Статті в журналах: "Visual Number Sense"

1

Burr, D., and J. Ross. "A visual sense of number." Journal of Vision 8, no. 6 (March 29, 2010): 691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/8.6.691.

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2

Burr, D. "A visual sense of number." Journal of Vision 9, no. 8 (March 21, 2010): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/9.8.12.

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3

Burr, David, and John Ross. "A Visual Sense of Number." Current Biology 18, no. 6 (March 2008): 425–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.052.

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4

Woods, Dawn Marie, Leanne Ketterlin Geller, and Deni Basaraba. "Number Sense on the Number Line." Intervention in School and Clinic 53, no. 4 (June 14, 2017): 229–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1053451217712971.

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A strong foundation in early number concepts is critical for students’ future success in mathematics. Research suggests that visual representations, like a number line, support students’ development of number sense by helping them create a mental representation of the order and magnitude of numbers. In addition, explicitly sequencing instruction to transition from concrete to visual to abstract representations of mathematics concepts supports students’ conceptual understanding. This column describes and illustrates how teachers can use number lines and features of explicit and systematic instruction to support students’ early development of number sense.

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5

Arrighi, Roberto, Irene Togoli, and David C. Burr. "A generalized sense of number." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1797 (December 22, 2014): 20141791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1791.

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Much evidence has accumulated to suggest that many animals, including young human infants, possess an abstract sense of approximate quantity, a number sense . Most research has concentrated on apparent numerosity of spatial arrays of dots or other objects, but a truly abstract sense of number should be capable of encoding the numerosity of any set of discrete elements, however displayed and in whatever sensory modality. Here, we use the psychophysical technique of adaptation to study the sense of number for serially presented items. We show that numerosity of both auditory and visual sequences is greatly affected by prior adaptation to slow or rapid sequences of events. The adaptation to visual stimuli was spatially selective (in external, not retinal coordinates), pointing to a sensory rather than cognitive process. However, adaptation generalized across modalities, from auditory to visual and vice versa. Adaptation also generalized across formats : adapting to sequential streams of flashes affected the perceived numerosity of spatial arrays. All these results point to a perceptual system that transcends vision and audition to encode an abstract sense of number in space and in time.

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6

Kim, Gwangsu, Jaeson Jang, Seungdae Baek, Min Song, and Se-Bum Paik. "Visual number sense in untrained deep neural networks." Science Advances 7, no. 1 (January 2021): eabd6127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd6127.

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Number sense, the ability to estimate numerosity, is observed in naïve animals, but how this cognitive function emerges in the brain remains unclear. Here, using an artificial deep neural network that models the ventral visual stream of the brain, we show that number-selective neurons can arise spontaneously, even in the complete absence of learning. We also show that the responses of these neurons can induce the abstract number sense, the ability to discriminate numerosity independent of low-level visual cues. We found number tuning in a randomly initialized network originating from a combination of monotonically decreasing and increasing neuronal activities, which emerges spontaneously from the statistical properties of bottom-up projections. We confirmed that the responses of these number-selective neurons show the single- and multineuron characteristics observed in the brain and enable the network to perform number comparison tasks. These findings provide insight into the origin of innate cognitive functions.

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7

Stoianov, Ivilin, and Marco Zorzi. "Emergence of a 'visual number sense' in hierarchical generative models." Nature Neuroscience 15, no. 2 (January 8, 2012): 194–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2996.

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8

Morgan, M. J., S. Raphael, M. S. Tibber, and Steven C. Dakin. "A texture-processing model of the ‘visual sense of number’." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1790 (September 7, 2014): 20141137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1137.

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It has been suggested that numerosity is an elementary quality of perception, similar to colour. If so (and despite considerable investigation), its mechanism remains unknown. Here, we show that observers require on average a massive difference of approximately 40% to detect a change in the number of objects that vary irrelevantly in blur, contrast and spatial separation, and that some naive observers require even more than this. We suggest that relative numerosity is a type of texture discrimination and that a simple model computing the contrast energy at fine spatial scales in the image can perform at least as well as human observers. Like some human observers, this mechanism finds it harder to discriminate relative numerosity in two patterns with different degrees of blur, but it still outpaces the human. We propose energy discrimination as a benchmark model against which more complex models and new data can be tested.

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9

Crollen, Virginie, and Olivier Collignon. "How visual is the « number sense »? Insights from the blind." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 118 (November 2020): 290–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.022.

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10

Karolis, Vyacheslav R., Mikhail Grinyaev, Andreea Epure, Vyacheslav Tsoy, Ebba Du Rietz, Michael J. Banissy, Marinella Cappelletti, and Yulia Kovas. "Probing the architecture of visual number sense with parietal tRNS." Cortex 114 (May 2019): 54–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.08.030.

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11

Kroesbergen, Evelyn H., and Marloes van Dijk. "Working Memory and Number Sense as Predictors of Mathematical (Dis-)Ability." Zeitschrift für Psychologie 223, no. 2 (July 10, 2015): 102–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000208.

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Recent research has pointed to two possible causes of mathematical (dis-)ability: working memory and number sense, although only few studies have compared the relations between working memory and mathematics and between number sense and mathematics. In this study, both constructs were studied in relation to mathematics in general, and to mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) in particular. The sample consisted of 154 children aged between 6 and 10 years, including 26 children with MLD. Children performing low on either number sense or visual-spatial working memory scored lower on math tests than children without such a weakness. Children with a double weakness scored the lowest. These results confirm the important role of both visual-spatial working memory and number sense in mathematical development.

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12

Nasr, Khaled, Pooja Viswanathan, and Andreas Nieder. "Number detectors spontaneously emerge in a deep neural network designed for visual object recognition." Science Advances 5, no. 5 (May 2019): eaav7903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav7903.

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Humans and animals have a “number sense,” an innate capability to intuitively assess the number of visual items in a set, its numerosity. This capability implies that mechanisms to extract numerosity indwell the brain’s visual system, which is primarily concerned with visual object recognition. Here, we show that network units tuned to abstract numerosity, and therefore reminiscent of real number neurons, spontaneously emerge in a biologically inspired deep neural network that was merely trained on visual object recognition. These numerosity-tuned units underlay the network’s number discrimination performance that showed all the characteristics of human and animal number discriminations as predicted by the Weber-Fechner law. These findings explain the spontaneous emergence of the number sense based on mechanisms inherent to the visual system.

