Academic literature on the topic '1887-1985'
Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles
Consult the lists of relevant articles, books, theses, conference reports, and other scholarly sources on the topic '1887-1985.'
Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.
You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.
Journal articles on the topic "1887-1985"
1
Hutchins, Carleen M. "Osborne, Harold S. • 1887–1985." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 79, no. 6 (June 1986): 2096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.393175.
Full text
2
HSUEH, PAN-WEN. "Nereis taichungensis nom. nov., a replacement name for Nereis articulata Hsueh, 2020, a junior primary homonym to Nereis articulata Ehlers, 1887." Zootaxa 4822, no. 1 (August 4, 2020): 138. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4822.1.9.
Full textAbstract:
Nereis articulata Ehlers, 1887 is senior primary homonym to Nereis articulata Hsueh, 2020 from Taiwan. The older Nereis articulata name has been transferred to the genus Ceratonereis Kinberg, 1865 in the subgenus Composetia Hartmann-Schröder, 1985 by Hartmann-Schröder (1985), although this placement may be unreliable (Bakken & Wilson, 2005). Nevertheless its original name is an available name and its recombination is in use. Hsueh (2020) mistakenly treated N. articulata Ehlers, 1887 as an unavailable name and described a new Nereis, which possesses articulated tentacular cirri, as Nereis articulata Hsueh, 2020. Nereis articulata Ehlers, 1887 has precedence based on Article 23.4 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (1999). Thus, Nereis taichungensis nom. nov. is named herein as a replacement name for Nereis articulata Hsueh, 2020, a junior primary homonym to N. articulata Ehlers, 1887, and thus permanently invalid (Article 57.2).
3
Schubert, Klaus. "Recenzo de la libro: Rokicki, Ryszard. 2022. Enkonduko en la morfologion de Esperanto. Kaliningrado: Sezonoj / Kaunas: Litova Esperanto-Asocio (Scio, 11)." Esperantologio / Esperanto Studies 13, no. 5 (July 2024): 136–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.59718/ees11736.
Full textAbstract:
En Esperanto kaŝiĝas pli da reguleco, ol estis difinita per la 16 reguloj (Zamenhof 1887). PAG (Kalocsay kaj Waringhien 1985) kaj PMEG (Wennergren 2023) atestas pri tio. Ryszard Rokicki tezas, ke eĉ tiuj grandaj gramatikoj preteratentas gravajn ecojn de nia lingvo.
4
Nunes, J., C. Silva, and E. Jesus. "New species of Lepidoptera for mainland Portugal (Insecta: Lepidoptera)." SHILAP Revista de lepidopterología 49, no. 195 (September 30, 2021): 507–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.57065/shilap.289.
Full textAbstract:
Six new species are added to the Lepidoptera fauna of mainland Portugal, resulting from the authors’ fieldwork in 2019 and 2020: namely Coleophora anitella Baldizzone, 1985, Aplota palpellus (Haworth, 1828), Anacampsis obscurella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775), Apomyelois bistriatella (Hulst, 1887), Eublemma amoena (Hübner, 1803) and Xestia sexstrigata (Haworth, 1809).
5
Salcman, Michael. "THE FIANCÉE WITH A BLUE FACE BY MARC CHAGALL (1887–1985)." Neurosurgery 61, no. 6 (December 1, 2007): 1322–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000306112.00916.34.
Full text
6
CARDOZO, DARIO, and DIEGO BALDO. "Pseudopaludicola ternetzi (Anura: Leiuperidae): two lectotypes for the same taxon." Zootaxa 3192, no. 1 (February 14, 2012): 67. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3192.1.6.
