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Journal articles on the topic '3D seismic data'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 16 February 2022

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1

Puspasari, Trevi Jayanti, and Sumirah Sumirah. "APLIKASI METODE PSEUDO 3D SEISMIK DI CEKUNGAN JAWA BARAT UTARA MENGGUNAKAN K.R. BARUNA JAYA II." Oseanika 1, no. 2 (January 14, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.29122/oseanika.v1i2.4562.

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ABSTRAK Tuntutan untuk mengikuti perkembangan kebutuhan industri migas menjadi motivasi dalam mengembangkan teknik penerapan dan aplikasi akuisisi seismik multichannel 2D. Perkembangan kebutuhan eksplorasi industri migas tidak diimbangi dengan anggaran peningkatan alat survei seismik milik negara termasuk yang terpasang di K.R. Baruna Jaya II – BPPT. Penerapan metode pseudo 3D pada disain survei dan pengolahan data dapat menjadi solusi efektif dan efisien dalam mengatasi persoalan tersebut. Metode Pseudo 3D merupakan suatu teknik akuisisi dan pengolahan data dengan menitik beratkan pada disain akuisisi dan inovasi pengolahan data seismik 2D menghasilkan penampang keruangan (3D) berdasarkan input data seismik yang hanya 2D. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengaplikasikan metode pseudo 3D seismik di Cekungan Jawa Barat Utara menggunakan wahana KR. Baruna Jaya II yang dilakukan pada Desember 2009. Sebagai hasil, pengolahan data 2D lanjutan telah dilakukan dan diperoleh profil penampang seismik keruangan (3D). Profil hasil pengolahan data Pseudo 3D ini dapat menjadi acuan dalam pengambilan keputusan dan rencana survei berikutnya. Kata Kunci: Seismik Pseudo 3D, Seismik multichannel 2D, K.R. Baruna Jaya II, Cekungan Jawa Barat Utara. ABSTRACT [Aplication of Seismic Pseudo 3D in Nort West Java Basin Using K.R. Baruna Jaya II] The demand to follow the growth of needs in the oil and gas industry is a motivation in the developing of techniques for assessment and applying 2D multichannel seismic acquisition. The development of exploration needs for the oil and gas industry is not matched by budget for an upgrade Government’s seismic equipment including equipment installed in K.R. Baruna Jaya II. Applied Pseudo 3D method in survey and seismic data processing can be an effective and efficient solution. The pseudo 3D method is a data acquisition and processing technique with an emphasis on the acquisition design and 2D seismic data processing innovation to produce a 3D seismic volume. This study aims to apply the pseudo 3D seismic method in the North West Java Basin using the K.R. Baruna Jaya II which was held in Desember 2009. As a Result, advanced seismic processing was carried out to output a seismic volume (3D) profile. This profile can be used as a reference in making decisions and planning the next survey. Keywords: Pseudo 3D Seismic, Seismic 2D multichannel, K.R. Baruna Jaya II, Nort West Java Basin.

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2

Robertson, James D. "Reservoir Management Using 3D Seismic Data." Journal of Petroleum Technology 41, no. 07 (July 1, 1989): 663–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/19887-pa.

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3

ZHELUDEV, VALERY A., DAN D. KOSLOFF, and EUGENE Y. RAGOZA. "COMPRESSION OF SEGMENTED 3D SEISMIC DATA." International Journal of Wavelets, Multiresolution and Information Processing 02, no. 03 (September 2004): 269–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219691304000536.

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We present a preliminary investigation of compression of segmented 3D seismic volumes for the rendering purposes. Promising results are obtained on the base of 3D discrete cosine transforms followed by the SPIHT coding scheme. An accelerated version of the algorithm combines 1D discrete cosine transform in vertical direction with the 2D wavelet transform of horizontal slices. In this case the SPIHT scheme is used for coding the mixed sets of cosine-wavelet coefficients.

