Journal articles on the topic '1886-1944'

The authors are dealing with historical and political situation in Montenegro in the second part of the 19th century. They emphasized the importance of foundation of the Empress Maria Girls' Institute, which was financed by the Empress of Russia. Many famous South-Slav intellectuals have graduated from this Institute. Among them, the name of Divna Vekovic, the first woman physician in Montenegro, particularly stands out. A Sorbonne student, she was an outstanding physician and hu?manitarian during the First World War. Between the two World Wars, she revealed the spiritual wealth of Montenegro to Europe. She was the first to translate the Mountain of Wreath into French. She also translated the poetry of J. J. Zmaj and of other poets. During the World War II she continued her work in her birth place. She cared for the sick, the wounded and the poor. She died at the end of the war under mysterious circumstances. In the history of Montenegrin medicine, she has almost been forgotten. The aim of this paper is to lift the veil of oblivion from the life and work of this noble woman. .

A correspondência trocada entre os escritores Mário de Andrade (1893-1945) e Manuel Bandeira (1886-1968), entre 1922 e 1944, favoreceu o intenso compartilhamento de juízos críticos acerca de obras literárias em processo de criação. Este artigo tenciona explorar o confronto de percepções estéticas e linguísticas dos autores no debate sobre a elaboração de Macunaíma (1928), particularmente em relação ao capítulo Carta pras icamiabas. Trata-se também de apreender aspectos do funcionamento da sociabilidade intelectual e artística no modernismo brasileiro dos anos de 1920.

Šiuolaikinės nacionalinės sąskaitybos retrospektyvoje analizuojamas pionieriškas Albino Rimkos (1886–1944) 1926 m. paskelbtas Lietuvos nacionalinių pajamų 1924 m. skaičiavimas. Tikrasis tų metų Lietuvos grynųjų nacionalinių pajamų („bendrojo tautos pelno“) dydis gerokai pranoko ekonomis­to išvestą dydį dėl per didelių atskaitymų pagrindinio kapitalo amortizacijai ir dėl valdžios sektoriaus tei­kiamų nekomercinių paslaugų (viešųjų gėrybių) vertės ignoravimo. Pagal A. Rimkos skaičiavimus išeitų, kad 1924 m. sukurtos nacionalinės pajamos vidutiniškai vienam gyventojui buvo mažesnės už tų metų pragyvenimo minimumą. Nacionalinių pajamų skaičiavimas buvo dalis A. Rimkos parengiamųjų darbų eiti Lietuvos finansų ministro pareigas po laukiamos valstiečių liaudininkų pergalės III Seimo rinkimuose. Klaidos, padarytos vertinant Lietuvos ūkio produktyvumą, skatino naują vyriausybę pasirinkti griežtą taupymą ekonominės politikos prioritetu. Ši politika pažeidė įtakingų socialinių grupių (dvasininkijos ir karininkijos) interesus ir pagreitino demokratijos žlugimą Lietuvoje.

The historiography of life, work and visions of Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944) has grew up during the last years. But up to now lifes of his important followers in science are still unknown. This article ist devoted to life and work of Lothar Gottlieb Tirala (1886–1974), who studied psychology and medicine in Vienna and started cooperation with Uexküll in 1914. They stayed in contact during the following decades, although Tirala began a career in race hygiene and neo-darwinistic scientific thought. He organised the contact between Uexküll and Houston Stewart Chamberlain and got support from the Wagner-family in 1933 to become professor for race biology in Munich. After his booting out in 1936 because of massive faults in teaching Tirala changed his scientific interests and began to stretch Uexkülls “Reflexlehre” into healing of blood pressure diseases in men. He became a favourite researcher in German natural cure community after 1945. Even today his studies are integrated in efforts to fight hypertonia.

Este artigo analisou, em linhas gerais, a proposta educacional de Jacques Maritain (1882-1973), considerando os conceitos de democracia e cidadania em relação à influência que o autor teve de Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859). As fontes que possibilitaram esse estudo foram Rumos da Educação, de Jacques Maritain e A Democracia na América, de Alexis de Tocqueville. A proposta visou, também, investigar a importância desses conceitos na formação do indivíduo como cidadão participante da democracia, destacando o caminho que a educação deveria seguir para ensinar, segundo Maritain, os valores morais para a sociedade. Observe-se que nossa pesquisa é de cunho bibliográfico e, em relação aos pressupostos teóricos, seguimos as pegadas da História Social, proposto por Marc Bloch (1886-1944). Submetido em: 08/08/2020Aceito em: 02/12/2020

Étienne Bloch (1921-2009) dedicó los últimos años de su vida al rescate y difusión de la obra escrita por su padre, el gran historiador francés Marc Bloch (1886-1944). Desde 1997 hasta su muerte en 2009, impulsó el estudio crítico de la historiografía blochiana a través de la creación de la Asociación Marc Bloch, la edición crítica de sus obras y el impulso de estudios sobre la vida de su padre gracias a la apertura de sus archivos familiares. Es un hecho extraordinario, casi sin precedentes, que el hijo de un gran historiador, sin conocer inicialmente el oficio, se transforme en uno de los más importantes conocedores y críticos de la obra de uno de los historiadores más importantes del siglo XX, a escala universal. El propósito de este ensayo es acercar al lector a la minuciosa labor desplegada por Étienne Bloch como bibliógrafo de Marc Bloch.

The article is a study of the Ecole des annals' impact on the first generation of Iraqi historians and historiography during the 20th century. The Ecole des annals had emerged as a reaction of the 1st world war disasters and its destructive results which implicated on the political, economic and intellectual situations in Europe during the interwar period. The school had founded in 1929 by two French historians: Marc Bloch (1886-1944) and Lucien Febvre (1878-1956), and published its first journal " Annales d'histoire économique et sociale", in addition to publications of the school which concentrated on social and economic history, and kept away from the political history which was the main interest of "École méthodique" (Methodological school) since late 19th century and its journal " Revue historique" at 1876. The annals school had important influences on the European and American, and then world historiography since its rise up to present. The school had moved the historiography from political and diplomatic aspects to social, intellectual and economic issues.

The article reads the works of Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992) and Karl Polanyi (1886–1964) in the light of their political commitments to neoliberalism and socialism respectively. It argues that both thinkers were inspired to explain history and recent events in line with these commitments in their 1944 publications, The Road to Serfdom and The Great Transformation. Furthermore, they both developed their most significant insights by attempting to counter perceived challenges from political projects to which they were opposed. Polanyi spent much of his life trying to disprove a liberal attack on socialism as out of touch with the realities of human nature, whereas it was in debates with socialists that Hayek developed a new theory of the epistemological functioning of markets, which then became foundational for the neoliberal project. Taking into account the high-stakes politics of Vienna in the interwar years is crucial for fully understanding the social theory of these two thinkers.

