Academic literature on the topic '1789-1869'

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Journal articles on the topic "1789-1869"

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Klimpel, V. "Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869)." DMW - Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 114, no. 41 (August 20, 2009): 1588–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1235734.

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Charlot, Colette. "Le professeur Jacques Étienne Bérard (1789-1869)." Revue d'histoire de la pharmacie 102, no. 385 (2015): 101–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/pharm.2015.22908.

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Jahne, Manfred. "Carl Gustav Carus (1789—1869) und seine einzige ophthalmologische Publikation." Gesnerus 47, no. 1 (November 21, 1990): 45–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22977953-04701007.

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Chavarín González, Marco Antonio. "El pecado del siglo, de José Tomás de Cuéllar: entre la Colonia y la República Restaurada, la libertad, el orden y el progreso." Revista de El Colegio de San Luis 7, no. 14 (August 2, 2017): 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.21696/rcsl7142017753.

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En este ensayo, el autor busca explorar algunos de los argumentos que José Tomás de Cuéllar (1830-1894) usó en su novela El pecado del siglo [Época de Revillagigedo-1789] (1869) para defender la visión del mundo positivista impulsada por Gabino Barreda (1818-1881) y, por tanto, también es una revisión de unos cuantos aspectos de la discusión sobre la libertad —y sus límites: el bien y el mal— en el México del último tercio del siglo XIX.
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Clark de Lara, Belem. "FICCIÓN Y VERDAD EN EL PECADO DEL SIGLO, DE JOSÉ TOMÁS DE CUÉLLAR." Andamios, Revista de Investigación Social 8, no. 15 (August 15, 2011): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.29092/uacm.v8i15.74.

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En el artículo se revisan algunos elementos históricos que José Tomás de Cuéllar noveló en El pecado del siglo (1869), novela histórica que narra un famoso crimen ocurrido un siglo atrás, en tiempos del virrey Revillagigedo (1789). Se reflexio- na sobre la lectura de la Colonia que hacen los escritores de la República Restaurada y se explora el taller del escritor: las fuentes en que documentó el asunto, la transformación de los datos en literatura y los elementos sin referente histórico que entreteje en el relato. Todo esto para que su posible lector comprendiera su propio momento histórico.
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Olthof, J. "Alpita de Jong, Joost Halbertsma 1789-1869: Triomfen en tragedies van een uitmiddelpuntig man." Us Wurk 68, no. 3-4 (December 30, 2019): 180–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/5d48118749aa7.

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Joly, Luis J., and Hermes E. Escalona G. "El género Dyscinetus Harold (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae: Cyclocephalini) en Venezuela y la descripción de una nueva especie." Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia 50, no. 14 (2010): 203–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0031-10492010001400001.

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El género Dyscinetus Harold, 1869 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae: Cyclocephalini) es redescrito y comparado con Chalepides Casey, 1915 (Cyclocephalini). De las seis especies encontradas en Venezuela quatro son redescritas, una es transferida de Chalepides y redescrita y una es nueva: Dyscinetus dytiscoides Arrow, 1911, D. paradytis (Ponchel & Dechambre, 2003) comb. nov., D. dubius (Olivier, 1789), D. rugifrons (Burmeister, 1847) nuevo registro para el país, D. olivaceus Höhne, 1923 y D. mendax sp. nov., esta última de amplia distribución en América del Sur (Bolivia, Brasil, Ecuador, Guayana Francesa, Perú, Trinidad y Surinam) y usualmente confundida con D. olivaceus. Se presentan clave para identificar las especies venezolanas, ilustraciones de los caracteres de diagnóstico, algunos hospedadores y mapas de distribución.
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Bernhardsson, Peter. "Review: Carla Aubry Kradolfer, Billig und (ge)recht? Winterthurs Schulen zwischen Politik und Ökonomie (1789-1869)." Nordic Journal of Educational History 2, no. 1 (April 30, 2015): 151–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.36368/njedh.v2i1.49.

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Fabb, Nigel, and Iain Hutchison. "‘… and Rimmain yoor obeddeend omble zervand’: the invented spelling system of William Baillie of Dunain (1789-1869)." Transactions of the Philological Society 103, no. 3 (December 2005): 323–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-968x.2005.00156.x.