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4

Waage, Malin, Stefan Bünz, Martin Landrø, Andreia Plaza-Faverola, and Kate A. Waghorn. "Repeatability of high-resolution 3D seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 84, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): B75—B94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2018-0099.1.

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High-resolution 4D (HR4D) seismic data have the potential for improving the current state-of-the-art in detecting shallow ([Formula: see text] below seafloor) subsurface changes on a very fine scale (approximately 3–6 m). Time-lapse seismic investigations commonly use conventional broadband seismic data, considered low to moderate resolution in our context. We have developed the first comprehensive time -lapse analysis of high-resolution seismic data by assessing the repeatability of P-cable 3D seismic data (approximately 30–350 Hz) with short offsets and a high density of receivers. P-cable 3D seismic data sets have for decades been used to investigate shallow fluid flow and gas-hydrate systems. We analyze P-cable high-resolution 4D (HR4D) seismic data from three different geologic settings in the Arctic Circle. The first two are test sites with no evidence of shallow subsurface fluid flow, and the third is an active seepage site. Using these sites, we evaluate the reliability of the P-cable 3D seismic technology as a time-lapse tool and establish a 4D acquisition and processing workflow. Weather, waves, tide, and acquisition-parameters such as residual shot noise are factors affecting seismic repeatability. We achieve reasonable quantitative repeatability measures in stratified marine sediments at two test locations. However, repeatability is limited in areas that have poor penetration of seismic energy through the seafloor, such as glacial moraines or rough surface topography. The 4D anomalies in the active seepage site are spatially restricted to areas of focused fluid flow and might likely indicate changes in fluid flow. This approach can thus be applied to detect migration of fluids in active leakage structures, such as gas chimneys.

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5

Admasu, Fitsum, Stefan Back, and Klaus Toennies. "Autotracking of faults on 3D seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 71, no. 6 (November 2006): A49—A53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2358399.

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Manual fault mapping in 3D seismic interpretation is labor-intensive and time-consuming. Complex fault geometries and the distortion of the seismic signal close to faults complicate full automation of the fault-mapping process. We present a semiautomatic fault-tracking method for 3D seismic data that consists of fault highlighting followed by model-based fault tracking. Fault highlighting uses log-Gabor filters for emphasizing oriented amplitude discontinuities at faults in the presence of noise. Subsequent fault tracking fits an active contour to the highlighted fault voxels. The active contour searches for a connected, smooth curve which fits the data and disambiguates misleading or missing information. The fault tracker requires the interpreter to place the active contour close to a fault on one initial seismic inline (2D pick). The active contour deforms to the closest amplitude dis-continuity highlighted. This tracking result is then projected forward to the next inline, providing an initial fault pick on this section that is again optimized by the active contour. Tracking results on a series of successive seismic sections, finally, constitute a 3D fault surface. User interaction is solely required for an approximate fault pick on the first inline, and in cases where the fault line is lost due to insufficient signal. Use of the autotracker prototype provides a fast solution for the mapping of complete 3D fault surfaces of constant dip, and for the automated tracking of fault portions within distinct dip domains, if fault surfaces are curved (i.e., listric). The method was applied to a series of high-quality reflectivity sections extracted from a 3D seismic volume from shallow-offshore Nigeria, with the tracking results (generated within seconds) comparing well with manually interpreted fault surfaces.

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6

Holt, Rob, and Andy Lubrano. "Stabilizing the phase of onshore 3D seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 85, no. 6 (November 1, 2020): V473—V479. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2019-0695.1.