Neste artigo, analisamos um acervo de cartas escritas durante a primeira metade do século XX por Anna Spínola Teixeira (1864-1944) e pelas suas seis filhas mulheres, que teve com Deocleciano Pires Teixeira (1844-1930): Evangelina Spínola Teixeira (1886 - 1965), Celsina Spínola Teixeira (1887 - 1979), Hersília Spínola Teixeira (1891 - 1968), Leontina Spínola Teixeira (1896 - 1978), Angelina Spínola Teixeira (1905 - 1982) e Carmen Spínola Teixeira (1909 - 2002). Num total estimado de 2185 cartas (enviadas e recebidas), consultamos, principalmente, as enviadas. Para este texto, analisamos um total de 27 cartas com o objetivo de discutir sobre a fluência desse tipo de documento para a compreensão de elementos que ultrapassam os assuntos privados, com foco nos processos de migração e de circulação pelo território. Compreendemos que, para as famílias abastadas, migrações e deslocamentos se davam por opção e, quando eram motivadas por necessidade, se justificava para ter acesso a níveis mais elevados de escolarização; identificamos também a migração alheia à própria vontade, em função de interesses econômicos e patrimoniais de seus familiares.

Les représentations artistiques en France ont traversé jusqu’à présent trois phases principales d’iconoclasme: les destructions d’images saintes par les Huguenots entre 1530 et 1600; les destructions d’œuvres d’art et d’églises réalisées pendant la Révolution française, notamment vers 1793–1795 ; et l’enlèvement d’une partie de la statuaire de bronze mené par la France de Vichy de 1941 à 1944. C’est à cette dernière phase de l’iconoclasme français, moins connue que les deux précédentes, qu’est consacré l’essentiel de cet article. Contrairement à d’autres pays occupés, la France choisit de faire fondre des statues laïques au lieu des cloches d’église pour répondre aux réquisitions de l’industrie de l’armement allemande. Leur destruction visait surtout les monuments républicains, les plus contraires à l’idéologie installée par le maréchal Pétain. Cet article offre un panorama de l’enlèvement de ces statues en zones libre et occupée, mais analyse surtout le cas particulier de la ville d’Auxerre, où les monuments consacrés à Paul Bert (1833–1886) et à Nicolas Davout (1770–1823) firent l’objet des disputes des autorités locales face à l’iconoclasme des autorités de l’État.

Јосип Сибе Миличић (1886–1944), српски и хрватски песник чије дело обухвата период од ране модерне све до књижевности Народноослободилачке борбе, у историји књижевности остаје упамћен, пре свега, као један од родоначелника поезије српског космизма, те мистериозна фигура у Ламенту над Београдом Милоша Црњанског, док његово дело остаје у великој мери непрочитано. Разлог се, у времену „друге Југославије” може тражити у чињеници да је Миличић био тзв. oрјунаш (југословенски националиста у периоду Краљевине Југославије), а након распада СФРЈ, остаје у међупростору српске и хрватске књижевности иако је био активан чинилац и једне и друге. Циљ овог рада јесте приступање манифестној књизи нашег космизма – Миличићевој Књизи радости (1920) – са позиције културно специфичних контекста, те отварање проблемских подручја редефинисања поетике космизма у српској поезији, као и сагледавање Миличићевог песништва у комуникацији са митолошким, хришћанским и словенским културним специфичностима, те јединственог приступа ресемантизацији фразеологизама српског језика – који ово дело истовремено чине и преводивим и непреводивим на светске језике. Оваквим приступом долази се до резултата који доводе у питање досадашње бављење космизмом у оквирима српске науке о књижевности и књижевне историје те отварања нових перспектива по питању тумачења и рецепције Миличићеве Књиге радости и дела уопште.

RESUMO Este estudo analisa a proposta de educação para a criança apresentada na obra Doctrina Pueril de Ramon Llull (1232-1316). A obra foi escrita para seu filho, Domingos, por volta do ano de 1275-1276. Consideramos as reflexões e, especialmente, as regras propostas por Llull como essenciais para a formação humana. Segundo o autor, o desenvolvimento humano não é algo que se adquire naturalmente, pois demanda ensinamentos, modelos e exemplos a partir dos quais as crianças apreendem e seguem desde a mais tenra idade. Centraremos a análise nos princípios educacionais que Llull ensinou a seu filho acerca das virtudes e crenças necessárias para a formação da pessoa. Do ponto de vista do autor, esses conhecimentos deveriam ser norteados por meio das ciências, por conseguinte, segundo princípios da racionalidade. Para elaborarmos nossa análise sobre a proposta de Llull retomaremos, também, outros intelectuais da Idade Média, como Hugo de São Vitor (1096-1141), Boaventura de Bagnoregio (1221-1274), dentre outros. Nesse sentido, entendendo ser a educação uma exigência atemporal. O estudo tem como pressuposto metodológico a História de Longa Duração, pela qual podemos, de acordo com Marc Bloch (1886-1944), entender o homem como ‘fundo permanente’ de qualquer momento histórico.

AbstractPopulations of the lizard Darevskia rudis (Bedriaga, 1886) from northern Anatolia were examined for intestinal parasites in adult specimens. One cestode, Nematotaenia tarentolae López-Neyra, 1944 and four nematode species, Spauligodon saxicolae Sharpilo, 1962, Skrjabinelazia hoffmanni Li, 1934, Oswaldocruzia filiformis (Goeze, 1782) and Strongyloides darevskyi Sharpilo, 1976, were found. Three of these nematodes, S. saxicolae, S. hoffmanni and S. darevskyi are suggested to be part of a module in the network of Darevskia spp. and their parasites. Only one, S. darevskyi, was identified as a Darevskia spp. specialist. The very low infection and diversity parameters are indicative of the depauperate helminth communities found in this lacertid lizard, falling among the lowest within the Palaearctic saurians. Nevertheless these values are higher than those found in parthenogenetic Darevskia spp. Interpopulation variation in the intensity of S. saxicolae and N. tarentolae is attributable to local changes in ecological conditions. On the other hand, parasite abundance and richness increased in the warmer localities, while the effect of lizard sex and size on infection was negligible. The structure of these helminth communities in D. rudis are compared with those observed in other European lacertid lizards.