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Teemus, Moonika. "Friedrich Ludwig von Maydells Brief aus Rom vom Jahr 1823." Baltic Journal of Art History 12 (December 8, 2016): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/bjah.2016.12.06.

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The article studies a letter from Friedrich Ludwig von Maydell (1795– 1846), the most renowned representative of Romanticism in Estonia, to his uncle Otto Christian Sigismund von Ungern-Sternberg (1778–1861), written in Rome at the beginning of the year 1823. It was the turning point in Maydell’s life when he had decided to give up the studies in law at the University of Tartu and to devote himself to art. For this reason, Maydell like many of his contemporaries travelled to Rome. In his letter, now preserved in the National Archives in Tartu, Maydell describes his everyday life in Rome and the efforts he has made to “follow his true path”. Additionally, it appears that it was the founder and leader of the Nazarene movement, Johann Friedrich Overbeck (1789–1869), who played an influential role in Maydell’s decision about whether or not to become an artist.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "1789-1869"

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Grosche, Stefan. "Lebenskunst und Heilkunde bei C.G.Carus (1789-1869). Anthropologische Medizin in Goethescher Weltanschauung." Doctoral thesis, Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2006. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:swb:14-1157028141422-36245.

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Die vorliegende Arbeit zur Lebenskunst und Heilkunde des Carl Gustav Carus und seiner Beziehung zu Goethe gliedert sich in die folgenden fünf Abschnitte: 1. Voraussetzungen (Biographie; Positionierung) 2. Verhältnis zu Goethe 3. Naturerkenntnis und Krankheitsvorstellung 4. Therapie 5. Lebenskunst und Medizin
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Le, Rol Yvon. "La langue des " gwerzioù " à travers l'étude des manuscrits inédits de Mme de Saint-Prix (1789-1869)." Phd thesis, Université Rennes 2, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00854190.

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L'une des composantes de la littérature orale (chants, contes, proverbes,...) de langue bretonne est la gwerz, chanson traditionnelle à caractère souvent historique et fantastique, se transmettant principalement oralement d'une génération à l'autre.L'étude de la langue utilisée dans ces chants permet de mettre en évidence des niveaux de langues différents : si la marque dialectale du chanteur est généralement bien présente, celle de l'utilisation d'un breton standard, se rapprochant du breton littéraire par ses caractéristiques, l'est tout autant.Quelques personnes en Bretagne, principalement issues de la petite noblesse rurale, se sont adonnées au collectage de sa littérature orale (de langue bretonne), à l'instar des autres pays européens, et ceci dès le début du XIXe siècle. Mme de Saint-Prix (1789 -1869) figure parmi ces précurseurs. Les deux manuscrits inédits qui constituent l'essentiel de sa collection (Manuscrit 1 : 97 folios ; Manuscrit 2 : 45 folios), sont actuellement conservés à la bibliothèque de Landévennec
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Le, Rol Yvon. "La langue des « gwerzioù » à travers l’étude des manuscrits inédits de Mme de Saint-Prix (1789-1869)." Thesis, Rennes 2, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013REN20029/document.

