active females in SCGs were conducted to capture 3D scans of their bodies and measure the pressure applied by commercial SCGs. The wearer trials indicated that, despite high levels of user satisfaction identified by the online survey, compression levels varied widely across pressure measurement locations and across individuals. This suggests a strong perceptual effect of SCGs. It was concluded that variations in pressure levels were likely to be associated with variations in fit and fabric tension caused by deficiencies in the applied sizing system. The commercial SCGs under investigation were deconstructed, re-engineered and virtually fitted to a set of remodelled body avatars of 15 wearer trial participants. Virtual pressure measurements were compared to in vivo measurements. Findings highlighted problems with the accurate simulation of technical garment properties. It was concluded that 3D CAD virtual fit technology is currently limited to the visual representation of garments for marketing and sales purposes, but is not useful for technical product development or pressure prediction. The findings were synthesised and conceptual design principles and a usercentred design framework were defined leading to the development of a model that incorporates a design process, user needs and technical product requirements: the SCG Design Model. By applying a novel inductive interdisciplinary methodological approach, this work has provided a different perspective to the research on SCGs. This approach has created new knowledge and tools for the design of SCGs and opened up new areas of research. This research has the potential to improve SCGs by, on the one hand, enhancing the theoretical and empirical knowledge base, which is expected to lead to more holistic and better-informed research on SCGs and, on the other hand, facilitating the design of SCGs with controlled pressure in practice.

Introduction: Compression garments utilisation is very popular among runners despite the relative lack of consensus in the literature regarding a beneficial impact. Methods: A randomised controlled experimental study was conducted in healthy, uninjured endurance runners (n=41) participating in the Old Mutual Two Oceans 56km race. The experimental group (n=20) trained for six weeks and participated in the race wearing below knee compression garments while the control group (n=21) did not. Participants were tested on four occasions for various markers of exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD) and running performance. Six weeks prior to the race, ultrasound scans of the medial gastrocnemius, mid-calf and figure-of-8 ankle circumference baseline measurements were performed. Shortly prior to the race, these measurements were repeated in addition to a countermovement jump (CMJ) test. Immediately following the race, circumference measurements and CMJ testing were repeated in addition to pain ratings on the visual analogue scale (VAS). Race performance times were also obtained. Two days following the race, the ultrasound scans, circumference measurements and VAS pain ratings were repeated. Results: Ankle circumferences measurements increased significantly less (p=0.01, Cohen's d=0.9) in the experimental group from immediately after the race until two days post-race compared to the control group. There were no further statistically significant changes over time in any other objective outcome measure (i.e. mean mid-calf circumference, medial gastrocnemius mean muscle thickness and mean pennation angle, mean CMJ height and estimated peak power output nor in race performance) between the experimental and control groups. Selected pain ratings were statistically significantly worse in the experimental group. Muscle thickness and pennation angles were significantly greater in the control group compared to the experimental group two days following the race. Conclusion: There were limited indications of a beneficial impact of compression garments with minor improvements in ankle circumference measurements, but no further significant effects related to EIMD were detected. Furthermore, no ergogenic impact was detected. Based on the results of the study, there is limited evidence to support the continued utilisation of commercially available below knee compression garments during running.