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13

Zorzi, Marco, and Alberto Testolin. "An emergentist perspective on the origin of number sense." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1740 (January 2018): 20170043. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0043.

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The finding that human infants and many other animal species are sensitive to numerical quantity has been widely interpreted as evidence for evolved, biologically determined numerical capacities across unrelated species, thereby supporting a ‘nativist’ stance on the origin of number sense. Here, we tackle this issue within the ‘emergentist’ perspective provided by artificial neural network models, and we build on computer simulations to discuss two different approaches to think about the innateness of number sense. The first, illustrated by artificial life simulations, shows that numerical abilities can be supported by domain-specific representations emerging from evolutionary pressure. The second assumes that numerical representations need not be genetically pre-determined but can emerge from the interplay between innate architectural constraints and domain-general learning mechanisms, instantiated in deep learning simulations. We show that deep neural networks endowed with basic visuospatial processing exhibit a remarkable performance in numerosity discrimination before any experience-dependent learning, whereas unsupervised sensory experience with visual sets leads to subsequent improvement of number acuity and reduces the influence of continuous visual cues. The emergent neuronal code for numbers in the model includes both numerosity-sensitive (summation coding) and numerosity-selective response profiles, closely mirroring those found in monkey intraparietal neurons. We conclude that a form of innatism based on architectural and learning biases is a fruitful approach to understanding the origin and development of number sense. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘The origins of numerical abilities'.

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14

Kroesbergen, Evelyn H., and Eveline M. Schoevers. "Creativity as predictor of mathematical abilities in fourth graders in addition to number sense and working memory." Journal of Numerical Cognition 3, no. 2 (December 22, 2017): 417–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v3i2.63.

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In this study, it was investigated how domain-specific (number sense) and domain-general (working memory, creativity) factors explain the variance in mathematical abilities in primary school children. A total of 166 children aged 8 to 10 years old participated. Several tests to measure math ability, mathematical creativity, number sense, verbal and visual spatial working memory and creativity were administered. Data were analyzed with a series of correlation and regression analyses. Number sense, working memory and creativity were all found to be important predictors of academic and creative mathematical ability. Furthermore, groups with math learning disabilities (MLD) and mathematical giftedness (MG) were compared to a typically developing (TD) group. The results show that the MLD group scored lower on number line estimation and visual spatial working memory than the TD group, while the MG group differed from the TD group on visual spatial working memory and creativity. It is concluded that creativity plays a significant role in mathematics, above working memory and number sense.

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15

Watanabe, Tad. "Visual Reasoning Tools in Action." Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 21, no. 3 (October 2015): 152–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.21.3.0152.

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16

Elmonayer, Randa Abdelaleem. "Promoting number sense of Egyptian autistic children mainstreamed in kindergartens through visual scaffolding." Early Child Development and Care 189, no. 8 (September 4, 2017): 1242–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1372757.

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17

Toll, Sylke W. M., Evelyn H. Kroesbergen, and Johannes E. H. Van Luit. "Visual working memory and number sense: Testing the double deficit hypothesis in mathematics." British Journal of Educational Psychology 86, no. 3 (April 22, 2016): 429–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12116.

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18

Sanford, Emily, and Justin Halberda. "Estimating number from dot displays relies on a visual sense of number – not on size or spacing." Journal of Vision 18, no. 10 (September 1, 2018): 620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/18.10.620.

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19

Yang, Tsang-I., and Chuan-Chin Chiao. "Number sense and state-dependent valuation in cuttlefish." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283, no. 1837 (August 31, 2016): 20161379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1379.

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Identifying the amount of prey available is an important part of an animal's foraging behaviour. The risk-sensitive foraging theory predicts that an organism's foraging decisions with regard to food rewards depending upon its satiation level. However, the precise interaction between optimal risk-tolerance and satiation level remains unclear. In this study, we examined, firstly, whether cuttlefish, with one of the most highly evolved nervous system among the invertebrates, have number sense, and secondly, whether their valuation of food reward is satiation state dependent. When food such as live shrimps is present, without training, cuttlefish turn toward the prey and initiate seizure behaviour. Using this visual attack behaviour as a measure, cuttlefish showed a preference for a larger quantity when faced with two-alternative forced choice tasks (1 versus 2, 2 versus 3, 3 versus 4 and 4 versus 5). However, cuttlefish preferred the small quantity when the choice was between one live and two dead shrimps. More importantly, when the choice was between one large live shrimp and two small live shrimps (a prey size and quantity trade-off), the cuttlefish chose the large single shrimp when they felt hunger, but chose the two smaller prey when they were satiated. These results demonstrate that cuttlefish are capable of number discrimination and that their choice of prey number depends on the quality of the prey and on their appetite state. The findings also suggest that cuttlefish integrate both internal and external information when making a foraging decision and that the cost of obtaining food is inversely correlated with their satiation level, a phenomenon similar to the observation that metabolic state alters economic decision making under risk among humans.

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20

Zhang, Wenhe, Chi Zhang, Yixin Zhu, and Song-Chun Zhu. "Machine Number Sense: A Dataset of Visual Arithmetic Problems for Abstract and Relational Reasoning." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 34, no. 02 (April 3, 2020): 1332–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i02.5489.

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As a comprehensive indicator of mathematical thinking and intelligence, the number sense (Dehaene 2011) bridges the induction of symbolic concepts and the competence of problem-solving. To endow such a crucial cognitive ability to machine intelligence, we propose a dataset, Machine Number Sense (MNS), consisting of visual arithmetic problems automatically generated using a grammar model—And-Or Graph (AOG). These visual arithmetic problems are in the form of geometric figures: each problem has a set of geometric shapes as its context and embedded number symbols. Solving such problems is not trivial; the machine not only has to recognize the number, but also to interpret the number with its contexts, shapes, and relations (e.g., symmetry) together with proper operations. We benchmark the MNS dataset using four predominant neural network models as baselines in this visual reasoning task. Comprehensive experiments show that current neural-network-based models still struggle to understand number concepts and relational operations. We show that a simple brute-force search algorithm could work out some of the problems without context information. Crucially, taking geometric context into account by an additional perception module would provide a sharp performance gain with fewer search steps. Altogether, we call for attention in fusing the classic search-based algorithms with modern neural networks to discover the essential number concepts in future research.