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L’une des composantes de la littérature orale (chants, contes, proverbes,…) de langue bretonne est la gwerz, chanson traditionnelle à caractère souvent historique et fantastique, se transmettant principalement oralement d’une génération à l’autre.L’étude de la langue utilisée dans ces chants permet de mettre en évidence des niveaux de langues différents : si la marque dialectale du chanteur est généralement bien présente, celle de l’utilisation d’un breton standard, se rapprochant du breton littéraire par ses caractéristiques, l’est tout autant.Quelques personnes en Bretagne, principalement issues de la petite noblesse rurale, se sont adonnées au collectage de sa littérature orale (de langue bretonne), à l’instar des autres pays européens, et ceci dès le début du XIXe siècle. Mme de Saint-Prix (1789 -1869) figure parmi ces précurseurs. Les deux manuscrits inédits qui constituent l’essentiel de sa collection (Manuscrit 1 : 97 folios ; Manuscrit 2 : 45 folios), sont actuellement conservés à la bibliothèque de Landévennec
One of the major forms of oral literature in the Breton language – which includes songs, tales, proverbs and sayings- is the gwerz. This form of traditional song, passing on from one generation to another, most often evidences a historical as well as a fantastic character.Studying the language used in these songs helps highlight the existence of several standards or levels of language; indeed, while the dialectal mark of the interpreter generally makes no doubt, the presence of a form of standard Breton can also be noticed.In the early XIXth century, people in Brittany - similarly to what was taking place throughout Europe - started collecting oral literature in the Breton language. Most of the time they came from the lower rural aristocracy. Mme de Saint-Prix (1789-1869) was among these precursors. The two unpublished manuscripts which make the most part of her collection (MS 1 : 97 folios ; MS 2 : 45 folios) are currently kept in the Landevennec library
Ul lodenn eus al lennegezh dre gomz (kanaouennoù, kontadennoù, lavarennoù,…) brezhonek a zo ar gwerzioù anezhi : da lâret eo kanaouennoù hengounel savet alies a-walc’h diwar fedoù istorel ha burzhudus, ha legadet a-c’henoù a-rummad da rummad.Studiañ ar yezh a gaver implijet er gwerzioù-se a laka war-wel liveoù yezh disheñvel : ma kaver roud eus brezhoneg rannyezhel ar ganerien warni, e weler splann ivez an implij a vez graet gante eus ur yezh all, tostoc’h ouzh ur « standard lennegel ».Ken abred ha deroù an XIXvet kantved, diwar skouer ar broioù europat all, e kroge un nebeut tud e Breizh, o tont peurliesañ eus an noblañs vihan diwar ar maez, da zastum ar pezh a oa da vezañ anvet « lennegezh dre gomz » pelloc’h. En o zouesk e kaver ur plac’h, an Itron de Saint-Prix (1789-1869), a orin eus Kallag, e Kerne-Uhel. An daou dornskrid a ra ar lodennvrasañ eus he dastumadenn (Ds. 1 : 97 f° ; Ds. 2 : 45 f°) a zo miret e levraoueg abati Landevenneg hiziv an deiz
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Pierlot, Pascal. "Les concepts de Stimmung (tonalité affective, disposition thymique) dans l’œuvre peinte et théorique de Carl Gustav CARUS (1789-1869)." Thesis, Paris Sciences et Lettres (ComUE), 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018PSLEP050.

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La Stimmung est un concept transdisciplinaire entre philosophie, psychologie et esthétique. Les deux traductions choisies sont « disposition thymique » et « tonalité affective », l’une insistant sur l’humeur fondamentale, l’autre rend mieux compte de la métaphore musicale issue de l’étymologie (die Stimme : la voix). La résonance des fibres vocales, instrumentales, et nerveuses est quadruple : musicale, physiologique, psychique et cosmique. Ce concept a émergé à la fin du XVIIIe par deux voies : accord entre le jeu de l’imagination et de l’entendement dans l’analytique du beau et du sublime selon Kant puis Schiller, ou privilégiant l’Empfindung dans la théorie de la connaissance (Sulzer, Herder, Moritz). Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869) est un érudit du romantisme tardif allemand, philosophe, médecin, psychologue, naturaliste, peintre et théoricien de l’esthétique. L’étude de ce concept de Stimmung paraît donc essentielle concernant cet anthropologue. Dans ses Neuf lettres sur la peinture de paysage, l’esthète naturaliste analyse la Stimmung par les correspondances entre les stades de la vie de la nature et les « états d’âme », et la sensation provoquée par la représentation d’une œuvre d’art. Dans Psyche, le médecin analyse les Stimmungen des secteurs de notre vie organique inconsciente et l’intonation du sentiment vital d’existence ou Gemeingefühl, qui se propagent lors de l’évolution de l’âme vers la conscience du monde, de soi et du divin. Il y développe une histoire des quatre affects primaires (Joie, tristesse, amour, haine) dont les variations et combinaisons colorent et teintent la vie du Gemüt. Les Verstimmungen ou troubles de l’humeur sont analysées sur le plan psychopathologique aboutissant à une nosographie originale. Carus apparaît à travers ses différentes déclinaisons du concept de Stimmung comme un médecin des affects, un psychologue de l’inconscient, et développe une anthropologie physiologico-esthétique intermédiaire entre Spinoza, la Naturphilosophie de Schelling et Freud
Stimmung is a concept between physiology, psychology, psychiatry, philosophy, history of art or aesthetic theory and musical theory. It means both mood and tuning or resonance. Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869) was a romantic doctor, gynaecologist, naturalist, psychologist, philosopher, painter und theorist of landscape painting. The concept is based on a metaphor of musical temperament, in comparison with the resonance of the vocal cords, musical strings and the nerves. The study of this concept is particularly important in all the work of Carus. In Nine Letters of Landscape Painting (1815-1824), the painter studied the connection between the mood of the human being and the atmosphere of the life of nature. His painting was called Stimmungslandschaftmalerei (pupil of Caspar David Friedrich), and his novelty was the theory of “the art of painting the life of the earth”, influenced by Goethe and Alexander von Humboldt. In Psyche (1846), the psychologist described a theory of the Unconscious and the Mood, based on the differences between perception, sensation and sentience. Sentience designated the unconscious feeling of the life force or formative instinct (Gemeingefühl or common sensation). Carus as philosopher described the development of the personality from the Unconscious, to the World-consciousness, the Self-consciousness and the God-consciousness
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Grosche, Stefan [Verfasser], U. [Akademischer Betreuer] Tröhler, and H. [Akademischer Betreuer] Schipperges. "Lebenskunst und Heilkunde bei C.G.Carus (1789-1869). Anthropologische Medizin in Goethescher Weltanschauung / Stefan Grosche. Gutachter: H. Schipperges. Betreuer: U. Tröhler." Dresden : Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2006. http://d-nb.info/1057809853/34.