Ce projet de thèse se situe dans une perspective d’amélioration des connaissances scientifiques dans le domaine du trail courte distance, une activité outdoor en plein essor. A l’intermédiaire entre les épreuves de course sur route “traditionnelles” et les épreuves d’ultra-trail, le trail courte distance a peu été abordé spécifiquement dans la littérature. Le premier objectif était de caractériser les déterminants physiologiques de la performance lors des épreuves de trail courte distance chez une population de coureurs très entrainés, à partir d’une interface d’évaluations entre des protocoles en laboratoire et une épreuve officielle, afin d’établir un modèle de performance plus adapté que le modèle de la course en endurance traditionnelle sur route, par l’inclusion de variables spécifiques. Ainsi, l’identification de l’endurance musculaire comme un facteur majeur de la performance a ensuite conduit à envisager le port de textile de compression comme une stratégie externe de préservation musculaire pendant l’effort. Le second objectif était donc d’étudier l’impact aigu et retardé du port de textile de compression lors d’un trail courte distance ou lors d’un exercice excentrique intense (i.e. course en descente prolongée) sur les vibrations des tissus mous, les paramètres neuromusculaires et énergétiques et les douleurs musculaires aigues et retardées chez des coureurs de trail très entrainés. L'atténuation des vibrations des tissus mous induite par le port de textile à haute intensité de compression peut contribuer, au moins en partie, à la réduction du déficit d’activation volontaire mesuré immédiatement après l’épreuve de trail ou la course en descente et à l'amélioration de la fonction neuromusculaire en phase de récupération. Nos résultats suggèrent que l'utilisation de textile à haute intensité de compression pendant l’effort exercerait un « effet protecteur mécanique », pouvant ainsi constituer une stratégie externe pour tolérer une charge d'entraînement élevée ou optimiser le processus de récupération dans les courses à plusieurs étapes
This thesis project aimed at improving scientific knowledge in the field of short distance trail running, a “booming” outdoor activity. Situated between "traditional" road races and ultra-trail races, limited research has focused on the analysis of short distance trail running. The first objective was to characterize the physiological determinants of performance during short distance trail running races in a population of highly trained runners, using an experimental setting between laboratory protocols and an official event, in order to establish a performance model more suited than the traditional endurance road running model, by including specific variables. Thus, the identification of muscular endurance as a major factor in performance led to consider the wearing of compression textiles as an external strategy for muscle function preservation during exercise. The second objective was therefore to study the acute and delayed impact of wearing a compression garments during a short distance trail or during an intense eccentric exercise (ie. downhill running) on the vibrations of the soft tissues, the neuromuscular and energetics parameters and acute and delayed muscle soreness in highly trained trail runners. The attenuation of soft tissue vibrations induced by wearing high intensity compression garments may contribute, at least in part, to the reduction of the voluntary activation deficit measured immediately after the trail or downhill run and to the improvement of neuromuscular function in the recovery phase. Our results suggest that the use of garments with high compression intensity during exercise could exert a “mechanical protective effect”, which could therefore constitute an external strategy to tolerate a high training load or optimize the recovery process in multi-stage races

Lower body compression garments (LBCG) are commonly worn by athletes in an attempt to improve performance and enhance recovery. To date, research has shown equivocal findings on the effects of LBCG on endurance performance. Moreover, some athletes may use such garments in warmer climates, which could impair thermoregulation. As no previous study has investigated the effect of LBCG on endurance running in hot and cold ambient temperatures, the purpose of this study was to compare the wearing of conventional running shorts versus full- length LBCG, Skins™, on running performance and physiological responses, in both hot (32ºC) and cold (10ºC) conditions. It was hypothesised that the wearing of LBCG would improve running economy, and would increase skin and core temperature as well as time to exhaustion at 10 °C; time to exhaustion was hypothesized to be lower with LBCG at 32ºC. Ten male recreational runners (19 - 44 y, V ˙ O2max: 56 - 64 ml/kg/min) performed 4 running performance tests (20 min at first ventilatory threshold [VT1], followed immediately by a run to exhaustion at the minimal velocity which elicits V ˙ O2max [v.V O2max]) under 4 different conditions (10°C with LBCG, 10°C without LBCG, 32°C with LBCG, 32°C without LBCG) each separated by one week in a randomized order. Criterion measures consisted of time to exhaustion (TTE), rectal and skin temperature (Tre and Tskin), oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BLa) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). VO2, Tre and Tskin, HR, BLa and RPE were monitored intermittently during 10 min of rest, the VT1 run, the run to exhaustion at v.VO2max and during 10 min of seated recovery. These variables were compared with and without LBCG (Control) for each temperature separately using a two-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Tukey’s post-hoc test. Changes in these variables were also compared between temperatures independent of garment condition. TTE, pressure of garment and weight loss incurred from exercise were compared between conditions using a one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Significance was set at p