Estudar a História, segundo Bloch (1886-1944), é fundamental para a humanidade não perder sua memória. Bosi (2014) aponta que a Arte e a História andam juntas, principalmente a Literatura, por condensar os maiores ímpetos, carências e conflitos de sua época. Logo, o contexto histórico é essencial para a compreensão de uma obra literária, e assim, a própria obra de arte se torna um documento de seu tempo, podendo ser fonte de investigação histórica. Cervantes, em sua obra Dom Quixote, escrito em 1605 e 1615, apresenta carências e excessos do homem que, há pouco medieval, inaugurava os tempos modernos. Constatou-se que através do anacronismo do protagonista, Cervantes constrói e desconstrói, por meio de seu herói, uma via de mão dupla: paródia e ode. Dialogando com as novelas de cavalaria, faz paródia das mesmas, mas ode a certas características medievais já esquecidas. Dom Quixote representa o próprio espírito romântico: inspirando-se no medievo, com saudosismo, é um anti-herói pecando por ser humano, demasiadamente humano, e por isso expressa as fragilidades da condição do homem, sendo inadequado para a realidade que, todavia, resiste e luta pelo seu ideal – é aí que está seu heroísmo e o agente transformador da realidade: o impulso da vontade.

In August 1958, Meeuwis Drost (1923-86) was the first missionary for the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (Vrijgemaakt), or Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated) to start proselytising among the Papuans of the Upper-Digul area in Netherlands New Guinea. He later recalled how that day: “I simply started with Genesis one. And they listened!” Drost finished teaching the entire Old Testament within one year. To start at the beginning seems logical and is in fact the approach used by most missionaries of the Liberated churches. Transfer of religious and cultural knowledge was seen as an important aspect of their work, especially with an illiterate audience. The Protestant religious landscape in the Netherlands had fragmented heavily during the nineteenth century. Two secessions from the Dutch Reformed Church in 1834 and 1886 led to the formation of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands in 1892. Its tendency to depose those who refused to adhere to its theological views resulted in the Vrijmaking (Liberation) in 1944. Although the Liberated churches were one of many Protestant branches, they were very secure in their own theological views. Consisting of exclusive political, religious, educational and even recreational organisations they formed a mini-pillar in Dutch society.

Leopold Jan Binental (1886–1944) was a musicologist and journalist, and an indefatigable promoter of Frederic Chopin’s compositions and researcher into his life story in the inter-war period. He wrote and published a great deal in professional periodicals as well as in the national and foreign popular press, mainly in France and Germany. Until 1939, he was a regular music critic for "Kurier Warszawski". He was thought to be a competent and respected Chopinologist, and his reputation in Europe was confirmed by the monograph Chopin published in Warsaw (1930 and 1937) and in Paris (1934) and the album Chopin. On the 120th anniversary of his birth. Documents and mementoes (Warsaw 1930 and Leipzig 1932) presenting Chopin’s mementoes, prints, drawings, handwritten musical notes and letters. He initiated and co-organised famous exhibitions about Chopin in the National Museum in Warsaw (1932) and the Polish Library in Paris (1932 and 1937). He was Executive Secretary on the Management Board of the Fryderyk Chopin National Institute created in 1934. Binental amassed a private collection of Chopin’s manuscripts and mementoes which is highly regarded in musicological circles. He also collected works of art; his collection comprised ancient, Middle Eastern and modern European ceramics, medieval sculpture and tapestries, goldsmithery and Judaica. After the outbreak of war in autumn 1939, Binental took certain steps to secure his collections. Three chests with ceramics and works of art were deposited in the National Museum in Warsaw. However, it is not known what happened to the collection of Chopin’s objects. At the beginning of 1940, Binental and his wife managed to leave Poland and reach France, where his daughter lived. In 1944 he was arrested by Gestapo and sent to Auschwitz from which he did not return. After the war, at the request of his daughter Krystyna, some of the works of art deposited in the collections of the National Museum were found. With her approval, they are currently to be found in public collections in Poland, although the fate of his Chopin collection remains unknown. Every now and then, some proof appears on the world antiquarian market that the collection has not been damaged, despite remaining missing.

Перспективна ділянка розташована поблизу с. Чорний Потік Надвірнянського району Івано-Франківської області на відстані 50 км на південь від обласного центру і на віддалі 35 км на захід від міста Коломия. Ділянка знаходиться в межах антикліналі Слобода Рунгурська Бориславсько-Покутського покриву Пе-редкарпатського прогину. На відстані 5 км на південний схід від села Чорний Потік до згаданої антикліналі були приурочені нафтові поклади вже відпрацьованого Слобода Рунгурського родовища. Перші дані про видобуток і використання нафти для потреб населення Слободи Рунгурської відомі з 1770 року. Її видобували з колодязів. Перші свердловини пробурені у 1875 р. У 1886 р. на промислі налічувалося близько 300 екс-плуатаційних свердловин глибиною 200-350 м. Промисел існував до 1944 р., був зруйнований під час другої світової війни і вже не відновлювався з причини вичерпання запасів нафти. Всього з 1880 по 1941 рр. з ро-довища видобуто 357896 т нафти. Продуктивні нафтонасичені горизонти зосереджені у пісковиках, які залягають у верхній частині стрийської світи верхньої крейди у межах великої складно побудованої Сло-бода Рунгурської антикліналі. Однак при трактуванні її будови геологами передвоєнного часу була допущена суттєва помилка. За даними геологічного картування та матеріалами свердловин ми довели наявність олігоцен-еоценової олістостроми у відкладах міоцену. Раніше геологи помилково вважали олістострому корінними породами. Тому результати наших досліджень кардинально змінили геологічну модель Слобода Рунгурської структури. Старий нафтопромисел знаходився у межах піднятої ділянки складки поблизу виходу відкладів манявської світи палеогенового ядра в районі Слобода Рунгурської антикліналі. За нашими даними така ж піднесена ділянка розташована на північний захід від промислу в районі села Чорний Потік. Тому в апікальній частині найвищого тектонічного блока Слобода Рунгурської антикліналі ми пропонуємо буріння пошукової свердловини глибиною 600 м з метою пошуків нових покладів вуглеводнів у верхньокрейдових і палеогенових відкладах.