Full textAbstract:
Pseudopaludicola ternetzi was described on the basis of an undefined number of syntypes, but involving males and females (Miranda-Ribeiro 1937). Since Miranda-Ribeiro described this species, several taxonomic considerations were made on it. First, Bokermann (1966) considered P. ternetzi as a synonym of P. ameghini (Cope 1887), without giving any evidence to support this decision. Although some authors followed this proposal (like Gallardo 1968), others continued considering P. ternetzi as a good species (e.g., Frost 1985; Lynch 1989). Haddad and Cardoso (1987) provided bioacustic and morphometric evidence to consider P. ameghini as a junior synonym of P. mystacalis (Cope 1887). In 1996, Lobo reviewed the type specimens of P. ameghini, P. mystacalis, and P. saltica described by Cope (1887) and housed at the ANSP (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia), and redescribed P. ternetzi based on four vouchers collected by Dr. Ternetz in December of 1923, deposited in the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (MNRJ). In coincidence with Haddad and Cardoso (1987), Lobo (1996) considered P. ameghini as a junior synonym of P. mystacalis, assigned a lectotype for P. ternetzi (MNRJ 5462, male), and designated as paralectotypes the vouchers MNRJ 477, MNRJ 5460, and MNRJ 5461 (all females). Lobo choose the only male syntype examined by him as lectotype considering that the detailed description by Miranda-Ribeiro (1937) of a male matched with the size and morphology of this specimen, while only reported some details of a female. Such taxonomic decision was based on the article 74 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN 1985).
7
Orlando, José Antônio. "O sagrado e o profano em Marc Chagall." Arquivo Maaravi: Revista Digital de Estudos Judaicos da UFMG 10, no. 19 (November 9, 2016): 62–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.17851/1982-3053.10.19.62-71.
Full textAbstract:
Este artigo analisa arte e religião na obra de Marc Chagall (1887-1985) a partir da exposição “Chagall. Divino y Humano”, apresentada na Fundação Canal, em Madri, de fevereiro a abril de 2016. A mostra, que reuniu mais de uma centena de obras originais em técnicas de litografia, xilogravura e gravura, incluiu trabalhos sobre papel, criadas pelo artista entre as décadas de 1940 e 1980.
8
Hughes, Christena F. "About the Cover: I and the Village (1911)/Marc Chagall (1887–1985)." Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (1996) 41, no. 3 (May 2001): 496. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1086-5802(16)31277-3.
Full text
9
Salgado, Marcus Rogerio Tavares Sampaio. "O naufrágio no castelo: maquinaria gótica do espaço em "En rade"." Organon 35, no. 69 (March 3, 2021): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/2238-8915.107975.
Full textAbstract:
Publicado em 1887, o romance En rade, de J-K Huysmans, poderia ser definido, ecoando as palavras do tradutor Aníbal Fernandes (cf: 1985, p. 8), como o deslocamento de um enredo naturalista para a ambiência sombria de um cenário gótico. A partir dessa sinalização inicial, o presente artigo procura entender e explicitar o modo como certos elementos da poética gótica (em particular aqueles ligados às representações espaciais) são agenciados por Huysmans ao longo do romance.
10
Clemente de SOUZA, Tania Conceição. "Transversal sayings." Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica 14 (December 29, 2022): 407–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.26512/rbla.v14i1.44416.
Full textAbstract:
Nosso objetivo é colocar em confronto relatos do viajante alemão Karl von den Steinen sobre o contato com os Bakairi nos anos de 1884 e 1887 com o relato de alguns Bakairi, nossos consultores em pesquisas realizadas nos anos de 1984 e 1985 na aldeia Pakuenra, Mato Grosso, Brasil Central. Em xeque está a forma como os Kurâ Bakairi são identificados pelo viajante a partir de um olhar etnocêntrico que recorta costumes, comportamentos, estruturas da língua e habilidades cognitivas.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "1887-1985"
1
Park, ChanYoung. "La Bible illustrée par Marc Chagall (1887-1985) : un dialogue interculturel et son évolution." Thesis, Paris 4, 2008. http://www.theses.fr/2008PA040141/document.