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21

Li, Chengtai, Yee Yang Tan, Yuting He, Jianfeng Ren, Ruibin Bai, Yitian Zhao, Heng Yu, and Xudong Jiang. "DARR: A Dual-Branch Arithmetic Regression Reasoning Framework for Solving Machine Number Reasoning." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 39, no. 2 (April 11, 2025): 1373–82. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v39i2.32127.

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Abstract visual reasoning (AVR) is a critical ability of humans, and it has been widely studied, but arithmetic visual reasoning, a unique task in AVR to reason over number sense, is less studied in the literature. To facilitate this research, we construct a Machine Number Reasoning (MNR) dataset to assess the model's ability in arithmetic visual reasoning over number sense and spatial layouts. To solve the MNR tasks, we propose a Dual-branch Arithmetic Regression Reasoning (DARR) framework, which includes an Intra-Image Arithmetic Regression Reasoning (IIARR) module and a Cross-Image Arithmetic Regression Reasoning (CIARR) module. The IIARR includes a set of Intra-Image Regression Blocks to identify the correct number orders and the underlying arithmetic rules within individual images, and an Order Gate to determine the correct number order. The CIARR establishes the arithmetic relations across different images through a `3-to-1' regressor and a set of `2-to-1' regressors, with a Selection Gate to select the most suitable `2-to-1' regressor and a gated fusion to combine the two kinds of regressors. Experiments on the MNR dataset show that the DARR outperforms state-of-the-art models for arithmetic visual reasoning.

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22

Ziegler, Marco Carlo, and Knut Drewing. "Get in touch with numbers – an approximate number comparison task in the haptic modality." Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 84, no. 3 (January 21, 2022): 943–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13414-021-02427-6.

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AbstractThe Approximate Number System (ANS) is conceptualized as an innate cognitive system that allows humans to perceive numbers of objects or events (>4) in a fuzzy, imprecise manner. The representation of numbers is assumed to be abstract and not bound to a particular sense. In the present study, we test the assumption of a shared cross-sensory system. We investigated approximate number processing in the haptic modality and compared performance to that of the visual modality. We used a dot comparison task (DCT), in which participants compare two dot arrays and decide which one contains more dots. In the haptic DCT, 67 participants had to compare two simultaneously presented dot arrays with the palms of their hands; in the visual DCT, participants inspected and compared dot arrays on a screen. Tested ratios ranged from 2.0 (larger/smaller number) to 1.1. As expected, in both the haptic and the visual DCT responses similarly depended on the ratio of the numbers of dots in the two arrays. However, on an individual level, we found evidence against medium or stronger positive correlations between “ANS acuity” in the visual and haptic DCTs. A regression model furthermore revealed that besides number, spacing-related features of dot patterns (e.g., the pattern’s convex hull) contribute to the percept of numerosity in both modalities. Our results contradict the strong theory of the ANS solely processing number and being independent of a modality. According to our regression and response prediction model, our results rather point towards a modality-specific integration of number and number-related features.

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23

Viswanathan, P., and A. Nieder. "Neuronal correlates of a visual "sense of number" in primate parietal and prefrontal cortices." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 27 (June 17, 2013): 11187–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1308141110.

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24

Wencheng, Wu, Yingxi Ge, Zhentao Zuo, Lin Chen, Xu Qin, and Liu Zuxiang. "Visual number sense for real-world scenes shared by deep neural networks and humans." Heliyon 9, no. 8 (August 2023): e18517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18517.

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25

Marinova, Mila, and Bert Reynvoet. "Can you trust your number sense: Distinct processing of numbers and quantities in elementary school children." Journal of Numerical Cognition 6, no. 3 (December 3, 2020): 304–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v6i3.292.

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Theories of number development have traditionally argued that the acquisition and discrimination of symbolic numbers (i.e., number words and digits) are grounded in and are continuously supported by the Approximate Number System (ANS)—an evolutionarily ancient system for number. In the current study, we challenge this claim by investigating whether the ANS continues to support the symbolic number processing throughout development. To this end, we tested 87 first- (Age M = 6.54 years, SD = 0.58), third- (Age M = 8.55 years, SD = 0.60) and fifth-graders (Age M = 10.63 years, SD = 0.67) on four audio-visual comparison tasks (1) Number words–Digits, (2) Tones–Dots, (3) Number words–Dots, (4) Tones–Digits, while varying the Number Range (Small and Large), and the Numerical Ratio (Easy, Medium, and Hard). Results showed that larger and faster developmental growth in the performance was observed in the Number Words–Digits task, while the tasks containing at least one non-symbolic quantity showed smaller and slower developmental change. In addition, the Ratio effect (i.e., the signature of ANS being addressed) was present in the Tones–Dots, Tones–Digits, and Number Words–Dots tasks, but was absent in the Number Words–Digits task. These findings suggest that it is unlikely that the ANS continuously underlines the acquisition and the discrimination of the symbolic numbers. Rather, our results indicate that non-symbolic quantities and symbolic numbers follow qualitatively distinct developmental paths, and argue that the latter ones are processed in a semantic network which starts to emerge from an early age.

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26

He, Lixia, Ke Zhou, Tiangang Zhou, Sheng He, and Lin Chen. "Topology-defined units in numerosity perception." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 41 (September 28, 2015): E5647—E5655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512408112.