AbstractL'articolo in oggetto concerne alcuni temi tratti dalla versione italiana del libro di A. Scrima Timpul Rugului Aprins. Maestrul spiritual în tradiţia răsăriteană ('Il tempo del Roveto Ardente. Il maestro spirituale nella tradizione orientale'), pubblicato a Bucarest nel 1996 e parzialmente tradotto in italiano nel 2000. Scrima (1925–2000), monaco romeno, fu uno dei più raffinati teologi ortodossi del XX secolo. Gli aspetti qui considerati sono, da un lato, l'abbozzo da parte di Scrima stesso di una 'morfologia religiosa' fondata su di una profonda 'ermeneutica' intellettuale e spirituale, anche a mezzo dell'utilizzo della comparazione in specie tra Cristianesimo, Islâm ed Induismo (ciò che dà luogo al tentativo di rinnovare il linguaggio teologico cristiano); dall'altro, la discussione sulla valenza di un particolare rito cui il teologo romeno si riferisce esplicitamente, la 'benedizione di grazia', una 'iniziazione' trasmessa nel Rugul Aprins—un cenacolo esicasta di monaci e laici cui il giovane Scrima prese parte, e che operò dal 1944 al 1958, in particolare nel monastero Antim a Bucarest, sotto la direzione del giornalista e scrittore Sandu Tudor, in religione padre Agathon (1899–1960?)—ad opera del padre Ioan Kulygin (1885-?). Quest'ultimo tema è strettamente connesso alle relazioni intellettuali che Scrima ebbe con i maggiori rappresentanti dell''orientamento tradizionale' (René Guénon [1886–1951], Frithjof Schuon [1907–1998]), anche per quanto concerne la questione dell''universalismo' perennialista; su ciò, come spesso accade, Scrima assume posizioni molto sfumate. È chiaro che, data la complessità e la sottigliezza dei temi qui trattati, il presente contributo costituisce unicamente un saggio iniziale di una discussione più ampia (alla quale stiamo attualmente lavorando).

The Studenica Monastery, built in 1186 A.D., the royal mausoleum of the Nemanjic Dynasty, is considered the forerunner of the Serbian statehood and conscience because in it the first school and hospital were established. It is also where the first book was written in Serbian language. Studenica, as the cradle of the Serbian medicine, produced - and through the following eight centuries, nurtured many educators and iconic figures of the Serbian cultural tradition. Among them was St. Sava, the first Serbian Archbishop, whose name is also borne by one of the highest Serbian civilian orders, which is awarded for extreme dedication and philanthropy in Serbia and worldwide. This here is an attempt to preserve the memory of the philanthropist Hannah Henkin Hardy, who was also personally awarded one of these Serbian orders. Hannah Henkin Hardy (1886-1944) was born in Worchester, U.K., completed a medical school in Melbourne, Australia, and arrived in Serbia in January 1915 together with the first Scottish Women's Hospitals. In Kragujevac, together with the Serbian physicians, and the 'Kolo srpskih sestara,' Mrs. Hardy established the League of Serbian Women to jointly fight the great typhus epidemic. She also founded the out-patients ambulances for the poor in Kragujevac, as well as the soup kitchens, and took part in various humanitarian activities. Mrs. Hardy and her husband Samuel Hardy, together with some other philanthropists, repaired the war-damaged Church of St. George in Topola. She joined the Serbian refugees in their escape from the invading enemy forces to the Adriatic Coast through the dangerous snowbound mountains of Albania and Montenegro. She remembered the suffering of the Serbian people and the dedicated humanitarian activities of the Serbian medical corps and foreign medical missions for the rest of her life. Mrs. and Mr. Hardy dedicated their lives to philanthropy and humanitarian work, helping small and suffering peoples and nations.

The systematics of Philodromidae is far from complete, especially for the Neotropical genera. Among these, Petrichus Simon, 1886 is a poorly known genus restricted to arid and semi-arid environments of South America. In this work, we performed a total-evidence analysis to assess the phylogenetic relationships of Petrichus and revised the taxonomy. Petrichus is monophyletic and closer to Titanebo and the New World Ebo. Within Petrichus, two clades are obtained: the Eremean Clade, containing five species displaying a Neotropical distribution; and the Patagonian Clade, with the seven species inhabiting southern South America. Our results also support a previous hypothesis on the phylogenetic relationships within Philodromidae. Thanatini is monophyletic and includes Fageia and Berlandiella, although this is not statistically supported, whereas Philodromini emerges as paraphyletic. We propose Philodromini be expanded to contain all genera having eyes on tubercles analysed in this work plus the closely related Halodromus, whereas the circumscription of Thanatini should await future phylogenetic analyses with new evidence. As for taxonomic proposals, we synonymise Bacillocnemis Mello-Leitão, 1938 with Petrichus, Petrichus ornatus Schiapelli & Gerschman, 1942 and P. luteus (Nicolet, 1849) with P. junior (Nicolet, 1849), P. lancearius Simon, 1905 with P. tullgreni Simon, 1902; we transfer P. corticinus Mello-Leitão, 1944 to Misumenoides Pickard-Cambridge, 1900 (Thomisidae); and P. fuliginosus (Nicolet, 1849), P. cinereus Tullgren, 1901, P. sordidus Tullgren, 1901 and P. zonatus Tullgren, 1901 are regarded as nomina dubia. In total, 13 species are recognised for the genus, of which four are new (described by Griotti & Grismado): P. spira, from western Argentina, P. patagoniensis, from south-western Argentina, P. roigjunenti, from Argentina and Chile and P. eremicus, from north-central Chile. ZooBank: http://zoobank.org/References/1220255e-6431-45c2-adfe-ed58d1f89b17

ABSTRACT During the 1850s, Charles James Fox Bunbury, 8th Baronet Bunbury, was Britain's leading paleobotanist, who published a series of papers on fossil floras of Carboniferous, Jurassic and Neogene age. He also planned a major synoptic review of paleobotany, to rival Brongniart's Histoire de végétaux fossiles. He was financially comfortably-off, and well-connected with the scientific community in the London of his day. However, he failed to fulfil his ambitions in this field due to a combination of a lack of experience, and that on the death of his father he had to take over the running of the family estate. Today he is mainly remembered as the author of a number of names of still widely used fossil-taxa. Nevertheless, he fulfilled an important role in maintaining paleobotanical interest in Britain during the middle part of the nineteenth century.

ABSTRACT In 1869 a bitter feud broke out between two preeminent Ohio geologists, John Strong Newberry (1822–1892), and Colonel Charles Whittlesey (1806–1886), beginning with the naming of Newberry as State Geologist for Ohio, a position that both had lobbied for. The two protagonists had much in common, including their interests in Ohio geology, but they also had different geological and class backgrounds, interests, and talents. Whittlesey waged an unremitting campaign against the organization and emphasis of the Newberry Survey for more than a decade. This long battle played out on the political and public stage, with an exchange of acrimonious letters in newspapers across Ohio. Some of Whittlesey’s charges, such as absenteeism, were valid, and Newberry’s replies were overly strident. Newberry had supporters, including James Hall, but Whittlesey gained the support of Leo Lesquereux and Ebenezer B. Andrews, as well as many legislators and at least one influential newspaper. Whittlesey and Newberry made many contributions to geology and both have important geological features named for them. Both are buried in Cleveland’s Lake View Cemetery.