Thesis (MSpor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Various types of post-exercise recovery strategies have become part of the modern athlete’s daily routine. It is a well known that inadequate recovery will prolong the time it takes for the runner’s body to adequately adapt between training sessions and competitions. Anecdotal claims have been made about compression garments as a beneficial method to assist recovery after training sessions and competitions. Until now limited scientific research has addressed the influence that compression garments have on the recovery process after sporting activities. The benefits of compression garments, as a possible recovery modality, are that it is costeffective, practical and easily obtainable. This study endeavored to investigate the possible influence that compression garments may have on middle-aged long distance runners’ recovery rate after a prolonged run. This is the first study that has focused on compression garments as a post-exercise recovery modality for experienced middle-aged long distance runners. The other unique aspect of this study is the prolonged two-hour treadmill protocol that was used to induce muscle soreness. In addressing the aims, a randomized, crossover study design was used to investigate the possible benefits that the high pressure (CCL II 23-32 mmHg (mercury millimeter)) graduated compression garments may bring about. Seven competitive male long distance runners (height: 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; body mass: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2max: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) between the ages of 36 to 51 years volunteered for the study. The runners had to complete a two-hour treadmill run at 70 % of their predetermined maximum aerobic capacity, followed by a monitored 72-hour recovery period. The first part of the prolonged run was a 90–minute variant gradient run, followed by a 30-minute downhill run. Each subject acted as his own control and visited the Stellenbosch University’s Sport Physiology Laboratory (South Africa) on two occasions, separated by 7 to 28 days. One test was done with a compression garment (23 to 32 mmHg) and the other without. Testing included the measurement of lower limb circumferences (ankle, calf, mid- and proximal thigh), plasma lactate, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase concentrations and the completion of subjective questionnaires on perceived muscle soreness (visual analog scale (VAS)). The lower extremities’ functional ability was determined with a time to exhaustion (TTE) step test, a vertical jump test (VJ) and modified sit-and-reach flexibility test. Preexercise measurements were taken and immediately after and during the 72 hour after the treadmill run and repeated for the second bout. The main outcomes of this study showed that the two-hour treadmill run induced delayed onset of muscle soreness, with and without the compression garment. Evidence of this was a significant rise in plasma creatine kinase (CKp) over the duration of both trials (P < 0.05). The compression garment significantly reduced swelling in the calf muscle (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Runners showed a lower perceived muscular pain and discomfort while performing functional knee movements at 24 and 48-hours after the two-hour run with the compression garment (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm and 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm on VAS, respectively; P < 0.05). Significant differences in perceived muscle soreness between the WCG and WOCG trials were observed at 24-hours after the run during rest (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm; P = 0.02) and with stretching (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm on VAS P = 0.02). The perceived pain associated with pressure was significantly lower with the compression garment at 24 (307 %) and 48-hours (237 %) after the run (P < 0.05). Blood lactate levels were reduced during the acute phase of recovery at 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) and 30 minutes (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) after the run, as well as plasma creatine kinase concentrations were statistically significantly lower at 24-hours (238.3 ± 81.3 vs. 413.3 ± 250.8 units.L-1; P = 0.005) after exercise with the compression garment. The two-hour treadmill run and the compression garment had no significant influence on the runners’ lower limb strength, power, endurance or flexibility (P > 0.05). Compression garments demonstrated the potential to enhance recovery after prolonged strenuous exercise in well trained middle-aged runners. In addition, runners did not experience additional fatigue from the moderate to high pressure garments. The effect of higher pressure compression garments on athletic performance and the psychological influence of the garment need further investigation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskillende tipes naoefening herstelstrategië, vorm deel van die moderne atleet se daaglikse routine. Dit is wel bekend dat onvoldoende herstel sal beteken dat die atleet se liggaam langer sal neen om aan te pas tussen inoefen sessies en kompetisies. Sekere bewerings word al gemaak omtrent die voordeligheid van kompressiesokkies tydens die herstelperiode na oefening sessies en kompetisies. Tot nou toe