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When present, surface-consistent (shot and/or receiver) phase instability will generate surface-consistent time shifts that are at least partially removed from seismic data when surface-consistent residual statics corrections are applied. The phase instability will not be fully corrected and lingers undetected in the data throughout the remainder of the processing workflow. After processing finishes, seismic interpreters often need to apply laterally varying phase rotations to tie their onshore 3D seismic data to synthetic seismograms, before starting detailed stratigraphic interpretation projects. We have developed and tested a new surface-consistent seismic processing workflow that can be applied to increase the phase stability of our seismic data. It is run after the final pass of conventional surface-consistent residual shot and receiver statics corrections have been applied to optimally align the seismic traces. The phase stability corrections are estimated from an additional pass of surface-consistent residual shot and receiver statics corrections that are calculated on the phase-independent seismic trace envelopes. We demonstrate the application of the workflow using synthetic and real seismic data. We gained confidence that the workflow was performing as expected after we intentionally phase rotated a small subset of the shots and receivers in our seismic test data sets and observed that the workflow corrected these intentionally phase-rotated traces with a high level of accuracy.

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7

Carpenter, Chris. "Innovative Processing of 3D Land-Seismic Data." Journal of Petroleum Technology 66, no. 03 (March 1, 2014): 144–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/0314-0144-jpt.

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8

Faraklioti, Maria, and Maria Petrou. "Horizon picking in 3D seismic data volumes." Machine Vision and Applications 15, no. 4 (October 2004): 216–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00138-004-0151-8.

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9

Giustiniani, Michela, Flavio Accaino, Stefano Picotti, and Umberta Tinivella. "3D seismic data for shallow aquifers characterisation." Journal of Applied Geophysics 68, no. 3 (July 2009): 394–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2009.03.005.

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10

Deighton, M., and M. Petrou. "Data mining for large scale 3D seismic data analysis." Machine Vision and Applications 20, no. 1 (November 15, 2007): 11–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00138-007-0101-3.

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11

Gulati, Jitendra S., Robert R. Stewart, and John M. Parkin. "Analyzing three‐component 3D vertical seismic profiling data." GEOPHYSICS 69, no. 2 (March 2004): 386–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1707057.

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A three‐component 3D vertical seismic profile (VSP) was acquired over the Blackfoot oil field in Alberta, Canada. The VSP survey was recorded simultaneously with a surface seismic program. The objectives of the VSP were to develop recording logistics, data handling, and processing procedures and to determine if the 3D VSP volumes could image the glauconitic sand reservoir of the Blackfoot field. Dynamite shots from the surface seismic survey, which fell within a 2200‐m offset from the recording well, were used in the VSP analysis. The shots were recorded by a string of three‐component borehole receivers that was moved seven times, resulting in a receiver depth range of 400 to 910 m. The borehole data were processed using basic VSP processing techniques that included hodogram analysis, wavefield separation using median filters, and VSP deconvolution. The final P‐P and P‐S image volumes were obtained by VSP common‐depth point and VSP common‐conversion point stacking the upgoing wavefields followed by f‐xy deconvolution. The P‐P and P‐S images from the VSP correlate well with those from the surface seismic survey. Time slices from the VSP also indicate the trend of the sand channel of the Blackfoot field.

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12

Bugge, Aina Juell, Jan Erik Lie, Andreas K. Evensen, Espen H. Nilsen, Odd Kolbjørnsen, and Jan Inge Faleide. "Data-driven identification of stratigraphic units in 3D seismic data using hierarchical density-based clustering." GEOPHYSICS 85, no. 5 (August 17, 2020): IM15—IM26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2019-0413.1.

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Seismic sequences are stratigraphic units of relatively conformable seismic reflections. These units are intervals of similar sedimentation conditions, governed by sediment supply and relative sea level, and they are key elements in understanding the evolution of sedimentary basins. Conventional seismic sequence analyses typically rely on human interpretation; consequently, they are time-consuming. We have developed a new data-driven method to identify first-order stratigraphic units based on the assumption that the seismic units honor a layer-cake earth model, with layers that can be discriminated by the differences in seismic reflection properties, such as amplitude, continuity, and density. To identify stratigraphic units in a seismic volume, we compute feature vectors that describe the distribution of amplitudes, texture, and two-way traveltime for small seismic subvolumes. Here, the seismic texture is described with a novel texture descriptor that quantifies a simplified 3D local binary pattern around each pixel in the seismic volume. The feature vectors are preprocessed and clustered using a hierarchical density-based cluster algorithm in which each cluster is assumed to represent one stratigraphic unit. Field examples from the Barents Sea and the North Sea demonstrate that the proposed data-driven method can identify major 3D stratigraphic units without the need for manual interpretation, labeling, or prior geologic knowledge.