The article is devoted to the results of a retrospective study of the historical path of formation and development of scientific research in State Institution «I. I. Mechnikov Institute of Microbiology and Immunology of the NAMS of Ukraine». The Institute as a scientific institution of anti-epidemic profile was founded in May 1886. At the beginning of the last century, the Institute turned into a major scientific and practical center of pre-revolutionary Russia for the fight against infectious diseases. Already in 1913-1914 the Institute produced 6 types of sera and 7 vaccines. In 1920 the Institute was nationalized, became a state institution and received the name of the Bacteriological Institute, and in 1922 – the First Ukrainian Sanitary-Bacteriological Institute. The Institute was the first in the Soviet Union to begin the production of BCG and became one of the pioneers of the introduction of bacteriophage in the treatment and prevention of intestinal infections: dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera. From 1921 to 1940, the Institute produced more than 40 names of various drugs in an amount exceeding the previous 20 years by more than thirty times. In addition, the Institute currently produces the following serum: diphtheria, scarlet fever, dysentery, meningococcal, pneumococcal, streptococcal, staphylococcal, tetanus, botulinum and 4 gangrenous sera. Since the beginning of the war, the Institute has been evacuated first to Stalingrad and then to Chkalov. During the evacuation, the Institute continues to produce bacteriological preparations. From 1941 to 1945 the release of vaccines and serums amounted to 400% of the pre-war level, only in 1942 110 thousand wounded soldiers received serum against gas gangrene, more than 120 thousand soldiers received tetanus serum. After re-evacuation to Kharkiv, the Institute continued to work on the production of vaccines and serums and, starting in 1944, began the production of smallpox detritus, measles serum and typhus vaccine. At that time, in the laboratory of V. S. Derkach, the antibiotic pyocyanin (or sanazine) was studied and a method for its biosynthesis was developed, and together with the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, its new homologues were synthesized. Also in the laboratory after the war, neocide a drug against cancer was created. The problems of epidemiology at the Institute were developed by the outstanding microbiologist V. M. Zhdanov. From 1946 to 1950 V. M. Zhdanov headed the virological laboratory, and since 1948 – the Kharkov Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology named I. I. Mechnikov. In 1950, a laboratory for the production of anti-influenza drugs was organized, and a year later, the study and improvement of dry polytype therapeutic and prophylactic anti-influenza serum began. The collection of mycobacterial phages, collected by Professor L. A. Kosobutsky, Doctor of Medical Sciences, was one of the three largest in the world. At the Institute, on the basis of fish oil, the drug «ektericide» was developed. V. L. Nadtoka became the founder of a new scientific direction for the development and use of antimicrobial preparations of plant origin. Under the leadership of V. L. Nadtoka developed dosage forms of the drug chlorophyllipt, which are introduced into production and clinical practice in Ukraine. Now the Institute is a methodological center for the development of theoretical provisions and practical use of laboratory diagnostic methods, anti-epidemic measures, treatment and prevention of infectious diseases, advanced training of bacteriologists, virologists, epidemiologists and other specialists. Currently, on the basis of the Institute, there are a number of divisions of industry-wide importance that coordinate scientific and methodological work in important areas of infection control: the Center for Specific Indication of Biological Pathogenic Agents, the Republican Reference Laboratory of Pathogens of Anaerobic Infections, the Laboratory of New and Little-Studied Infectious Diseases. In general, the staff of the Institute over the years of its existence has developed and introduced into production about 60 different vaccines, sera and other therapeutic and diagnostic immunobiological preparations. The Institute has developed drugs against 21 infections. In addition to immunobiological drugs, the Institute has developed and introduced a number of antimicrobial drugs, among which the most famous are chlorophyllipt, decamethoxin, ektericide, eucavan and others. Keywords: history of science, I.Mechnikov Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, bacteriological preparations, vaccines, serums, bacteriophages, antimicrobial agents, chlorophylipt

El libro de Jean Yves Mollier se inscribe en una tradición de larga data en la historia de las ciencias sociales europeas.En esta tradición, fundada en 1929 por los historiadores franceses March Bloch (1886-1944) y Lucien Febvre (1878-1956), la labor central del historiador, el análisis de fuentes historiográficas, se desarrolla a partir del cruce con enfoques extraídos de otras disciplinas de las ciencias sociales como pueden ser la antropología, la filosofía o la literatura.Con estos cruces, Bloch y Febvre, inauguraban nuevas formas de aproximación a la historia de las sociedades humanas.

The scientist, statesman, academician Albinas Rimka (1886–1944) is famous in Lithuanian historiography as a creator of independent Lithuania. First of all, his merits as a politician and economist are to be mentioned. Albinas Rimka is considered to be the founding father of science of statistics in Lithuania in 1920–1940. In the textbooks on fundamentals of statistics and at lectures which Albinas Rimka delivered at university, the academician based statistical methods upon the main verities of high mathematics including elements of mathematical analysis, theory of probability, and mathematical statistics. In his textbooks, we can find elements of application of mathematics which were not given attention by other researchers (historians and economists) in Lithuania. The article tries to fill in the gap in research of origins of science of statistics in Lithuania with the help of the analysis of Albinas Rimka’s textbooks.

Özet Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar, edebiyat dünyasına Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin kazandırdığı yazarlardan biridir. Edebi hayatına 1880’li yıllarda başlayan ve vefat yılı 1944’e kadar yazarlık faaliyetini devam ettiren Gürpınar’ın gerek edebî eserlerinde gerekse yazılarında hiciv ve mizah içerikli bir bakış açısının izlerini görebilmek mümkündür. Yazarın Menemenlizade Mehmet Tahir’in Sergüzeşt başlıklı uzun hikâyesinden hareketle, romantik edebiyatın eleştirisini yapmak üzere 1886’da “İstiğrak-ı Seherî” başlıklı diyaloğunu kaleme aldığını biliyoruz. Buna göre 1896’da Vecihî’nin romanlarına benzetilmek üzere İffet’i yazdığı tezi üzerinde tekrar durmamız gerekir. Öte yandan bu yıllar, romantik edebiyatın hayli ilgi gördüğü “Ara Nesil” yazarlarından sonra Servet-i Fünuncuların bir araya gelerek yeni bir edebî oluşuma adım attıkları dönemlere tekabül eder. Hüseyin Rahmi’nin de ustası Ahmet Mithat Efendi gibi Servet-i Fünuncularla polemiklere girdiği veya onlara mesafeli durduğu herkesçe bilinen bir realitedir. Bu yazıda Gürpınar’ın, Namık Kemal’in üslubunu taklit etmekle tanınan Vecihî’nin romanlarına benzetilmek üzere kaleme aldığı iddia edilen İffet, “Dekadanlık”, “Realizm-Romantizm” tartışmalarına yer verdiği Metres ve kimi eleştirmenlerce Aşk-ı Memnu’nun bir parodisi olarak görülen Cehennemlik romanlarını değerlendireceğiz. Anahtar Kelimeler: Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar, Romantik Edebiyat, Alay, Hiciv, Eleştiri.