was daar beperkte wetenskaplike navorsing oor die invloed van kompressie sokkies of die herstel proses van sport aktiwiteite. Die voordeel van kompressie sokkies as ‘n moontlike herstelmetode, is dat dit koste-effektief, prakties en maklik verkrybaar is. Hierdie studie poog om ‘n ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike invloed wat kompressie sokkies op middeljarige lang-aftstandatlete se herstelperiode sal hê na ‘n verlengde hardloopsessie. Hierdie is die eerste studie wat konsentreer op kompressie sokkies as ‘n naoefenings hersteltegniek vir ervare middeljarige lang-afstandatlete. Die ander unieke aspek van die ondersoek is die langdurige tweeuur trapmeul protokol wat gebruik word om spierpyn te veroorsaak. Om die doel te bereik, is ’n lukrake oorkruis studie gebruik om ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike voordele van die hoë druk (CCL II 23-32 mmHg) kompressie sokkies. Hierdie sokkies toon ’n progressiewe verhooging van druk vanaf die enkle tot onder die knieskyf. Sewe mededingende langafstand atlete (lengte : 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; liggaams massa: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2maks: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) tussen die ouderdomme van 36 en 51 jaar, het aan die studie deel geneem. Die wedlopers moes ‘n twee-uur lange trapmeul toets voltooi, teen 70% van hul vooraf bepaalde maksimum aerobiese kapasiteit. Dit is gevolg deur ‘n gemonitorde 72-uur herstel periode. Die eerste deel van die twee-uur hardloop sessie was ‘n 90-minuut afwisselende opdraende en afdraende hardloop stel, wat gevolg is deur a 30-minuut afdraande deel. Elke deelnemer was sy eie kontrole en het op twee geleenthede die Stellenbosch Universiteit se Sport Fisiologiese Laboratorium (Suid Afrika) besoek. Die twee besoeke is tussen 7 en 28 dae geskei. Een toets is met kompressie sokkies gedoen (23 – 32 mmHg) en die ander sonder. Die toetse het die volgende behels: laer been omtrekke (enkel, kuit, middel- and bo dy), die versameling en ontleding van bloed monsters vir plasma laktaat, laktaat dehydrogenase and kreatine kinase konsentrasies en die voltooing van subjektiewe vraelyste oor die graad van spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.

Sports compression garments (SCG) are commonly used in athletic applications to improve recovery from exercise. Although the underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood, they may be closely associated with alterations in blood flow, consistent with that reported in therapeutic medicine. As such, SCG have been implicated in increasing venous and muscle blood flow, and subsequently reducing symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). However, research investigating the effects of SCG on blood flow, particularly during the post-exercise period, is limited. Chapter 2 systematically reviewed and analysed the effects of SCG on peripheral measures of blood flow (i.e., venous and muscle blood flow) at rest, during, immediately post, and in recovery from a physiological challenge. From the 19 studies included in this meta-analysis, SCG appear to enhance venous and arterial measures of peripheral blood flow during and in the recovery of a physiological challenge. Also, this chapter highlighted that further research should aim to address the limitations of current compression research by reporting the pressure of the SCG, the blinding of participants, and assessing changes in blood flow during recovery. The first experimental study of this thesis (Chapter 3) aimed to comprehensively investigate the effects of three different SCG types (socks, shorts, and tights) on resting markers of venous return, muscle blood flow and muscle oxygenation. Although sports compression tights were the most effective garment, all SCG types positively affected lower- limb blood flow. Thus, SCG may be a practical strategy for augmenting blood flow in the lower limbs at rest. The next study of this thesis (Chapter 4) aimed to investigate the effects of SCG on blood flow post-eccentric resistance exercise, and the influence on aspects of muscle recovery. This study also aimed to determine if the placebo effect is responsible for the improved exercise recovery associated with SCG use post-exercise. This was achieved by incorporating a placebo intervention that participants were informed was as effective as SCG for recovery and matching belief between the SCG and placebo conditions. Compression tights used post-exercise appear to increase blood flow and enhance psychological and performance indices of exercise recovery compared to both placebo and control conditions. These findings highlight that the benefits of SCG are likely not due to a placebo effect. The final study of this thesis (Chapter 5) investigated the effects of SCG on skeletal muscle microvascular blood flow by using contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEU), a novel technique in compression research. In addition, macrovascular blood flow (i.e., femoral artery), muscle oxygenation, and exercise performance were measured before, during, and following repeated-sprint exercise (RSE). Compression tights attenuated muscle microvascular blood flow following exercise, but a divergent increase in femoral artery blood flow was also observed. However, despite these compression-induced alterations in macro and microvascular blood flow, there was no difference in exercise performance with SCG. Based on this thesis's findings, SCG appear to benefit macrovascular blood flow, with a divergent effect on microvascular blood flow. Also, compression-induced increases in blood flow for up to 4 h post-resistance exercise coincided with improved muscle recovery.