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13

Behrens, R. A., and T. T. Tran. "Incorporating Seismic Data of Intermediate Vertical Resolution Into Three-Dimensional Reservoir Models: A New Method." SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 2, no. 04 (August 1, 1999): 325–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/57481-pa.

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Summary Three-dimensional (3D) earth models are best created with a combination of well logs and seismic data. Seismic data have good lateral resolution but poor vertical resolution compared to wells. The seismic resolution depends on seismic acquisition and reservoir parameters, and is incorporated into the 3D earth model with different techniques depending on this resolution relative to that of the 3D model. Good vertical resolution of the seismic data may warrant integrating it as a continuous vertical variable informing local reservoir properties, whereas poor resolution warrants using only a single map representing vertically averaged reservoir properties. The first case best applies to thick reservoirs and/or high-frequency seismic data in soft rock and is usually handled using a cokriging-type approach. The second case represents the low end of the seismic resolution spectrum, where the seismic map can now be treated by methods such as block kriging, simulated annealing, or Bayesian techniques. We introduce a new multiple map Bayesian technique with variable weights for the important middle ground where a single seismic map cannot effectively represent the entire reservoir. This new technique extends a previous Bayesian technique by incorporating multiple seismic property maps and also allowing vertically varying weighting functions for each map. This vertical weighting flexibility is physically important because the seismic maps represent reflected wave averages from rock property contrasts such as at the top and base of the reservoir. Depending on the seismic acquisition and reservoir properties, the seismic maps are physically represented by simple but nonconstant weights in the new 3D earth modeling technique. Two field examples are shown where two seismic maps are incorporated in each 3D earth model. The benefit of using multiple maps is illustrated with the geostatistical concept of probability of exceedance. Finally, a postmortem is presented showing well path trajectories of a successful and unsuccessful horizontal well that are explained by model results based on data existing before the wells were drilled. Introduction Three-dimensional (3D) earth models are greatly improved by including seismic data because of the good lateral coverage compared with well data alone. The vertical resolution of seismic data is poor compared with well data, but it may be high or low compared with the reservoir thickness as depicted in Fig. 1. Seismic resolution is typically considered to be one-fourth of a wavelength (?/4) although zones of thinner rock property contrasts can be detected. The seismic resolution relative to the reservoir thickness constrains the applicability of different geostatistical techniques for building the 3D earth model. Fig. 1 is highly schematic and not meant to portray seismic data as a monochromatic (single-frequency) wave. The reference to wavelength here is based on the dominant frequency in the seismic data. Fig. 1 is meant to illustrate the various regimes of vertical resolution in seismic data relative to the reservoir thickness. While there are all sorts of issues, such as tuning, that must be considered in the left two cases, we need to address these cases because of their importance. Seismic data having little vertical resolution over the reservoir interval, as in the left case of Fig. 1 can use geostatistical techniques that incorporate one seismic attribute map. The single attribute can be a static combination of multiple attributes in a multivariate sense but the combination cannot vary spatially. These techniques include sequential Gaussian simulation with Block Kriging1 (SGSBK), simulated annealing,2 or sequential Gaussian simulation with Bayesian updating.3,4 Some of these methods are extendable beyond a single seismic map with modification. Seismic data having good vertical resolution over the reservoir interval, as in the right seismic trace of Fig. 1, can use geostatistical techniques that incorporate 3D volumes of seismic attributes. Techniques include simulated annealing, collocated cokriging simulation,5 a Markov-Bayes approach,6 and spectral separation. The term "3D volume" of seismic, as used here, is distinguished from the term "3D seismic data." (A geophysicist speaks of 3D seismic data when it is acquired over the surface in areal swaths or patches for the purpose of imaging a 3D volume of the earth. Two-dimensional (2D) seismic is acquired along a line on the surface for the purpose of imaging a 2D cross section of the earth.) The 3D volume distinction is made based on the vertical resolution of the seismic relative to the reservoir. To be considered a 3D volume here, we require both lateral and vertical resolution within the reservoir. Seismic data often do not have the vertical resolution within the reservoir zone to warrant using a 3D volume of seismic data. The low and high limits of vertical resolution leave out the case of intermediate vertical resolution as depicted by the middle curve of Fig. 1. Because typical seismic resolution often ranges from 10 to 40 m and many reservoirs have thicknesses one to two times this range, many reservoirs fall into this middle ground. These reservoirs have higher vertical seismic resolution than a single map captures, but not enough to warrant using a 3D volume of seismic. It is this important middle ground that is addressed by a new technique presented in this paper.