Fusarium wilt is one of the most devastating diseases of cotton (Gossypium spp.). It is caused by the soil-borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend. f. sp. vasinfectum (Atk.) Snyd. & Hans (Atkinson, 1892). To date, eight races of F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum have been reported worldwide based on their diverse genetics and reactions to the host (Cianchetta, et al. 2015). Fusarium wilt symptoms appear at all developing stages. The fungus enters through the roots and colonizes the vascular system, leading to discoloration and wilting (Davis et al. 2006). During a survey in the July 2021 growing season, cotton plants showing typical wilting symptoms, stem discoloration, and root rot (Fig. 1A and B) were observed in two cotton fields in Sumner County, Kansas. In order to confirm the causal agent, root tissues and lower parts of the stems were collected from 25 diseased cotton plants and cleaned as previously described by Larren et al, (2001). Small segments (1-2 cm) of roots and stems were incubated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at room temperature. The isolates were purified with the single spore method and 23 of 25 isolates (92%) showed typical morphology of F. oxysporum, with a white-peach pigmentation as reported previously (Leslie and Summerell 2008). Two isolates, CK13B and CK18A, one from each of the two fields were selected, and genomic DNA was extracted with E.Z.N.A Fungal DNA Mini kit (Omega Bio-tek, Norcross, GA). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were performed as reported previously (Ortiz, et al. 2017) to amplify and sequence a portion of three nuclear genes: translation elongation factor (EF-1α), phosphate: H* symporter (PHO), and β-tubulin (BT). BLASTn analysis of CK13B sequences showed 93-98% identity with F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum isolates originating from Australia, with 93.43% (1706/1826 pb) identity of EF-1α to isolate AuSeed14 (KT323873), 95.11% (1849/1944 bp) of PHO to isolate AuK24232 (KT323909), and 97.56% (1840/1886 bp) identity of BT to isolate AusSeed14 (KT323833). Sequences of CK13B for EF1-α, PHO, and BT genes were submitted to GenBank, accession no. of ON754247, ON754248, and ON754249, respectively. The CK18A isolate showed high identity with F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum races 1, 2, and 6 lineage isolates (Ortiz et al., 2017), with 99.89% (1822/1824 bp) identity of the EF1-α gene to isolate CDR238 (KT323838) from Arkansas, 98.36% (1916/1948 bp) identity of the PHO gene to isolate CDR1131 (KT323887) from Louisiana and 98.78% (1864/1887 bp) identity of the BT gene to isolate ATCC36198 (KT323799) from Brazil. Sequences of the CK18A isolate were submitted to GenBank, accession no. ON651444, ON725043, and ON725044, respectively. Pathogenicity of both isolates was tested on G. hirsutum as previously described (Kim et al. 2005) with three replicates per isolate and a control treatment in a growth chamber. Briefly, cotton seedlings were maintained with 12 h light/dark cycle at 25-20 °C. At the first true leaf stage seedlings were uprooted, roots were cleaned by rinsing with sterile water then placed in a conidial suspension (1×106 conidia/ml) for 2 h while the healthy control seedlings were dipped in water only. Plants were put into sterile soil, and the results were observed and recorded every seven days for a period of 30 days. The inoculated plants showed the same symptoms as those observed in the fields, wilting, leaf chlorosis, and necrosis. Both isolates were re-isolated from the roots of the inoculated plants. DNA was extracted and used for PCR with the specific gene primers as listed above. The sequences matched those of the original isolates, completing the Koch’s pustulates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum causing Fusarium wilt disease of cotton in Kansas. These results will help growers select cultivars and design disease control strategies accordingly (Davis, et al., 2006). Further work is needed to determine the specific races in the area.

En los primeros años del siglo XX se constituyeron en España muchas de las empresas eléctricas que acabarían por convertirse en referentes del sector eléctrico español durante las siguientes décadas, siendo alguna de ellas Hidroeléctrica Ibérica y Saltos del Duero. Su historia está jalonada de hechos que constituyen en sí una innovación, tanto en el ámbito de la tecnología como en lo referente a la visión estratégica del sector. El objeto de este artículo es analizar la fusión que en 1944 se produjo entre Hidroeléctrica Ibérica ySaltos del Duero para dar lugar a Iberduero, bajo tres perspectivas diferentes y complementarias. En primer lugar se estudiará haciendo un análisis de los balances y cuentas de resultados tres años antes de producirse las fusiones y tres años después ellas, realizando para ello un análisis comparativo de ratios de naturaleza económica y financiera en dicho período. En segundo lugar se estudiarán las diferencias que hay entre los valores teóricos y los valores de cotización antes y tras la fusión, examinando aquellos factores que pueden incidir en el valor de una empresa. Por último, analizaremos el valor por capitalización bursátil de cada empresa antes y después de las fusiones, considerando la capitalización el valor de mercado de las acciones de la empresa. Este análisis tendrácomo referencia el entorno histórico de los años en los que se realizó la fusión.Como conclusión se expondrán los motivos que dieron lugar a la fusión de ambas empresas y que dio lugar a Iberduero, siendo la fusión beneficiosa para ambas compañías, amparada esta afirmación por el aumento de valor que llega a tener la empresa después de la fusión.