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What is a number? The number sense hypothesis suggests that numerosity is “a primary visual property” like color, contrast, or orientation. However, exactly what attribute of a stimulus is the primary visual property and determines numbers in the number sense? To verify the invariant nature of numerosity perception, we manipulated the numbers of items connected/enclosed in arbitrary and irregular forms while controlling for low-level features (e.g., orientation, color, and size). Subjects performed discrimination, estimation, and equality judgment tasks in a wide range of presentation durations and across small and large numbers. Results consistently show that connecting/enclosing items led to robust numerosity underestimation, with the extent of underestimation increasing monotonically with the number of connected/enclosed items. In contrast, grouping based on color similarity had no effect on numerosity judgment. We propose that numbers or the primitive units counted in numerosity perception are influenced by topological invariants, such as connectivity and the inside/outside relationship. Beyond the behavioral measures, neural tuning curves to numerosity in the intraparietal sulcus were obtained using functional MRI adaptation, and the tuning curves showed that numbers represented in the intraparietal sulcus were strongly influenced by topology.

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27

Anwar, Ruqoyyah fitri. "MEDIA NUMBER SENSE UNTUK MENGENALKAN BILANGAN PADA ANAK USIA DINI DENGAN MULTISENSORI." Jurnal Pendidikan (Teori dan Praktik) 5, no. 2 (April 19, 2021): 55–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.26740/jp.v5n2.p55-64.

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Rendahnya pengenalan konsep bilangan pada anak usia dini disebabkan pengajaran number sense bersifat abstrak dan banyak menggunakan lembar kerja, sehingga dibutuhkan pengembangan media pembelajaran yang dilengkapi panduan bagi guru. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kelayakan dan keefektifan media pembelajaran Number Sense yang telah dikembangkan dalam meningkatkan kemampuan mengenal bilangan pada anak usia 5-6 tahun di TK Islam Terpadu Al Ibrah Gresik. Metode pengembangan yang dipakai mengikuti model pengembangan Borg and Gall yang mengadaptasi 10 langkah pengembangan model Dick and Carey. Teknik analisis data dengan desain Quasi Eksperimen menggunakan One Group Pretest Posttes Design dengan seluruh sampel yang berjumlah 36 anak. Berdasarkan hasil validasi tiga orang ahli terhadap produk yang dikembangkan, dinyatakan bahwa produk media pembelajaran number sense sudah sesuai dan baik. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan peningkatan rata-rata kemampuan anak sesudah diberi pembelajaran menggunakan media number sense. Peningkatan ini disebabkan anak tertarik untuk bermain dan senang menggunakan media berupa kartu dan kepingan hitung karena media tersebut bersifat multisensori, yaitu melibatkan modalitas belajar anak baik visual, auditory, kinesthetic, maupun tactile sehingga anak bisa dengan mudah mengenal konsep bilangan dan operasinya secara konkret sambil bermain. Penelitian ini memberi ide efisien tentang cara mengenalkan number sense di taman kanak-kanak secara multisensori dan diperlukan penelitian lanjutan tentang implikasi media ini pada kemampuan matematika anak di sekolah dasar.

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28

Zhou, Cihua, Wei Xu, Yujie Liu, Zhichao Xue, Rui Chen, Ke Zhou, and Jia Liu. "Numerosity representation in a deep convolutional neural network." Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology 15 (January 2021): 183449092110126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/18344909211012613.

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Enumerating objects in the environment (i.e., “number sense”) is crucial for survival in many animal species, and foundational for the construction of more abstract and complex mathematical knowledge in humans. Perhaps surprisingly, deep convolutional neural networks (DCNNs) spontaneously emerge a similar number sense even without any explicit training for numerosity estimation. However, little is known about how the number sense emerges, and the extent to which it is comparable with human number sense. Here, we examined whether the numerosity underestimation effect, a phenomenon indicating that numerosity perception acts upon the perceptual number rather than the physical number, can be observed in DCNNs. In a typical DCNN, AlexNet, we found that number-selective units at late layers operated on the perceptual number, like humans do. More importantly, this perceptual number sense did not emerge abruptly, rather developed progressively along the hierarchy in the DCNN, shifting from the physical number sense at early layers to perceptual number sense at late layers. Our finding hence provides important implications for the neural implementation of number sense in the human brain and advocates future research to determine whether the representation of numerosity also develops gradually along the human visual stream from physical number to perceptual number.

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29

Wu, Xiaolin, Xi Zhang, and Xiao Shu. "Cognitive Deficit of Deep Learning in Numerosity." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 33 (July 17, 2019): 1303–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v33i01.33011303.

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Subitizing, or the sense of small natural numbers, is an innate cognitive function of humans and primates; it responds to visual stimuli prior to the development of any symbolic skills, language or arithmetic. Given successes of deep learning (DL) in tasks of visual intelligence and given the primitivity of number sense, a tantalizing question is whether DL can comprehend numbers and perform subitizing. But somewhat disappointingly, extensive experiments of the type of cognitive psychology demonstrate that the examples-driven black box DL cannot see through superficial variations in visual representations and distill the abstract notion of natural number, a task that children perform with high accuracy and confidence. The failure is apparently due to the learning method not the CNN computational machinery itself. A recurrent neural network capable of subitizing does exist, which we construct by encoding a mechanism of mathematical morphology into the CNN convolutional kernels. Also, we investigate, using subitizing as a test bed, the ways to aid the black box DL by cognitive priors derived from human insight. Our findings are mixed and interesting, pointing to both cognitive deficit of pure DL, and some measured successes of boosting DL by predetermined cognitive implements. This case study of DL in cognitive computing is meaningful for visual numerosity represents a minimum level of human intelligence.

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30

Sengupta, Rakesh, Philipp Rhinou, David Melcher, and Raju Bapi Surampudi. "The influence of pre-stimulus brain oscillations on the visual sense of number: an MEG study." Journal of Vision 15, no. 12 (September 1, 2015): 906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/15.12.906.

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31

Messina, Andrea, Davide Potrich, Ilaria Schiona, Valeria Anna Sovrano, and Giorgio Vallortigara. "The Sense of Number in Fish, with Particular Reference to Its Neurobiological Bases." Animals 11, no. 11 (October 27, 2021): 3072. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11113072.