Full textAbstract:
Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude des illustrations bibliques de Marc Chagall (1887-1985). Dès le commencement de son travail pour la Bible (publiée en 1956 par Tériade) dans les années 1920, il s’approprie le thème biblique comme sujet central de son art et se sert de ses compositions comme modèle iconographique permanent pour les autres œuvres bibliques. On analyse cette Bible ainsi que tous les autres livres bibliques illustrés par Chagall (Dessins pour la Bible (1960), The Story of the Exodus (1966), Psaumes de David (1979 et 1980) en vue de déceler leurs particularités et estimer leurs places dans l’ensemble de l’art religieux de l’artiste. En effet, le parcours de Chagall donne à voir un être toujours en mouvement entre son monde d’origine juive et le monde étranger. Ce va-et-vient crée en lui une dualité du monde intérieur et du monde extérieur, qui agit comme une dynamique dans ses créations. Les eaux-fortes pour la Bible représentent tout à fait cette dynamique. Or, ce caractère disparaît lorsque Chagall s’approprie le monde étranger comme le sien ; la dualité s’efface pour évoluer vers une unité et une synthèse des différentes cultures présentes chez lui. À mesure que ses œuvres prennent de l’ampleur, l’artiste s’efforce de les doter d’un message et d’un caractère plus universels. En développant sa philosophie de paix et d’amour universels, fondée sur son interprétation du message biblique, Chagall recherche à travers ses œuvres religieuses une grande synthèse dans laquelle il y a une dynamique et une continuité de l’Ancien au Nouveau Testament et du judaïsme au christianismeThis study examines all of the Bible illustrations made by Marc Chagall. Once he started to work on the Bible by etching, the biblical theme became the major subject of his art, and these etchings have been largely used as a model for his other works. We analyse this Bible and all of the other biblical illustrated books of Chagall to find out their characteristics and their meanings in his entire religious art. In fact, we can notice in Chagall’s journey from his birth to his Bible illustrations that this artist has continually been moving between his own Jewish tradition and the outside world. These comings and goings make in him a duality and it becomes dynamic in his creations. His etchings for the Bible show especially this feature. They take root in Jewish tradition but also show various marks of different cultures known by the artist. Nevertheless, we can’t find this characteristic again in any of his other biblical illustrated books, because in appropriating the outside world as his own, the duality disappears and unites. As he works on stained-glass windows in churches, he develops a philosophical view of the universal peace and love based on his interpretation of the biblical message. Then he seeks this universality through all his religious works and biblical illustrations until his last days
2
Park, ChanYoung Foucart Bruno. "La Bible illustrée par Marc Chagall (1887-1985) un dialogue interculturel et son évolution /." S. l. : S. n, 2008. http://www.theses.paris4.sorbonne.fr/thesepark.pdf.
Full text
3
Bagraim, Abigail Sarah. "The Hasidic spirit as the foundation of the art of Marc Chagall." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002189.
Full textAbstract:
In considering Chagall's art the observer is immediately struck by the constancy of his almost obsessive repetition of certain symbols and themes. In this way Chagall has created his own fantasy world, one with which the observer soon becomes acquainted and grows to love and understand.
4
Diedhiou, Salif. "L’énergie électrique au Sénégal de 1887 à 1985 : transfert de technologie, appropriation et enjeu politique d’un patrimoine industriel naissant." Thesis, Paris, EPHE, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016EPHE4039/document.