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Grosche, Stefan. "Lebenskunst und Heilkunde bei C.G.Carus (1789-1869). Anthropologische Medizin in Goethescher Weltanschauung: Mit 16 unveröffentlichten Briefen von Carus an Goethe." Doctoral thesis, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, 1993. https://slub.qucosa.de/id/qucosa%3A457.

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Die vorliegende Arbeit zur Lebenskunst und Heilkunde des Carl Gustav Carus und seiner Beziehung zu Goethe gliedert sich in die folgenden fünf Abschnitte: 1. Voraussetzungen (Biographie; Positionierung) 2. Verhältnis zu Goethe 3. Naturerkenntnis und Krankheitsvorstellung 4. Therapie 5. Lebenskunst und Medizin
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Abret, Helga. "Albert Langen (1869-1909), éditeur et médiateur : contribution à l'histoire de la vie littéraire et des échanges intellectuels en Allemagne autour de 1900." Paris 4, 1992. http://www.theses.fr/1991PA040166.

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Albert Langen (1869-1909) appartient à une jeune génération d'éditeurs qui, entre en scène à la fin du 19e siècle, associèrent les intérêts liés à leur affaire à un engagement très personnel au point de se muer en acteurs dans la vie littéraire de leur temps. La maison d’Edition A. Langen a largement contribue à faire connaitre la littérature européenne, notamment française (H. Becque, P. Hervieu, A. France, G. De Maupassant, O. Mirbeau, E. Zola) et scandinave (Bj. Bjornson, K. Hamsun, S. Lagerlof, V. Von Heidenstam). Langen a découvert et encouragé des auteurs allemands tels que H. Mann et F. Wedekind. Il fut également l'éditeur et le rédacteur du "simplicissimus», journal satirique le plus influent de l'époque de Guillaume II. De plus, Langen avait fondé en 1907 un bimensuel politico-culturel, "Marz", qui, par de nombreux articles informatifs et la collaboration d'écrivains, d'artistes et d'hommes politiques français et allemands, s'efforça de contribuer au rapprochement entre les deux nations. Ce travail, qui s'appuie sur de nombreux documents et lettres inédits, retrace l'activité de cet éditeur dans le cadre de la société wilhelmienne et fait découvrir, par la même occasion, un médiateur culturel de dimension européenne
Albert Langen (1869-1909) belonged to a young generation of publishers who began publishing at the end of the nineteenth century; while managing their business, they became deeply and personally involved in it so that they really became genuine actors in the literary life of their time. The Albert Langen editing company has contributed to a large extent to circulating European literature, especially French (H. Becque, P. Hervieu, A. France, G. De Maupassant, O. Mirbeau, E. Zola) and Scandinavian writers (Bj. Bjornson, K. Hamsun, S. Lagerlof, V. Von Heidenstam). Langen has discovered and encouraged German writers such as H. Mann and F. Wedekind. He published and edited "simplicissimus", the most widely-circulated and influential satirical periodical as the time of William II. Moreover, Langen had founded in 1907 a political and cultural bimonthly periodical, "Marz", which through articles from writers, artists, politicians, both German and French, strove to establish relationships between the two nations. This thesis based on many documents and still unpublished letters describes the activity of this publisher at the time of William II and thus reveals to the public a mediator of European stature
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Lipscomb, Carol A. ""Sorrow Whispers in the Winds" : the Republic of Texas's Commanche Indian Policy, 1836-1846." Thesis, University of North Texas, 1994. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc279006/.