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It is widely acknowledged that vertebrates can discriminate non-symbolic numerosity using an evolutionarily conserved system dubbed Approximate Number System (ANS). Two main approaches have been used to assess behaviourally numerosity in fish: spontaneous choice tests and operant training procedures. In the first, animals spontaneously choose between sets of biologically-relevant stimuli (e.g., conspecifics, food) differing in quantities (smaller or larger). In the second, animals are trained to associate a numerosity with a reward. Although the ability of fish to discriminate numerosity has been widely documented with these methods, the molecular bases of quantities estimation and ANS are largely unknown. Recently, we combined behavioral tasks with molecular biology assays (e.g c-fos and egr1 and other early genes expression) showing that the thalamus and the caudal region of dorso-central part of the telencephalon seem to be activated upon change in numerousness in visual stimuli. In contrast, the retina and the optic tectum mainly responded to changes in continuous magnitude such as stimulus size. We here provide a review and synthesis of these findings.

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Tabueva, A. O., A. I. Kotyusov, A. I. Kosachenko, S. A. Mironets, S. B. Malykh, and Y. V. Kuzmina. "Variability of the accuracy of approximate number sense and the congruency effect depending on the time of stimuli presentation." Sibirskiy Psikhologicheskiy Zhurnal, no. 91 (2024): 39–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/17267080/91/3.

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Approximate number sense is the ability to evaluate quantitative information without using symbols. The system of nonsymbolic numerosity representation is associated with the evaluation of non-numerical visual characteristics; with the congruency effect reflects this relationship. The congruency effect is considered as the difference in accuracy between congruent items in which non-numerical visual parameters positively correlate with quantitative ones, and non-congruent tasks in non-symbolic comparison tests. The article discusses two main theories explaining the process of nonsymbolic numerosity representation, in particular, the theory of the "number sense" and the sensory integration theory. Each of these theories suggests different explanatory models of the congruency effect, such as the inhibition model and the Attentional bias induced by stimulus control (ABC) model. In the experimental study, it was investigated to what extent the changes of the congruency effect depend on the format of the presentation of stimuli and the duration of stimuli presentation. In a sample of 97 students, a nonsymbolic comparison test was used in two formats, mixed (when the compared sets of objects are not spatially separated from each other) and separated. Each person performed nonsymbolic numerosity comparison tasks under conditions of short time presentation of stimuli (400 ms) and long time presentation of stimuli (1000 ms). For analysis of results generalized linear mixed effects models were applied. The results indicate that the congruency effect decreases under conditions of longer presentation of stimuli, however, this change is found only in the separated format of presentation of stimuli. In a mixed presentation format, when the assessment of visual parameters becomes less confident, there is no congruence effect. With an increase in the duration of presentation of stimuli, it becomes the opposite, i.e. the accuracy of nonsymbolic comparison in incongruent tasks has become higher than in congruent ones. Generally speaking, the results are in line with the “number sense” theory and have been elaborated upon. In general, the nonsymbolic numerosity representation considered as the adaptive and fluent interaction of two processes – the direct evaluation of numerosity and the evaluation of non-numerical visual cues.

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Kanitscheider, Ingmar, Amanda Brown, Alexandre Pouget, and Anne K. Churchland. "Multisensory decisions provide support for probabilistic number representations." Journal of Neurophysiology 113, no. 10 (June 2015): 3490–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00787.2014.

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A large body of evidence suggests that an approximate number sense allows humans to estimate numerosity in sensory scenes. This ability is widely observed in humans, including those without formal mathematical training. Despite this, many outstanding questions remain about the nature of the numerosity representation in the brain. Specifically, it is not known whether approximate numbers are represented as scalar estimates of numerosity or, alternatively, as probability distributions over numerosity. In the present study, we used a multisensory decision task to distinguish these possibilities. We trained human subjects to decide whether a test stimulus had a larger or smaller numerosity compared with a fixed reference. Depending on the trial, the numerosity was presented as either a sequence of visual flashes or a sequence of auditory tones, or both. To test for a probabilistic representation, we varied the reliability of the stimulus by adding noise to the visual stimuli. In accordance with a probabilistic representation, we observed a significant improvement in multisensory compared with unisensory trials. Furthermore, a trial-by-trial analysis revealed that although individual subjects showed strategic differences in how they leveraged auditory and visual information, all subjects exploited the reliability of unisensory cues. An alternative, nonprobabilistic model, in which subjects combined cues without regard for reliability, was not able to account for these trial-by-trial choices. These findings provide evidence that the brain relies on a probabilistic representation for numerosity decisions.

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Călinescu, Petru-Marian. "The number sense: a comparison between normal and adapted curriculum pupils in terms of subitization ability, the distance and magnitude effects." Annals of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Psychology Series 31 (2022): 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.47743/psya-2022-02.

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Number sense refers to the ability to easily understand, approximate and manipulate numerical quantities. In solving numerical problems, children use exact, respectively approximate calculation strategies. Unfortunately, some persons encounter difficulties in acquiring basic mathematical skills, and this condition represent a specific learning disability called developmental discalculia. The aim of the present study was to compare normal and adapted curriculum pupils in terms of subitization ability and efectiveness of number sense. The presence of magnitude and distance effects was tested in four distinct formats: 3D objects, 2D figures, verbal and visual Arabic numerical representation. The sample consisted of 111 normal and adapted curriculum pupils. Both number of errors and reaction times were registered. Adapted curriculum pupils registered more erroneous answers in the 2D, verbal, and arabic tasks and bigger reaction times in the 3D, tasks with Arabic or verbal numerals. Both normal and adapted curriculum pupils registered the best performances in the visual Arabic numerical representation task. Contrary to the expectations, the magnitude effect was not outlined in terms of reaction times, perhaps due to the calculation strategies which pupils adopted in different tasks.

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Park, Joonkoo. "A neural basis for the visual sense of number and its development: A steady-state visual evoked potential study in children and adults." Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 30 (April 2018): 333–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.02.011.

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Sengupta, Rakesh, Bapi Raju Surampudi, and David Melcher. "A visual sense of number emerges from the dynamics of a recurrent on-center off-surround neural network." Brain Research 1582 (September 2014): 114–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.03.014.