Full textAbstract:
L’électrification du Sénégal est intervenue assez tôt, en 1889, à Saint-Louis, au moment où les grandes villes européennes n’avaient pas fini de découvrir toutes les possibilités qu’offrait cette grande innovation énergétique. L’industrie de l’électricité est ainsi restée aux mains d’entrepreneurs métropolitains jusqu’à la fin des années 1970. Durant toute cette période, le personnel technique, en charge de son fonctionnement était essentiellement européen. C’est avec le processus de nationalisation du secteur, amorcé en fin 1972, qu’on a posé pour la première fois l’option de la « sénégalisation » des postes techniques, et ainsi du processus de transfert de technologie de l’énergie électrique vers le personnel local. Cette mission a été conduite par Électricité de France, en accord avec l’État du Sénégal. Il a néanmoins fallu presqu’un siècle, de 1889 à 1985, pour que le Sénégal s’approprie la technologie vers 1985. Cette thèse analyse à la fois l’introduction des techniques depuis la colonisation mais également la trajectoire de l’électrification du Sénégal et les outils du transfert de la technologie de l’énergie électrique. Elle évoque en outre la politique patrimoniale et l’enjeu du patrimoine industriel dans un pays non industriel comme le SénégalThe electrification of Senegal had already occurred in 1889, in Saint-Louis, at a time when the European cities had yet to discover all the possibilities that this great technological innovation comprised. The industry of electricity thus remained in the hands of metropolitan entrepreneurs until the end of the 1970s. During this period, the technical personnel in charge of its operating were essentially European. It is with the nationalization process launched in the seventies that, for the first time, the term “senegalisation” is coined; and, with it, the process of technology transfers to the local personnel. Electricity de France, in agreement with the State of Senegal, has conducted this task. It nevertheless took close to a century, from 1889 to 1985, for Senegal to fully seize the technology. This thesis analyzes the introduction of techniques since the colonization and both the path of electrification of Senegal, alongside the tools necessary to the transfer of the technology of electrical energy. It further mentions the patrimonial policy, and the stakes of the industrial heritage in a non-industrial country such as Senegal
5
Kawiak, Ewelina. "Heurystyczna metoda G. Polya a umiejętność rozwiązywania matematycznych zadań problemowych przez uczniów klas trzecich szkoły podstawowej." Doctoral thesis, Katowice : Uniwersytet Śląski, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12128/9482.
Full textAbstract:
The dissertation concerns one of the heuristic methods of task solving - a method by George Polya.
The above-mentioneddissertation concerns mathematical education realized at the first educational stage. Author's own research carried out for the sake of the dissertation were conducted among two study groups: teachers and pupils. The diversification of the examined respondents resulted in the division of the research into two separate research areas which underwent methodologically diversified influences. Two main research methods were applied - diagnostic survey and pedagogical experiment.
The aim of the conducted survey was to obtain early-school education teachers' opinions on mathematical problem-solving tasks and the methods applied to solve them as well as to receive their feedback on the heuristic method of G. Polya. The aim of the experimental study was to assess the influence of the application of heuristic method of G. Polya on third grade pupils' ability to solve problem-solving tasks in elementary school classes.
6
Letourneur-Latty, Laurence. "Les processus de la création artistique chez Chagall et Wagner : recherche sur le rôle de l'angoisse dans la création." Paris 5, 1995. http://www.theses.fr/1995PA05H006.
Full textAbstract:
La comparaison entre les associations observées dans l'autobiographie de Marc Chagall et les représentations figuratives trouvées dans ses tableaux pose la question du rôle de l'angoisse dans le processus créateur. L'analyse de contenu de l'autobiographie de Richard Wagner, mise en parallèle avec la thématique de ses œuvres lyriques, tragédies et livrets d'opéra, met en évidence que ce rôle est central. Si la pression de l'angoisse déclenche le processus, sa nécessaire maitrise est obtenue par la symbolisation de ses composantes, et par un transfert d'énergie pulsionnelle de l7 angoisses à la création. L'angoisse enfin alimente la création de ses propres matériaux, qui sont en l'occurrence chez Wagner des matériaux d'origine œdipienne. La création constitue ainsi pour le créateur sa thérapie et son salutThe associations abserved in Chagall's autobiography in comparison with the figurative representations scattered in the paintings lead to the question of the role of anguish in the creative porcess. The content analysis of Wagner's autobiography in comparison with the thematic of his lyric works, tragedies and librettos, shows clearly that this role is paramount. If the pressure of anguish triggers the process, its necessary control is achieved with the symbolisation of its parts, and through a transfer of impulsive energy from anguish to creation. At last, anguish feeds the creation of its own materials, which are with Wagner of oedipian extraction. For the creator, creation is then his therapy and his salvation
7
Lacombe, Jean-Pierre. "Une grande famille médicale lyonnaise : Marc-Auguste, Maurice, Auguste et Eugène Pollosson (1818-1985)." Lyon 1, 1985. http://www.theses.fr/1985LYO1S343.
Full text
8
Zekri, Caroline. "Vincenzo Cardarelli (1887-1959) : du mythe de la prose d’art au mythe autobiographique." Paris 4, 2007. http://www.theses.fr/2007PA040221.