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The Comanche Indians presented a major challenge to the Republic of Texas throughout its nine-year history. The presence of the Comanches greatly slowed the westward advancement of the Texas frontier, just as it had hindered the advancing frontiers of the Spaniards and Mexicans who colonized Texas before the creation of the Republic. The Indian policy of the Republic of Texas was inconsistent. Changes in leadership brought drastic alterations in the policy pursued toward the Comanche nation. The author examines the Indian policy of the Republic, how the Comanches responded to that policy, and the impact of Texan-Comanche relations on both parties.
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Soleymani, Dagmar. "Les échanges commerciaux entre la France et les États allemands : 1834-1869." Paris 4, 1991. http://www.theses.fr/1991PA040109.

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Les échanges commerciaux franco-allemands du milieu du XIXe siècle traduisent le passage des économies traditionnelles vers des sociétés industrielles. La généralisation du machinisme et la révolution des transports ont déterminé l'évolution du commerce extérieur bilatéral caractérisée par un accroissement de la vente d'articles traditionnellement dominants dans les échanges et par la conquête de nouveaux marchés avec de nouveaux produits. Cette diversité ainsi que la mobilité croissante des biens et des personnes permirent une progression des échanges jusque-là inconnue
The trade between France and Germany in the mid-19th century expresses the passage from traditional to industrial society. The generalization of machinery and the transport revolution determined the evolution of the foreign exchange characterized by the bigger sale of traditional goods and by the conquest of new markets with new products. This diversity and the growing mobility of goods and persons contributed towards the progress of trade unknown till then
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Shoemaker, Earl Arthur. "The permanent Indian frontier: the reason for the construction and abandonment of Fort Scott, Kansas during the dragoon era." 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/27540.

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Books on the topic "1789-1869"

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Grandesso, Stefano. Pietro Tenerani (1789-1869). Cinisello Balsamo (Milano): Silvana, 2003.

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Jayasiṃha. Ibharāmapurada Śrī Appāvaru, Kri. Śa. 1789-1869. Beṅgaḷūru: Parimaḷa Prakāśana, 1995.

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D, Tuohy Ann, ed. Ralph Morgan, 1789-1869: His ancestors and descendants. [Silver Springs, MD]: G.E. Collins, 1995.

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Sellheim, Isabel. Die Familie des Malers Friedrich Overbeck: (1789-1869) in genealogischen Ubersichten. Neustadt an der Aisch: Verlag Degener, 1989.

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1789-1869, Carus Carl Gustav, ed. La terre qui vit: Peinture et savoirs chez Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1869). Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion, 2003.

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Knooppunt Halbertsma: Joast Hiddes Halbertsma (1789-1869) en andere Europese geleerden over het Fries en andere talen, over wetenschap en over de samenleving. Hilversum: Verloren, 2009.

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Jong, Alpita de. Knooppunt Halbertsma: Joast Hiddes Halbertsma (1789-1869) en andere Europese geleerden over het Fries en andere talen, over wetenschap en over de samenleving. Hilversum: Verloren, 2009.

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Overbeck, Johann Friedrich. Johann Friedrich Overbeck, 1789-1869: Zur zweihundertsten Wiederkehr seines Geburtstages : Ausstellung, Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte der Hansestadt Lübeck-Behnhaus, 25. Juni bis 3. September 1989. Lübeck: Das Museum, 1989.

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1951-, Miller Char, ed. Selected writings of Hiram Bingham (1814-1869): To raise the Lord's banner. Lewiston, New York, USA: E. Mellen Press, 1988.