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Hanaf, Hadeel Nashat Aswad. "Development and Innovation in the Visual Formation of the Virtual Arabic Novel (Virtual Female, From the First Click, Shadow Memory) as a Model." Modern Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 3, no. 1 (January 31, 2024): 40–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.51699/mjssh.v3i1.751.

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The sense of sight occupied a high position among all senses in the process of reception, which requires the mobilization of the largest possible number of formations that serve the text through sight. Thus, visual formation occupied an important place in the narrative narrative of the virtual novel. Therefore, the current study sought to shed light on the aspects of development and innovation in the field of visual formation of the contemporary Arabic virtual novel.

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Pombo, Fátima. "About the 5th Number of Sophia, Visual Spaces of Change." Sophia Journal 5, no. 1 (December 1, 2020): 5–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.24840/2183-8976_2019-0005_0001_02.

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To dwell and to build is not an art, is not a technique, but a realm where things belong. This is a statement addressed by Heidegger in Bauen Wohnen Denken, his text more connected with architecture that is more contemporary than ever. In effect, two questions as What is it to dwell? and How does building belong to dwelling? are intertwined with others like How to dwell in the current world? and How to give form to the quality of dwelling? The responses should point out again to Heideggerian’s line of thought: ‘Only if we are capable of dwelling, only then can we build’. He pushes the argument to the limit adding that dwelling is to conciliate ‘earth’, ‘heaven’, ‘the mortals’ and ‘the gods’ (the divine). To dwell and to build should be the preservation of such square. It is remarkable that Heidegger’s writings on this topic, that stimulated and still stimulate the architectural debate, were strongly influenced by the philosopher’s life in the Schwarzwald, close to the village of Todtnauberg. In Heidegger’s Hut (Adam Scharr) the hut in which Heidegger lived in for five decades, since he ordered its construction in 1922, is described, as well as the bonds he created with the landscape and all environment. The hut was a place for him to dwell and to think, because both belong together and were mutually influencing body, feelings and sense of place. And if Norberg-Shulz left the phenomenological legacy of the genius loci as the spirit of the place, with its particular atmosphere and fundamental implications for building, genius loci within Heidegger’s thoughts on building, dwelling and thinking recall the sense of protection and of sacredness of a place like the one called home. Life in balance with the spirit of the place showed Heidegger that the emotional space is measured very differently from space measured mathematically. And to build and to dwell are activities with a significant order that resonates in mind, body and spirit. For phenomenology, place is not just the geographic or topographic location, but consists of effective elements such as materials, form, texture, colour, light, shadow playing together. The interdependence of all those elements, along with others allows the opportunity for some spaces, with identical functions, to express diverse architectural features and therefore countlessatmospheres to perceive, enjoy and cherish. ‘Sometimes I can almost feel a particular door handle in my hand, a piece of metal shaped like the back of a spoon. I used to take hold of it when I went into my aunt’s garden. That door handle still seems to me like a special sign of entry into a world of different moods and smells. I remember the sound of the gravel under my feet, the soft gleam of the waxed oak staircase, I can hear the heavy front door closing behind me as I walk along the dark corridor and enter the kitchen, the only really brightly lit room in the house’, confesses Peter Zumthor. On the shoulders of these inspiring ideas and experiences, the plot for the 5th number of Sophia was designed. It called original articles that discuss the core of interiority in architecture as a matter open to diverse ideas and practices in the realm of built space to be experienced by its dwellers. Interiority to be argued as a dimension that differentiates a place of a non-place. The non-places are spots with which the individual does not create any relation; they are transit- places without memory, identity, history, personal construction, references, emotions of which solace is not a minor one. Interiority claims that kind of space that accommodates thoughts, dreams, nightmares, intimacy, changes, silence, noise, neurosis...life. Shelter, shape, place, atmosphere portray scenarios that enhance experiences, events, occurrences beyond the functionalistic rhetoric enveloping them. All the texts that compose this issue display the strong insights the authors chose to approach the proposed topic. They trigger new thoughts and new questions. Three articles and an interview appear as the hard core of this volume. Preserving heritage through new narratives: designing a guesthouse within a cross-disciplinary team from Pedro Bandeira Maia and Raul Pinto discusses a very demanding design program of transformation of an interior space from a former pharmacy to a guest house in a historical building from the nineteenth century. The article exposes the methodology followed by a cross disciplinary team debating the project’s narrative illustrated with very expressive images. The role of architecture in an engaging and meaningful experience of the physical exhibition from Bárbara Coutinho and Ana Tostões evolves from the main argument that the physical exhibition is the immediate way to encounter the arts in line with the phenomenological understanding of the aesthetic experience. It recalls the inspiring role of exhibition designs of Frederick Kiesler, Franco Albini and Lina Bo Bardi as examples to contrast with the growing process of digitalisation and dematerialisation of the involvement with art. Authors address then the reasons why for contemporary times it is important that an exhibition is designed to be a physical matter between spectators and art. The need for Shelter. Laugier, Ledoux, and Enlightenment’s shadows from Rui Aristides and José António Bandeirinha discourses about the human need for shelter as the essence that defines the discipline of architecture. This approach is developed within an historical framework, namely referring the legacy of Laugier and Ledoux intertwined with philosophical and political issues.Based upon these reasoning, the authors go further and tackle the architecture’s role regarding shelter in contemporary times. The interview The Power of Imagination made to Danish Designer Hans Thyge is an exciting journey to pertinent themes thought from the professional practice of a designer who after 30 years in design still believes in the use of a pencil and a paper to sketch and to imagine. ‘Interiors’ is central in this storytelling as a challenge to create spatial experiences and staging atmospheres. Also his own house, designed by him, is a key moment to make special considerations regarding dwelling and building. We are very thankful for authors’ contributions and vivid minds.

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Ratwani, Raj M., and Allan Fong. "‘Connecting the dots’: leveraging visual analytics to make sense of patient safety event reports." Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 22, no. 2 (October 21, 2014): 312–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/amiajnl-2014-002963.