Full textAbstract:
Poète, prosateur, fondateur de la revue La Ronda (1919-1923), Vincenzo Cardarelli (1887-1959) demeure essentiellement associé à l’aventure de restauration classiciste de la revue et, partant, au « genre » de la prose d’art, dont il serait, avec Emilio Cecchi (1884-1966), un maître incontesté. Après une analyse historique et théorique de la notion de prose d’art, dont nous proposons une définition poétique plutôt que générique, une analyse textuelle de l’ensemble de l’oeuvre de Cardarelli, ainsi qu’une comparaison avec la prose d’Emilio Cecchi et celle de Riccardo Bacchelli, permet d’une part, d’affranchir l’oeuvre de Cardarelli de ce que nous avons appelé le « mythe de la prose d’art », d’autre part de mettre au jour la construction, en prose comme en poésie, d’un véritable « mythe autobiographique ». En montrant comment cette voix « isolée » (selon l’expression de Montale) traverse son époque, il s’agit de révéler le rôle de médiation assuré par Cardarelli, qui s’avère être à la fois un précurseur de l’hermétisme et un interprète singulier de la notion de « mythe autobiographique » forgée par les écrivains de La Voce, dont il s’empare pour en proposer une formulation toute personnelle, qui révèle une pratique résolument moderne de l’écriture du « moi »Vincenzo Cardarelli (1887-1959), poet, prose writer and founder of La Ronda review (1919-1923), remains primarily associated to the under taking of the classical restoration of the review, and therefore, to the “art prose” genre, where together with Emilio Cecchi (1884-1966), he would be an uncontested master. After an historical and theoretical analysis of the notion of “art prose”, where we propose a poetic definition rather than a generic one, an overall analysis of Cardarelli’s work, as in comparison with Emilio Cecchi’s and Riccardo Bacchelli’s work, enables us to differentiate from Cardarelli’s work what we called the “ art prose myth”. On the other hand, it also enables us to update the construction, both in prose as well as in poetics, of a truly “autobiographical myth”. By showing how this “isolated” voice (according to Montale’s expression) makes its way throughout its time, a mediation role assured by Cardarelli is revealed. At the same time, he defines himself as a precursor of hermeticism and as a single interpretor of the “autobiographical myth”, forged by La Voce writers, which he uses in order to offer a completely personal thinking process which reveals a resolutely modern practice of “self” writing
9
Sigman, Aprill C. "Depicting the role of problem solving in mathematics education throughout the twentieth century : finding basic themes through an historical perspective." Virtual Press, 1997. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1050230.
Full textAbstract:
Problem solving is a central activity of mathematics and has been throughout its history. Recognizing the problem of problem solving, however, seems to be less explicit in the historical record. In studying three principal contributors to the study of problem solving-Rene Descartes, John Dewey, and George Polya-I have found that problems arise in two broad categories. Mathematics itself generates more mathematical problems, and problems embedded in a wider context can generate mathematics. Recognizing a mathematical problem in a rich context-problem finding-has received much less attention. John Dewey recognized the importance of problem finding and emphasized its role in problem solving. Descartes and Polya spent less time on problem finding, Polya the least of all.Department of Mathematical Sciences
10
Perottino, Serge. "Transcendance et subjectivité : les problèmes de la création : Brea, Van Gogh, Chagall." Nice, 1989. http://www.theses.fr/1989NICE2009.
Full textBooks on the topic "1887-1985"
3
Musée National du Message Biblique Marc Chagall (Nice), ed. Marc Chagall: 1887-1985. 2nd ed. Paris: Editions de la Reunion des Musées Nationaux, 1986.
Find full text
4
Réunion des musées nationaux (France) and Musée national Message biblique Marc Chagall, eds. Marc Chagall, 1887-1985. Paris: Editions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1991.
Find full text
6
1887-1985, Chagall Marc, ed. Mark Shagal: 1887-1985. Moskva: Iskusstvo XXI vek, 2010.
Find full text
7
Walther, Ingo F. Marc Chagall, 1887-1985: Painting as poetry. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen, 1993.
Find full text
9
Schwitters, Kurt. Kurt Schwitters, 1887-1948: May-June 1985. New York, N.Y: Marlborough Gallery, 1985.