Elite athletes constantly search for the edge over their opponent (Applegate and Grivetti 1997). Indeed, athlete training and competition schedules have resulted in a need to fully recover rapidly from such sessions (Dawson, Gow et al. 2005; Cormack, Newton et al. 2008a; Cormack, Newton et al. 2008b; Elias, Varley et al. 2012; Elias, Wyckelsma et al. 2012; Mooney, Cormack et al. 2012). To overcome the stressors from training and competition, sports compression garments which offer low levels of compression, are commonly used to enhance recovery due to their ease of use, accessibility and affordability. Although a substantial body of research exists investigating compression garment use after a variety of exercise stimuli (Kraemer, Bush et al. 1998a; Kraemer, Bush et al. 1998b; Kraemer, Volek et al. 2000; Kraemer, Bush et al. 2001a; Kraemer, Bush et al. 2001b; Chatard, Atlaoui et al. 2004; Kraemer, French et al. 2004; Duffield and Portus 2007; Duffield, Edge et al. 2008; French, Thompson et al. 2008; Montgomery, Pyne et al. 2008a; Montgomery, Pyne et al. 2008b; Davies, Thompson et al. 2009; Duffield, Cannon et al. 2010; Jakeman, Byrne et al. 2010b; Jakeman, Byrne et al. 2010a; Kraemer, Flanagan et al. 2010; De Glanville and Hamlin 2012), their influence on perceptual, biochemical and performance recovery after actual team sport training and competition, where physical contact is a key component, is lacking. Further, the positive physiological actions of compression garments have mostly been established using a medical style garment, which typically exert a greater volume of compression, in clinical settings. Recent research has sought to determine performance, perceptual and physiological differences when wearing compression garments during exercise that offer varying levels of compression, where the level of compression (low, medium, or high) made no difference to performance or physiological measures (Ali, Creasy et al. 2011; Dascombe, Hoare et al. 2011). It remains unknown if differences in recovery, where the garment is worn exclusively post exercise, would occur between a sports (low level of compression) and medical (high level of compression) style garment in team sport scenarios. Thus this thesis investigated the influence of wearing compression garments on perceptual, biochemical and performance variables following repeat sprint exercise on consecutive days in recreationally trained individuals (Chapter 4); following elite Australian football (AF)training (Chapter 5) and competition (Chapter 6). It also included a comparison between a sports (Spo) and medical (Med) style compression garment. A magnitude based effects approach, using effect sizes and the smallest worthwhile change was used to analyse treatment effects.