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Abstract An increasing number of healthcare providers are adopting patient safety event reporting systems, yet leveraging these data to improve safety remains a challenge, particularly with large datasets composed of thousands of event reports. A MedStar Health research team, with expertise in data analytics and human factors, developed intuitive visualization dashboards to facilitate data exploration and trend analysis. Dashboards were developed using an iterative design and development process that was end-user focused. A system level dashboard, representing data from multiple hospitals, and a hospital level dashboard were developed. The dashboards allowed users to directly manipulate the data, provided coordinated displays in different formats, and allowed users to quickly zoom in on specific variables of interest. Overall feedback was incredibly positive with nearly all users wanting to adopt the system immediately. Several improvements were suggested and are discussed. The success of this approach highlights the need for more intuitive data analysis tools.

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Dyson, Nancy I., Nancy C. Jordan, Jessica Rodrigues, Christina Barbieri, and Luke Rinne. "A Fraction Sense Intervention for Sixth Graders With or At Risk for Mathematics Difficulties." Remedial and Special Education 41, no. 4 (November 28, 2018): 244–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741932518807139.

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The efficacy of a research-based fraction sense intervention for sixth graders with or at risk for mathematics difficulties ( N = 52) was examined. The intervention aimed to build understanding of fraction magnitudes on the number line. Key concepts were taught with a narrow range of denominators to develop deep understanding. The intervention was centered on a visual number line in the meaningful context of a color run race. Students were randomly assigned to the fraction sense intervention ( n = 25) or a business-as-usual control group ( n = 27). Students in the intervention condition received 21 lessons in small groups (45 min each) during their regular mathematics intervention period. Students in the intervention group performed significantly better than those in the control group on a measure of fraction number line estimation and a more general measure of fraction concepts, both at immediate posttest and delayed posttest, with large effect sizes; lesser effects were shown for fraction arithmetic.

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Zhang, Miao, Zee Fryer, Ben Colman, Ali Shahriyari, and Gaurav Bharaj. "Common Sense Bias Modeling for Classification Tasks." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 39, no. 9 (April 11, 2025): 9994–10002. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v39i9.33084.

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Machine learning model bias can arise from dataset composition: correlated sensitive features can distort the downstream classification model's decision boundary and lead to performance differences along these features. Existing de-biasing works tackle the most prominent bias features, such as colors of digits or background of animals. However, real-world datasets often include a large number of feature correlations that intrinsically manifest in the data as common sense information. Such spurious visual cues can further reduce model robustness. Thus, domain practitioners desire a comprehensive understanding of correlations and the flexibility to address relevant biases. To this end, we propose a novel framework to extract comprehensive biases in image datasets based on textual descriptions, a common sense-rich modality. Specifically, features are constructed by clustering noun phrase embeddings with similar semantics. The presence of each feature across the dataset is inferred, and their co-occurrence statistics are measured, with spurious correlations optionally examined by a human-in-the-loop module. Downstream experiments show that our method uncovers novel model biases in multiple image benchmark datasets. Furthermore, the discovered bias can be mitigated by simple data re-weighting to de-correlate the features, outperforming state-of-the-art unsupervised bias mitigation methods.

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Grünert, Anna. "Corporeal vision and contemplation in the epistemological context: a comparison of the “Homilies on the Psalms” by Origen and saint Basil of Caesarea." St. Tikhons' University Review 102 (August 31, 2022): 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.15382/sturi2022102.11-28.

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The article considers on the material of the “Homilies on the Psalms” of Origen and saint Basil of Caesarea the use of vocabulary of visual sense in an epistemological context, including the concept of “contemplation”, which goes back to the ancient philosophical tradition. Thus, the aim of the paper is to explain the philosophical meaning of this concept as the highest stage on the path of knowledge as well as its place in the epistemological systems of both authors. On the basis of the description of cognitive processes by early Christian writers we discovered a number of patterns in the composition of the semantic field of vision as the sense that participates in the act of knowledge. At the same time, our study demonstrates that the use of both the concept of “contemplation” and the vocabulary of visual sense partially fits into the philosophical division of the neoplatonic curriculum: while the study by bodily vision of the sensuous world created by God is associated with physics, the contemplation as a study of the supersensuous world by supersensory vision is associated with epoptics. However, in the explanations we have examined, these three steps are never mentioned in a row, in contrast to other texts where Origen and saint Basil follow the scheme of ethics-physics-epoptics. As texts that serves as the basis for comparing the Christian reception of the vocabulary of visual sense in patristic literature of the 3rd and 4th centuries AD we choosed not only the exegetic sermons of individual psalms by Origen and saint Basil of Caesarea, but also a selection of other texts of the same authors representing relevant parallels in their use of vocabulary of visual sense. From the point of view of its scientific relevance, this study is also important because it shows the dependence of the “Homilies on the Psalms” by saint Basil of Caesarea upon the “Homilies on the Psalms” by Origen discovered in 2012 in the Codex Monacensis Graecus 314.

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Portella, Adriana Araujo. "THE EFFECTS OF COMMERCIAL SIGNS ON USER'S SENSE OF VISUAL QUALITY IN HISTORIC CITY CENTRES OF DIFFERENT URBAN CONTEXTS." Journal of Research in Architecture & Planning 06, no. 01 (December 30, 2007): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.53700/jrap0612007_1.

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This paper focuses on the relationship between visual quality of the built environment and commercial signage in historic city centres. It identifies the physical aspects of commercial signs and buildings that should be taken in account in the development of a general approach to control commercial signs in historic city centres of different urban contexts. This study suggests that while some visual preferences are influenced by users’ urban contexts, others can be universal and applied to define general urban design principles. This study explores whether user perception and evaluation of the number of commercial signs and the percentage of building facade coverage by these media has some influence on (i) user satisfaction with commercial street facades, (ii) user perception and evaluation of order, colour variation and complexity, and (iii) user feeling of pleasure and interest in relation to the appearance of commercial streetscapes in historic city centres. The findings (i) show that there are common visual preferences among users from different countries, and (ii) suggest that these can be applied to develop a general approach to control commercial signs in historic city centres. Keyword: Visual quality; commercial signage; historic city centre; user perception and evaluation.