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Speich, Daniel. Herren über wildes Wasser: Die Linthingenieure als Bundesexperten im 19. Jahrhundert : Andreas Lanz (1740-1803), Jean Samuel Guisan (1740-1801), Hans Konrad Escher (1767-1823), Salomon Hegner (1789-1869), Heinrich Pestalozzi (1790-1857), Alois Negrelli (1799-1858), Richard La Nicca (1794-1883), Gottlieb Heinrich Legler (1823-1897), Adolf von Salis-Soglio (1818-1891). Zürich: Verein für wirtschaftshistorische Studien, 2006.

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Book chapters on the topic "1789-1869"

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Knittel, Anton Philipp. "Carus, Carl Gustav (1789–1869)." In Goethe Handbuch, 157–58. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-03655-1_49.

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Müller-Tamm, Jutta. "Carus, Carl Gustav (1789–1869)." In Goethe Handbuch, 451–52. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-00206-8_30.

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Thimann, Michael. "Overbeck, Johann Friedrich (1789–1869)." In Goethe Handbuch, 532–34. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-00206-8_60.

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Hutchison, Iain. "Coup de soleil—William Baillie (1789–1869) and an Eastern (Mis)Adventure." In Global Histories of Disability, 1700-2015, 129–47. New York: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429323980-11.

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Ivaldi, Enrico, Riccardo Soliani, and Andrea Repetto. "Carlo Cattaneo (1801–1869), Lombard Philosopher and Economist, Liberal Beyond Federalism." In Economic Thought and Institutional Change in France and Italy, 1789–1914, 37–50. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25354-1_2.

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"Carus, Carl Gustav (1789–1869)." In Eponyms and Names in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 71. Cambridge University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108421706.057.

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Dobroczyński, Bartłomiej. "Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869) – skazany na zapomnienie prekursor psychologii nieświadomości." In Filozofia kultury: XIX wiek, 605–40. Ksiegarnia Akademicka Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/9788381382120.19.

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Swift, Elaine K. "The Start of Something New: Clay, Stevenson, Polk, and the Development of the Speakership, 1789-1869." In Masters of the House, 9–32. Routledge, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429499029-2.

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"12 Scrabbling Mice, a Visit from Hades and Thoughts of Death: The Autobiography of Lucas Forcart-Respinger, a Merchant from Basel (1789–1869)." In Mapping the 'I', 267–91. BRILL, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004283978_014.

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Fontani, Marco, Mariagrazia Costa, and Mary Virginia Orna. "Analytical Methodology from Lavoisier to Mendeleev." In The Lost Elements. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199383344.003.0010.

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Abstract:
Within the period covered by Part II, 1789–1869, 37 true elements, almost all of them metals, were discovered. Prior to this time, about 14 metals had been discovered, excluding those that had been known from ancient times. The discovery of the elements during this period of interest is intimately related to the analytical methodologies available to chemists, as well as to a growing consciousness of just what an element is. Because these methods were also available to the less competent who may have lacked the skills to use them or the knowledge to interpret their results, their use also led to as many, if not more, erroneous discoveries in the same period. One can number among the major sources of error faulty interpretation of experimental data, the “rediscovery” of an already known element, sample impurities, very similar chemical properties (as in the case of the rare earths), the presence of an element in nature in very scarce or trace amounts, gross experimental errors, confusion of oxides and earths with their metals, and baseless dogmatic pronouncements by known “authorities” in the field. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier’s conceptualization of what constitutes an element was a radical break from the principles of alchemy. His stipulation that an element is a substance that cannot be further decomposed conferred an operational, pragmatic, concrete definition on what had previously been a more abstract concept. At the other end of the spectrum was the intuition of Dmitri Mendeleev who, contrary to the prevailing acceptance of Lavoisier’s concept, stressed the importance of retaining a more abstract, more fundamental sense of an element—an idea that in the long run enabled the development of the periodic table. What both men had in common is that they defined and named individual elements as those components of substances that could survive chemical change and whose presence in compounds could explain their physical and chemical properties. Mendeleev’s table has been immortalized in every chemistry classroom—and also concretely in Saint Petersburg, the city that saw most of his professional activity, by a spectacular building-sized model The analytical chemist depends on both of these concepts and indeed, analytical practice preceded Lavoisier’s concept by at least a century.
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