Find full text
10
Walther, Ingo F. Marc Chagall 1887-1985: Painting as poetry. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen, 1987.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "1887-1985"
1
Karttunen, K. "Varma, Siddeshwar (1887–1985)." In Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 395. Elsevier, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/02955-2.
Full text
2
"(1985־1887) [לאַגעס] לאַגאַש קראַמ." In Jerusalem of Lithuania, 156–57. Ohio State University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv16b77z0.27.
Full text
3
Neu, Jerome. "“Does The Professor Talk to God?” Learning from Little Hans." In A Tear Is an Intellectual Thing, 200–228. Oxford University PressNew York, NY, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195123371.003.0012.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract Freud never worked with children. Indeed when, early in his psychoanalytic theorizing, a question arose for him about the excremental interests of children, he wrote to his friend Fliess asking for information, adding: “Why do I not go into the nursery and experiment with Annerl? … I have no time for it, and the womenfolk do not support my researches” (1985 [1887–1904], 230, Letter of February 8, 1897).
4
Griffith, J. A. G. "Judges and the Constitution." In Law, Society and Economy, 289–310. Oxford University PressOxford, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198262282.003.0013.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract In a lecture given to the Administrative Law Bar Association in October 1994, Mr Michael Beloff QC said, that when he came to the Bar in 1968, ‘no one was yet called a public lawyer’ and that the phrase, as late as 1985, was not altogether approved by the judiciary. In the more enlightened circles of academia, we had been accustomed to the words for some time and even had professors so designated. When F.W. Maitland gave his first lecture on The Constitutional History of England at Cambridge in the Michaelmas term of 1887 he entitled it ‘English Public Law at the Death of Edward the First’.
5
Ponder, Winston F., and David R. Lindberg. "Gastropod phylogeny — challenges for the 90s." In Origin and Evolutionary Radiation of the Mollusca, 135–54. Oxford University PressOxford, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198549802.003.0011.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract Relatively little attention was paid to gastropod higher classification for much of the 1900s, in marked contrast to the considerable literature that flowered last century. During that time there were several studies based on single organ systems, those of Troschel [(and Thiele) (1856-1893) on radulae and Bouvier (1887) on nervous systems, being particularly influential examples. Such speculation virtually ended following the publication of Thiele’s (1929-1931) Handbuch. His scheme of gastropod classification was adopted, essentially unchanged, by the synoptic works of Wenz (1938-1944), the Treatise (Knight, et al., 1960; Moore, 1960) and Boss (1982). Few alternative schemes were proposed prior to the mid 1980’s, the most notable being that of Golikov and Starobogatov (1975). However, in the last 15 years there has been a surge of new interest in gastropod phylogeny (e.g. Graham, 1985; Haszprunar 1988; Ponder, 1988; Bieler, 1992), largely as a result of the stimulus provided by L. v. Salvini-Plawen and G. Haszprunar (e.g. Salvini-Plawen, 1980; Salvini-Plawen and Haszprunar, 1987; Haszprunar, 1985a, b, 1988).
6
"No. 30483. International Agreement on the use of INMARSAT ship earth stations within the territorial sea and ports. Concluded at London on 16 October 1985." In Treaty Series 1887, 511. UN, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/0dc6ad31-en-fr.
Full text
7
Dasgupta, Subrata. "Going Heuristic." In It Began with Babbage. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199309412.003.0018.