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Uraki, Shigenobu, Yukari Kido, Yoshinori Sanada, Shin'ichi Kuramoto, Tadashi Okano, Hajime Saga, Jin-Oh Park, Gregory F. Moore, and Asahiko Taira. "Kumano-nada 3D seismic data acquisition and processing." BUTSURI-TANSA(Geophysical Exploration) 62, no. 2 (2009): 277–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3124/segj.62.277.

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15

Chopra, Satinder, and Kurt Marfurt. "Curvature attribute applications to 3D surface seismic data." Leading Edge 26, no. 4 (April 2007): 404–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2723201.

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16

Lv, Xiaochun, Chanxin Sun, Mingjun Zou, Hongjian Wang, Fei Zhao, and Chong Wei. "Parallel Simulation Technology of 3D Seismic Data Cluster." Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 13, no. 12 (December 1, 2016): 9454–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2016.5864.

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17

Margrave, Gary F., Don C. Lawton, and Robert R. Stewart. "Interpreting channel sands with 3C-3D seismic data." Leading Edge 17, no. 4 (April 1998): 509–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1438000.

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18

Kirkpatrick, James D., Joel H. Edwards, Alessandro Verdecchia, Jared W. Kluesner, Rebecca M. Harrington, and Eli A. Silver. "Subduction megathrust heterogeneity characterized from 3D seismic data." Nature Geoscience 13, no. 5 (April 20, 2020): 369–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0562-9.

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19

Dubrule, O., M. Thibaut, P. Lamy, and A. Haas. "Geostatistical reservoir characterization constrained by 3D seismic data." Petroleum Geoscience 4, no. 2 (May 1998): 121–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/petgeo.4.2.121.

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20

Gesbert, Stéphane, Chris Haneveld, and Saad Saleh. "3D “hexagonal” prestack depth migration of seismic data." Leading Edge 26, no. 10 (October 2007): 1262–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2794382.

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21

Liu, Xumin, Dawei Li, Yongxiu Xu, and Weixiang Xu. "Research on 3D Visualization Method of Seismic Data." International Journal of Signal Processing, Image Processing and Pattern Recognition 9, no. 5 (May 31, 2013): 441–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.14257/ijsip.2016.9.5.39.

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22

Blanch, Joakim, Jessica Hapney, Margaret Ishak, Aurora Rodriguez, Andreas Laake, and Nick Moldoveanu. "Efficient 3D seismic data acquisition in deep water." Leading Edge 36, no. 4 (April 2017): 311–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/tle36040311.1.

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23

Kovesi, Peter, Ben Richardson, Eun-Jung Holden, and Jeffrey Shragge. "Phase-Based Image Analysis of 3D Seismic Data." ASEG Extended Abstracts 2012, no. 1 (December 2012): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aseg2012ab183.