Current compression garments are often made from a spandex-type elastic material with static levels of compression and can become uncomfortable and difficult to don/doff [1]. This limits their usability, especially for unhealthy or aging populations. The only current alternative to elastic compression stockings are inflatable compression sleeves that are controllable, but highly immobile and must be tethered to an inflation source [2]. Neither design offers a solution that is simultaneously low profile, mobile, and controllable. Here we present the design and development of compression garments with embedded shape-changing materials that can produce controllable compression without the need for a bulky inflation system. This active materials approach enables dynamic control over the degree, timing and location of compression, and allows for graded, synchronized, pulsed, and peristaltic compression patterns, which provide the medical benefit of moving fluid in the body [2]. Such a design combines the best features of both elastic and inflatable compression garments: a slim, low-profile form factor that is easy to don/doff and provides dynamic control. Shape memory alloy (SMA) coil actuators, as described by Holschuh et al., [3] have the ability to apply compressive forces to the body when paired with passive textiles and wrapped circumferentially around the body. These actuators are engineered to contract when heated, creating controllable forces and displacements that are modulated through an applied current. SMA compression garments (SMA-CG) have important applications, from consumer uses to clinical interventions, including: augmenting venous return for conditions of orthostatic intolerance (e.g., postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)); cardiac rehabilitation in heart failure patients; lymphedema venous insufficiency; reducing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) risk; sports performance; and countermeasures for flight or space flight. While the potential uses for this technology are broad, the basic design is similar across many conditions. Key research areas include: 1) identifying and addressing design considerations relevant to prototype development of SMA-CG; 2) determining the compression thresholds needed to dynamically oppose orthostatic changes; and 3) evaluating the effectiveness of the prototypes for augmented venous return by synchronizing compression during cardiac diastole. Here, we focus on the first question: design of SMA-CG prototypes.

This study seeks to develop novel multi-material and multi-layer pads that are comfortable to wear and effective in protecting body parts that are subject to blunt impact. The proposed body protection pad will address a safety issue prominent in elderly people, industry workers, law enforcement/military personnel, and sport players. Among the population of those people, blunt impact due to various causes such as falls, bullets, and blast waves reduce quality of life, increase the possibility of early death, and cause extremely high medical costs to incur. Protector pads represent a promising strategy for reducing impact force and preventing injuries in high-risk individuals. However, clinical efficacy has been limited by poor user compliance. Currently available protectors are made of either hard shells or soft thick pads. Some of them are made of Non-Newtonian materials that are believed to be very efficient but their effectiveness hasn’t been proved yet. Even though some available protectors can be effective if worn, most people who need protection are reluctant to wear bulky and heavy garments or rigid shells. Therefore, it is important to develop new body protectors that best combine each individual’s requirements of wearing comfort (flexible, light weight), ease of fitting (customized), ensured protection, and cost-effectiveness. The authors brought up many different design ideas and the most promising ones were selected and their effectiveness is investigated in detail. One of those pads utilizes dome shape top layer and thin fabric membrane component, such as Kevlar, that is very strong in tension but flexible in bending. Such design will make the pads excellent in dissipating shock energy and converting normal shock force to lateral direction to minimize the shock force transmitted to the body parts. Through computational simulations, these pads were proved to be very flexible in bending and torsion while strong and rigid in compression. In addition, suitable materials were identified, and it has been verified that such materials can be used to design a viable product(s) that is thin, light, and flexible for wearing comfort but strong in normal impact direction to protect the body. This paper reports a parametric study using computational analyses (finite element analyses) conducted for dome-shaped structures with various materials such as thermoplastic polyurethane (Ninjaflex® and Semiflex®), polyethylene, resin polyester, polylactic acid (PLA), resin epoxy, epoxy S-glass, and epoxy E-glass. Parametric 3D CAD models of the dome-shape structures were created with various combinations of layers such as dome shell only, dome with fabric (such as Kevlar) membrane, dome with fabric membrane and solid filler, and dome with fillers of auxetic structure. Then, key structural characteristics of protectors such as normal (compression), bending, and torsional stiffness were evaluated through static analyses of FEA models. Then, impact/shock analyses were conducted using multiphysics finite-element-analysis models to validate the results obtained from the static analyses. Advanced additive manufacturing techniques (3D printers) were used to build prototypes of the pads for tests. Dimensions and materials of the multi-layer pads are optimized for light weight and flexibility while keeping excellent shock absorption capability. The mechanism for ideal input force distribution or shunting are explained and suggested for designing protectors using various combinations of materials and layers to reduce the risk of injury. The results show that the dome-shape structure can be an effective component of optimized body protection pads using a combination of various materials.