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Viswanathan, Pooja, and Andreas Nieder. "Spatial Neuronal Integration Supports a Global Representation of Visual Numerosity in Primate Association Cortices." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 32, no. 6 (June 2020): 1184–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01548.

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Our sense of number rests on the activity of neurons that are tuned to the number of items and show great invariance across display formats and modalities. Whether numerosity coding becomes abstracted from local spatial representations characteristic of visual input is not known. We mapped the visual receptive fields (RFs) of numerosity-selective neurons in the pFC and ventral intraparietal area in rhesus monkeys. We found numerosity selectivity in pFC and ventral intraparietal neurons irrespective of whether they exhibited an RF and independent of the location of their RFs. RFs were not predictive of the preference of numerosity-selective neurons. Furthermore, the presence and location of RFs had no impact on tuning width and quality of the numerosity-selective neurons. These findings show that neurons in frontal and parietal cortices integrate abstract visuospatial stimuli to give rise to global and spatially released number representations as required for number perception.

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Quattelbaum, B., S. Wolter, and M. Stylidis. "Preliminary Study on Haptics of Textile Surfaces via Digital Visual Cues." Proceedings of the Design Society 2 (May 2022): 2183–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pds.2022.221.

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AbstractHumans perceive through various sensory impressions, including the five senses. Not only the number of different stimuli in everyday life increase, but also the degree of assessment of urgent and irrelevant information. But online it is not possible for the customer to physically perceive and assess the haptics of a product. This paper focus on the questions if it is possible for humans to perceive and identify surface properties without using their sense of touch and if humans can judge and classify the haptics of a textile materials via digital channels through a purely visual perception?

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Noh, So On. "The Effect of Number Sense Instruction Using Visual Representation on Basic Addition and Subtraction Performance of Students with Intellectual Disabilities." Journal of special education : theory and practice 21, no. 3 (September 30, 2020): 49–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.19049/jsped.2020.21.3.03.

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Belok, Fatima, Mostafa Rabea, Mohamed Hanafi, and Ibtihal El Bastawissi. "Facades for Achieving Visual Comfort: High Performance Computing." International Journal of Environmental Science & Sustainable Development 4, no. 1 (March 30, 2019): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.21625/essd.v4i1.486.

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Within the last few decades, many digital technologies have been integrated to the field of architecture. This in turn has developed a number of architectural trends based on these revolutionary changes. Kinetic skin is one of these trends that is directly related to visual performance and comfort, an important aspect. The feeling of comfort is related to the sense organs network; i.e. the eyes, ears, nose, tactile sensors, heat sensors and brain. Visual sensation is the most dominant one in human perception since the eye contains two thirds of the nerve fibers within human central nervous system.The use of kinetic facades for achieving visual comfort in spaces has been recently the subject of many researches, where various aspects have been explored. However, this paper will attempt to review these researches while identifying gaps and potential for future research.

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Tärning, Betty, Björn Sjödén, Agneta Gulz, and Magnus Haake. "Young Children’s Experience and Preference of Feedback – Sense and Sensibility." Interaction Design and Architecture(s), no. 37 (June 10, 2018): 206–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.55612/s-5002-037-010.

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This study explored the effects of adding visual continuous feedback in the form of feedback bars to a teachable-agent based learning game in mathematics. 45 8-12-years-old from three Swedish school classes used the game during four math lessons. The focus was on how feedback to the students regarding their teachable agents learning progression – and different detailedness of such feedback – affects how the students (in a teacher role) experience the learning game. The results suggest that students were positive towards receiving immediate and continuous feedback, but their preferences with respect to the detailedness of the feedback differed according to their age. We found a divergence as to the preferred number of bars, where the 3rdand 5thgraders preferred 1 or 3 bars but where the 2ndgraders preferred the more detailed version (6 bars) despite their lack of understanding of what the different bars represented.

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Duncum, Paul. "Visual Culture in Art Education, Circa 2009." Visual Arts Research 35, no. 1 (July 1, 2009): 64–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20715488.

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Abstract The article offers a personal view of the current status of visual culture in art education. The author argues that all the activity suggests that visual culture is now an art educational paradigm, though the great divergence of practice and understanding suggests it is a name only. Evidence suggesting the current paradigmatic nature of visual culture includes the number of publications and conference presentations on visual culture; reports of classroom activity; robust debate among proponents; outside criticism; and a sense that for many it has become naturalized as part of their accepted practice. At the same time the great divergence among this activity includes employing the term as though it continued primarily to mean traditional art forms and practices; only superficially related to popular culture; idea development without any specific content; a dialogic and critical inquiry pedagogy; an exclusive focus on deconstruction; deconstruction of one media and response in another media; and, finally, practices that emulate media education. The author concludes by claiming that visual culture in art education remains a work in progress.

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Miyoshi, Kiyofumi, and Hiroshi Ashida. "Systematic spatial patterns of the sense of familiarity: Hierarchical modelling based on eye-tracking experiments." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 4 (June 20, 2018): 832–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021818781709.

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Using different types of stimuli, such as pictures, horizontally written Japanese words, and vertically written Japanese words, this study investigated the spatial patterns of the sense of familiarity within the visual field. The perceptual asymmetry theory predicted that stimuli in the lower visual field would be processed more fluently and would therefore be perceived as more familiar. The working memory theory, originally proposed in space–number research, envisaged type-specific spatial patterns for different stimuli. Participants made old/new recognition memory judgements for stimuli, presented at random positions, while their eye movements were recorded. The observed spatial patterns changed according to the stimulus type (e.g., “more left = older” for horizontally written words and “upper = older” for vertically written words), and this flexibility is encapsulated by the working memory theory as follows: (a) stimulus-type-specific spatial configurations are encoded in long-term memory on the basis of one’s experience (e.g., vertically written words are empirically associated with the “upper = older” spatial configuration), (b) the presentation of a stimulus automatically cues the temporal activation of the associated spatial configuration in working memory, and (c) the referential process between the stimulus and configuration unconsciously affects the viewer’s sense of familiarity.

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