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24

Hossain, Muhammad Shahadat, Milovan Urosevic, and Anton Kepic. "Volumetric interpretation of 3D hard rock seismic data." ASEG Extended Abstracts 2013, no. 1 (December 2013): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aseg2013ab088.

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Marroquín, Iván Dimitri, Jean-Jules Brault, and Bruce S. Hart. "A visual data-mining methodology for seismic facies analysis: Part 2 — Application to 3D seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 74, no. 1 (January 2009): P13—P23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.3046456.

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A visual data-mining approach to unsupervised clustering analysis can be an effective tool for visualizing and understanding patterns inherent in seismic data (i.e., seismic facies). The unsupervised clustering analysis is completely data-driven, requiring no external information (e.g., well logs) to guide the seismic-trace classification. We demonstrate the application of the visual data-mining approach to seismic facies analysis on a real 3D seismic data volume. We select two stratigraphic intervals, the first including a Devonian pinnacle reef system and the second containing a Jurassic siliciclastic channel system. Both analyses show major stratigraphic features that can be defined in horizon slices or other types of visualization. However, the visual data-mining approach creates seismic facies maps with improved visual detail, distinguishing seismic trace-shape variability in the data. We also compare the facies maps with those obtained from a commercial package for seismic facies classification. Both approaches created similar facies maps, but the visual strategy better depicts subtle stratigraphic changes in the bodies being imaged, offering insight into the nature of these features.

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Thachaparambil, Manoj Vallikkat. "Discrete 3D fracture network extraction and characterization from 3D seismic data — A case study at Teapot Dome." Interpretation 3, no. 3 (August 1, 2015): ST29—ST41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/int-2014-0219.1.

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Three-dimensional discrete fracture networks (DFNs) extracted from the seismic data of the Tensleep Formation at Teapot Dome successfully matched 1D fracture data from multiple boreholes within the area. The extraction process used four seismic attributes, i.e., variance, chaos, curvature, and spectral edge, and their multiple realizations to define seismic discontinuities that could potentially represent fractures within the Tensleep Formation. All of the potential fracture attributes were further enhanced using a fracture-tracking attribute for better extraction and analysis of seismic discontinuity surfaces and their network properties. A state-of-the-art discontinuity surface extraction and characterization workflow uniformly extracted and interactively characterized the seismic discontinuity surfaces and networks that correlate with borehole fracture data. Among the attributes, a fracture-tracking attribute cube created out of the high-resolution spectral-edge attribute provided the best match with the borehole fracture data from the Tensleep Formation. Therefore, the extracted discontinuity planes were classified as fractures and then characterized. The extracted fracture population also matched earlier published records of faults and fractures at Teapot Dome. Unlike the conventional method, which uses 1D borehole fracture data as primary input and 3D seismic data as a guide volume during DFN modeling, I used 3D seismic attributes as the primary data and the 1D borehole fracture data only for quality control. I also evaluated the power of converting seismic fracture attribute volumes into discrete surfaces and networks for effective correlation with 1D fracture logs from boreholes.

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AKHMEDOV, Tofik Rashid ogly, and Aigyun Nemat kyzy SULTANOVA. "Geological structure of the Khylly field according to 3D seismic data." NEWS of the Ural State Mining University 59, no. 3 (September 15, 2020): 52–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.21440/2307-2091-2020-3-52-61.