During World War II, the Soviet Union’s food supply was in a state of crisis. Hitler’s army had occupied the agricultural heartlands of Ukraine and Southern Russia in 1941 and, as a result, agricultural production for the entire nation had plummeted. Soldiers in Red Army, who easily ate the best rations in the country, subsisted on a daily allowance of just under a kilogram of bread, supplemented with meat, tea, sugar and butter when and if these items were available. The hunger of the Red Army and its effect on the morale and strength of Europe’s eastern warfront were causes for concern for the Soviet government and its European and American allies. The one country with a food surplus decided to do something to help, and in 1942 the United States agreed to send thousands of pounds of meat, cheese and butter overseas to help feed the Red Army. After receiving several shipments of the all-American spiced canned meat SPAM, the Red Army’s quartermaster put in a request for a more familiar canned pork product, Russian tushonka. Pound for pound, America sent more pigs overseas than soldiers during World War II, in part because pork was in oversupply in the America of the early 1940s. Shipping meat to hungry soldiers and civilians in war torn countries was a practical way to build business for the U.S. meat industry, which had been in decline throughout the 1930s. As per a Soviet-supplied recipe, the first cans of Lend-Lease tushonka were made in the heart of the American Midwest, at meatpacking plants in Iowa and Ohio (Stettinus 6-7). Government contracts in the meat packing industry helped fuel economic recovery, and meatpackers were in a position to take special request orders like the one for tushonka that came through the lines. Unlike SPAM, which was something of a novelty item during the war, tushonka was a food with a past. The original recipe was based on a recipe for preserved meat that had been a traditional product of the Ural Mountains, preserved in jars with salt and fat rather than by pressure and heat. Thus tushonka was requested—and was mass-produced—not simply as a convenience but also as a traditional and familiar food—a taste of home cooking that soldiers could carry with them into the field. Nikita Khrushchev later claimed that the arrival of tushonka was instrumental in helping the Red Army push back against the Nazi invasion (178). Unlike SPAM and other wartime rations, tushonka did not fade away after the war. Instead, it was distributed to the Soviet civilian population, appearing in charity donations and on the shelves of state shops. Often it was the only meat product available on a regular basis. Salty, fatty, and slightly grey-toned, tushonka was an unlikely hero of the postwar-era, but during this period tushonka rose from obscurity to become an emblem of socialist modernity. Because it was shelf stable and could be made from a variety of different cuts of meat, it proved an ideal product for the socialist production lines where supplies and the pace of production were infinitely variable. Unusual in a socialist system of supply, this product shaped production and distribution lines, and even influenced the layout of meatpacking factories and the genetic stocks of the animals that were to be eaten. Tushonka’s initial ubiquity in the postwar Soviet Union had little to do with the USSR’s own hog industry. Pig populations as well as their processing facilities had been decimated in the war, and pigs that did survive the Axis invasion had been evacuated East with human populations. Instead, the early presence of tushonka in the pig-scarce postwar Soviet Union had everything to do with Harry Truman’s unexpected September 1945 decision to end all “economically useful” Lend-Lease shipments to the Soviet Union (Martel). By the end of September, canned meat was practically the only product still being shipped as part of Lend-Lease (NARA RG 59). Although the United Nations was supposed to distribute these supplies to needy civilians free of cost, travelers to the Soviet Union in 1946 spotted cans of American tushonka for sale in state shops (Skeoch 231). After American tushonka “donations” disappeared from store shelves, the Soviet Union’s meat syndicates decided to continue producing the product. Between its first appearance during the war in 1943, and the 1957 announcement by Nikita Khrushchev that Soviet policy would restructure all state animal farms to support the mass production of one or several processed meat products, tushonka helped to drive the evolution of the Soviet Union’s meat packing industry. Its popularity with both planners and the public gave it the power to reach into food commodity chains. It is this backward reach and the longer-term impacts of these policies that make tushonka an unusual byproduct of the Cold War era. State planners loved tushonka: it was cheap to make, the logistics of preparing it were not complicated, it was easy to transport, and most importantly, it served as tangible evidence that the state was accomplishing a long-standing goal to get more meat to its citizenry and improving the diet of the average Soviet worker. Tushonka became a highly visible product in the Soviet Union’s much vaunted push to establish a modern food regime intended to rival that of the United States. Because it was shelf-stable, wartime tushonka had served as a practical food for soldiers, but after the war tushonka became an ideal food for workers who had neither the time nor the space to prepare a home-cooked meal with fresh meat. The Soviet state started to produce its own tushonka because it was such an excellent fit for the needs and abilities of the Soviet state—consumer demand was rarely considered by planners in this era. Not only did tushonka fit the look and taste of a modern processed meat product (that is, it was standard in texture and flavor from can to can, and was an obviously industrially processed product), it was also an excellent way to make the most of the predominant kind of meat the Soviet Union had the in the 1950s: small scraps low-grade pork and beef, trimmings leftover from butchering practices that focused on harvesting as much animal fat, rather than muscle, from the carcass in question. Just like tushonka, pork sausages and frozen pelmeny, a meat-filled pasta dumpling, also became winning postwar foods thanks to a happy synergy of increased animal production, better butchering and new food processing machines. As postwar pigs recovered their populations, the Soviet processed meat industry followed suit. One official source listed twenty-six different kinds of meat products being issued in 1964, although not all of these were pork (Danilov). An instructional manual distributed by the meat and milk syndicate demonstrated how meat shops should wrap and display sausages, and listed 24 different kinds of sausages that all needed a special style of tying up. Because of packaging shortages, the string that bound the sausage was wrapped in a different way for every type of sausage, and shop assistants were expected to be able to identify sausages based on the pattern of their binding. Pelmeny were produced at every meat factory that processed pork. These were “made from start to finish in a special, automated machine, human hands do not touch them. Which makes them a higher quality and better (prevoskhodnogo) product” (Book of Healthy and Delicious Food). These were foods that became possible to produce economically because of a co-occurring increase in pigs, the new standardized practice of equipping meatpacking plants with large-capacity grinders, and freezers or coolers and the enforcement of a system of grading meat. As the state began to rebuild Soviet agriculture from its near-collapse during the war, the Soviet Union looked to the United States for inspiration. Surprisingly, Soviet planners found some of the United States’ more outdated techniques to be quite valuable for new Soviet hog operations. The most striking of these was the adoption of competing phenotypes in the Soviet hog industry. Most major swine varieties had been developed and described in the 19th century in Germany and Great Britain. Breeds had a tendency to split into two phenotypically distinct groups, and in early 20th Century American pig farms, there was strong disagreement as to which style of pig was better suited to industrial conditions of production. Some pigs were “hot-blooded” (in other words, fast maturing and prolific reproducers) while others were a slower “big type” pig (a self-explanatory descriptor). Breeds rarely excelled at both traits and it was a matter of opinion whether speed or size was the most desirable trait to augment. The over-emphasis of either set of qualities damaged survival rates. At their largest, big type pigs resembled small hippopotamuses, and sows were so corpulent they unwittingly crushed their tiny piglets. But the sleeker hot-blooded pigs had a similarly lethal relationship with their young. Sows often produced litters of upwards of a dozen piglets and the stress of tending such a large brood led overwhelmed sows to devour their own offspring (Long). American pig breeders had been forced to navigate between these two undesirable extremes, but by the 1930s, big type pigs were fading in popularity mainly because butter and newly developed plant oils were replacing lard as the cooking fat of preference in American kitchens. The remarkable propensity of the big type to pack on pounds of extra fat was more of a liability than a benefit in this period, as the price that lard and salt pork plummeted in this decade. By the time U.S. meat packers were shipping cans of tushonka to their Soviet allies across the seas, US hog operations had already developed a strong preference for hot-blooded breeds and research had shifted to building and maintaining lean muscle on these swiftly maturing animals. When Soviet industrial planners hoping to learn how to make more tushonka entered the scene however, their interpretation of american efficiency was hardly predictable: scientifically nourished big type pigs may have been advantageous to the United States at midcentury, but the Soviet Union’s farms and hungry citizens had a very different list of needs and wants. At midcentury, Soviet pigs were still handicapped by old-fashioned variables such as cold weather, long winters, poor farm organisation and impoverished feed regimens. The look of the average Soviet hog operation was hardly industrial. In 1955 the typical Soviet pig was petite, shaggy, and slow to reproduce. In the absence of robust dairy or vegetable oil industries, Soviet pigs had always been valued for their fat rather than their meat, and tushonka had been a byproduct of an industry focused mainly on supplying the country with fat and lard. Until the mid 1950s, the most valuable pig on many Soviet state and collective farms was the nondescript but very rotund “lard and bacon” pig, an inefficient eater that could take upwards of two years to reach full maturity. In searching for a way to serve up more tushonka, Soviet planners became aware that their entire industry needed to be revamped. When the Soviet Union looked to the United States, planners were inspired by the earlier competition between hot-blooded and big type pigs, which Soviet planners thought, ambitiously, they could combine into one splendid pig. The Soviet Union imported new pigs from Poland, Lithuania, East Germany and Denmark, trying valiantly to create hybrid pigs that would exhibit both hot blood and big type. Soviet planners were especially interested in inspiring the Poland-China, an especially rotund specimen, to speed up its life cycle during them mid 1950s. Hybrdizing and cross breeding a Soviet super-pig, no matter how closely laid out on paper, was probably always a socialist pipe dream. However, when the Soviets decided to try to outbreed American hog breeders, they created an infrastructure for pigs and pig breeding that had a dramatic positive impact of hog populations across the country, and the 1950s were marked by a large increase in the number of pigs in the Soviet union, as well as dramatic increases in the numbers of purebred and scientific hybrids the country developed, all in the name of tushonka. It was not just the genetic stock that received a makeover in the postwar drive to can more tushonka; a revolution in the barnyard also took place and in less than 10 years, pigs were living in new housing stock and eating new feed sources. The most obvious postwar change was in farm layout and the use of building space. In the early 1950s, many collective farms had been consolidated. In 1940 there were a quarter of a million kolkhozii, by 1951 fewer than half that many remained (NARA RG166). Farm consolidation movements most often combined two, three or four collective farms into one economic unit, thus scaling up the average size and productivity of each collective farm and simplifying their administration. While there were originally ambitious plans to re-center farms around new “agro-city” bases with new, modern farm buildings, these projects were ultimately abandoned. Instead, existing buildings were repurposed and the several clusters of farm buildings that had once been the heart of separate villages acquired different uses. For animals this meant new barns and new daily routines. Barns were redesigned and compartmentalized around ideas of gender and age segregation—weaned baby pigs in one area, farrowing sows in another—as well as maximising growth and health. Pigs spent less outside time and more time at the trough. Pigs that were wanted for different purposes (breeding, meat and lard) were kept in different areas, isolated from each other to minimize the spread of disease as well as improve the efficiency of production. Much like postwar housing for humans, the new and improved pig barn was a crowded and often chaotic place where the electricity, heat and water functioned only sporadically. New barns were supposed to be mechanised. In some places, mechanisation had helped speed things along, but as one American official viewing a new mechanised pig farm in 1955 noted, “it did not appear to be a highly efficient organisation. The mechanised or automated operations, such as the preparation of hog feed, were eclipsed by the amount of hand labor which both preceded and followed the mechanised portion” (NARA RG166 1961). The American official estimated that by mechanizing, Soviet farms had actually increased the amount of human labor needed for farming operations. The other major environmental change took place away from the barnyard, in new crops the Soviet Union began to grow for fodder. The heart and soul of this project was establishing field corn as a major new fodder crop. Originally intended as a feed for cows that would replace hay, corn quickly became the feed of choice for raising pigs. After a visit by a United States delegation to Iowa and other U.S. farms over the summer of 1955, corn became the centerpiece of Khrushchev’s efforts to raise meat and milk productivity. These efforts were what earned Khrushchev his nickname of kukuruznik, or “corn fanatic.” Since so little of the Soviet Union looks or feels much like the plains and hills of Iowa, adopting corn might seem quixotic, but raising corn was a potentially practical move for a cold country. Unlike the other major fodder crops of turnips and potatoes, corn could be harvested early, while still green but already possessing a high level of protein. Corn provided a “gap month” of green feed during July and August, when grazing animals had eaten the first spring green growth but these same plants had not recovered their biomass. What corn remained in the fields in late summer was harvested and made into silage, and corn made the best silage that had been historically available in the Soviet Union. The high protein content of even silage made from green mass and unripe corn ears prevented them from losing weight in the winter. Thus the desire to put more meat on Soviet tables—a desire first prompted by American food donations of surplus pork from Iowa farmers adapting to agro-industrial reordering in their own country—pushed back into the commodity supply network of the Soviet Union. World War II rations that were well adapted to the uncertainty and poor infrastructure not just of war but also of peacetime were a source of inspiration for Soviet planners striving to improve the diets of citizens. To do this, they purchased and bred more and better animals, inventing breeds and paying attention, for the first time, to the efficiency and speed with which these animals were ready to become meat. Reinventing Soviet pigs pushed even back farther, and inspired agricultural economists and state planners to embrace new farm organizational structures. Pigs meant for the tushonka can spent more time inside eating, and led their lives in a rigid compartmentalization that mimicked emerging trends in human urban society. Beyond the barnyard, a new concern with feed-to weight conversions led agriculturalists to seek new crops; crops like corn that were costly to grow but were a perfect food for a pig destined for a tushonka tin. Thus in Soviet industrialization, pigs evolved. No longer simply recyclers of human waste, socialist pigs were consumers in their own right, their newly crafted genetic compositions demanded ever more technical feed sources in order to maximize their own productivity. Food is transformative, and in this case study the prosaic substance of canned meat proved to be unusually transformative for the history of the Soviet Union. In its early history it kept soldiers alive long enough to win an important war, later the requirements for its manufacture re-prioritized muscle tissue over fat tissue in the disassembly of carcasses. This transformative influence reached backwards into the supply lines and farms of the Soviet Union, revolutionizing the scale and goals of farming and meat packing for the Soviet food industry, as well as the relationship between the pig and the consumer. References Bentley, Amy. Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity. Where: University of Illinois Press, 1998. 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