Full textAbstract:
Let us rewind the historical tape to 1945, the year in which John von Neumann wrote his celebrated report on the EDVAC (see Chapter 9 ). That same year, George Polya (1887–1985), a professor of mathematics at Stanford University and, like von Neumann, a Hungarian-American, published a slender book bearing the title How to Solve It. Polya’s aim in writing this book was to demonstrate how mathematical problems are really solved. The book focused on the kinds of reasoning that go into making discoveries in mathematics—not just “great” discoveries by “great” mathematicians, but the kind a high school mathematics student might make in solving back-of-the-chapter problems. Polya pointed out that, although a mathematical subject such as Euclidean geometry might seem a rigorous, systematic, deductive science, it is also experimental or inductive. By this he meant that solving mathematical problems involves the same kinds of mental strategies—trial and error, informed guesswork, analogizing, divide and conquer— that attend the empirical or “inductive” sciences. Mathematical problem solving, Polya insisted, involves the use of heuristics—an Anglicization of the Greek heurisko —meaning, to find. Heuristics, as an adjective, means “serving to discover.” We are oft en forced to deploy heuristic reasoning when we have no other options. Heuristic reasoning would not be necessary if we have algorithms to solve our problems; heuristics are summoned in the absence of algorithms. And so we seek analogies between the problem at hand and other, more familiar, situations and use the analogy as a guide to solve our problem, or we split a problem into simpler subproblems in the hope this makes the overall task easier, or we summon experience to bear on the problem and apply actions we had taken before with the reasonable expectation that it may help solve the problem, or we apply rules of thumb that have worked before. The point of heuristics, however, is that they offer promises of solution to certain kinds of problems but there are no guarantees of success. As Polya said, heuristic thinking is never considered as final, but rather is provisional or plausible.
8
Tardini, Stefano. "Development of IT and Virtual Communities." In Encyclopedia of Multimedia Technology and Networking, Second Edition, 349–55. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-014-1.ch048.
Full textAbstract:
The notion of community is pivotal in the sociological tradition. According to Nisbet (1966), “the most fundamental and far-reaching of sociology’s unit ideas is community” (p. 47). Yet, it is not easy to define what a community is. Though in everyday life the concept of “community” is widespread, nonetheless this concept is very problematic in scientific reflections, partly because of its strongly interdisciplinary nature. As long ago as 1955, Hillery could list and compare 94 different definitions of “community,” finding only some common elements among them, such as social interaction, area, and common ties. Generally speaking, a community can be defined as “a group of persons who share something more or less decisive for their life, and who are tied by more or less strong relationships” (Cantoni & Tardini, 2006, p. 157). It is worth noticing here that the term “community” seems to have only favorable connotations. As observed in 1887 by Ferdinand Tönnies, the German sociologist who first brought the term “community” into the scientific vocabulary of the social sciences, “a young man is warned about mixing with bad society: but ‘bad community’ makes no sense in our language” (Tönnies, 2001, p. 18; Williams, 1983). Two main ways of considering communities can be singled out: 1. Communities can be intended as a set of people who have something in common, and 2. Communities can be intended as groups of people who interact. The distinction between the two ways of conceiving a community is very well illustrated by an example provided by Aristotle. In his Politics (3.1.12), the Greek philosopher tells that, when Babylon was captured by an invading army of Persians, in certain parts of the city the capture itself had not been noticed for three days. This is the reason why Aristotle considers Babylon not a polis, but an ethnos. In fact, according to Aristotle, what distinguishes the polis, that is, the perfect form of community (see Politics 1.1.1), from the ethnos is the presence of interactions and communications among the citizens. In a polis citizens speak to each other, they interact and communicate, while in an ethnos they just have the same walls in common. In the sense of the ethnos, we speak, for instance, of the community of the linguists, of the community of Italian speaking people, of the open source community, and so on. The members of such communities usually do not know each other, they do not communicate each with all the others, but they have the perception of belonging to the community, they are aware of being part of it. According to Cohen (1985), such communities are symbolic constructions. Rather than being structures, they are entities of meaning, founded on a shared conglomeration of normative codes and values that provide community members with a sense of identity. In a similar way, Anderson (1991) defines the modern nations (the Aristotelian ethne) as “imagined communities”: [They are] imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellowmembers, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion. […] In fact, all communities larger than primordial villages or face-to-face contact (and perhaps even these) are imagined. (pp. 5-6)
9
Ridings, Catherine M. "Defining "Virtual Community"." In Virtual Technologies, 8–14. IGI Global, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-955-7.ch002.
Full textAbstract:
The rise of the Internet has spawned the prolific use of the adjective “virtual.” Both the popular press and scholarly researchers have written about virtual work, virtual teams, virtual organizations, and virtual groups. But perhaps one of the most interesting phenomena to come to the forefront has been that of virtual communities. Many definitions of this term have been proposed and the term has been used in many different ways. This article will examine some of the most popular definitions and guidelines to understand what truly constitutes a virtual community. To define a virtual community, one needs to first examine the two words separately, particularly the sociological definition of “community.” The German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, in his 1887 book, made the distinction between two basic types of social groups: Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society). The former was often exemplified by the family or neighborhood (Tonnies, 1957). Sociology literature also often refers to the definition given by George Hillery, who reviewed 94 different definitions in academic studies. Three elements were common to the definitions, namely that community (1) was based on geographic areas, (2) included social interaction among people, and (3) had common ties such as social life, norms, means, or ends (Hillery, 1955). Thus the term community typically connotes a group of people within some geographic boundary, such as a neighborhood, or perhaps smaller subsection of a larger city. Further specification might have defined a community as a group of people within the geographic boundary with a common interest, such as the Jewish community of Brooklyn or the physician community of London. Therefore, members of the community were drawn together by both local proximity and common interest, even if the interest was in the geographic area itself. The term virtual, precipitated by the advent of information technology, and specifically, the Internet, means without a physical place as a home (Handy, 1995), or that which is electronic or enabled by technology (Lee, Vogel, & Limayem, 2003). Information technology therefore has expanded the means by which the social interaction in communities can be accomplished. While for most of human existence interaction was strictly limited to the face-to-face medium, social interaction can now be accomplished virtually, thus eliminating the necessity of being physically close enough to communicate. This type of communication is called computer-mediated communication (CMC). Combining the two terms together, thus, would mean eliminating the geographic requirements and allowing that the social interaction would occur virtually, that is, via information technology, among people with common ties. In fact, people have been coming together in virtual communities on the Internet for over 25 years. Usenet newsgroups, started in 1979, are widely regarded as the first virtual communities on the Internet (M. A. Smith, 1999), and The Well (www.well.com), started in 1985, is often referred to as an early exemplar of virtual community (Rheingold, 1993). Virtual communities may be part of a long-term shift away from geographic ties to common interest ties (Wellman & Gulia, 1999b). Formal definitions and understandings of the term virtual community still remain problematic, however (Lee et al., 2003). Perhaps the most cited definition is that of Howard Rheingold, a prominent author, consultant, and member of The Well: Social aggregations that emerge from the Net when enough people carry on those public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace. (Rheingold, 1993, p. 5) Common to many of the definitions is the presence of shared interests or goals (Dennis, Pootheri, & Natarajan, 1998; Figallo, 1998; Kilsheimer, 1997). With the advent of information technology, locating/contacting others outside the local community has become relatively easy, especially when one seeks others who have a unique or uncommon interest. It may be that technology makes it easier for communities to form. For example, it may be difficult for someone interested in traditional bowhunting to locate others with the same inclinations by popping into the local tavern or socializing at a church function. However, a simple search in Google reveals a vibrant community centered around such an interest (www.bowsite.com/). There are virtual communities for nearly every interest that comes to mind, from medical afflictions (e.g., breast cancer, Parkinson’s, Down’s syndrome) to hobbies (e.g., coin collecting, wine, saltwater aquariums) to professions (e.g., nursing, law, finance). Implicit with the notion of community is some permanence among members and frequency of visits by members (A. D. Smith, 1999). Virtual communities must have a sense of long-term interaction (Erickson, 1997), not a place where people go only occasionally or where there are always different people. It is not uncommon for people to develop strong attachments to virtual communities, visiting them often enough to be described as “addicted” (Hiltz, 1984; Hiltz & Wellman, 1997). The members often feel part of a larger social whole within a web of relationships with others (Figallo, 1998). Indeed, many researchers have considered virtual communities as social networks (Hiltz & Wellman, 1997; Wellman, 1996; Wellman & Gulia, 1999a). Ridings et al. (2002) offer a comprehensive definition that incorporates the afore-mentioned concepts: Groups of people with common interests and practices that communicate regularly and for some duration in an organized way over the Internet through a common location or mechanism. (p. 273)