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Relevance of the work. The paper considers challenging problems related with outlining of intervals with oil and gas presence in the mature Khylly field by use of latest 3D seismic survey techniques in order to gain larger crude resources base. The purpose of this research is to discover the most promising intervals of target horizons with relatively high reservoir properties outlined by 3D seismic data. The subjects of research are 3D seismic survey data, downhole seismic survey – Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP) and well logging diagrams. The object of research is the Khylly deposit. The paper describes in brief geological and geophysical characteristics, stratigraphic and lithological features of rocks making the section. It is noted that despite repeated surveys by use of various geological and geophysical techniques, the field setting is not thoroughly studied and it has been covered by 3D seismic survey in 2012. Research results. 3D seismic survey applied across Khylly area is resulted in drawing of 4 structural maps for III and I horizons of Productive Series (PS), Akchagyl and Lower Absheron suites. Taking into account the relevance of structural planes of various stratigraphic levels and III horizon of PS being one of the major reference horizons the paper gives description of structural map drawn for this horizon. The detailed velocity model is designed based on VSP data with wide use of velocity analysis data. It has been made clear that Khylly area has block structure and each block has been described in detail. Based on acquired data it has been recommended to drill exploratory well R-1. Conclusion. Processing and interpretation of seismic data are aimed at solving some geological problems; the main task was to obtain results that ensure the study of the geological structure in the seismic survey area, including tracing of seismic horizons, faults and outlining the areas and section intervals which may be of interest due to possible oil and gas presence. VSP data acquired in well 2012 and velocity analysis made it possible to design velocity model of the section under the study, with the use of which the temporary 3D cube was transformed into a depth cube. The quality of seismic data is good and made it possible to solve the tasks set for this research.

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Niri, M. Emami, and D. E. Lumley. "Probabilistic Reservoir-Property Modeling Jointly Constrained by 3D-Seismic Data and Hydraulic-Unit Analysis." SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 19, no. 02 (February 18, 2016): 253–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/171444-pa.

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Summary We present a new method for seismic reservoir characterization and reservoir-property modeling on the basis of an integrated analysis of 3D-seismic data and hydraulic flow units, and apply it to an example of a producing reservoir offshore Western Australia. Our method combines hydraulic-unit analysis with a set of techniques for seismic reservoir characterization including rock-physics analysis, Bayesian inference, prestack seismic inversion, and geostatistical simulation of reservoir properties. Hydraulic units are geologic layers and zones characterized by similar properties of fluid flow in porous permeable media, and are defined at well locations on the basis of logs, core measurements, and production data. However, the number of wells available for hydraulic-unit analysis is often extremely limited. In comparison, the lateral coverage and resolution of 3D-seismic data are excellent, and can thus be used to extend hydraulic-unit analysis away from well locations into the full 3D reservoir volume. We develop a probabilistic relationship between optimal 3D-seismic-data attributes and the hydraulic units that we determine at well locations. Because porosity and permeability distributions are estimated for each hydraulic flow unit as part of the process, we can use the 3D-seismic probabilistic relationships to constrain geostatistical realizations of porosity and permeability in the reservoir, to be consistent with the flow-unit analysis. Reservoir models jointly constrained by both 3D-seismic data and hydraulic flow-unit analysis have the potential to improve the processes of reservoir characterization, fluid-flow performance forecasting, and production data or 4D-seismic history matching.

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Takanashi, Mamoru, Isao Takahashi, and Kenichi Akama. "An application of seismic azimuthal anisotropy using a land 3D seismic data." Journal of the Japanese Association for Petroleum Technology 74, no. 1 (2009): 23–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3720/japt.74.23.

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Oren, Can, and Robert L. Nowack. "An overview of reproducible 3D seismic data processing and imaging using Madagascar." GEOPHYSICS 83, no. 2 (March 1, 2018): F9—F20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2016-0603.1.

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We present an overview of reproducible 3D seismic data processing and imaging using the Madagascar open-source software package. So far, there has been a limited number of studies on the processing of real 3D data sets using open-source software packages. Madagascar with its wide range of individual programs and tools available provides the capability to fully process 3D seismic data sets. The goal is to provide a streamlined illustration of the approach for the implementation of 3D seismic data processing and imaging using the Madagascar open-source software package. A brief introduction is first given to the Madagascar open-source software package and the publicly available 3D Teapot Dome seismic data set. Several processing steps are applied to the data set, including amplitude gaining, ground roll attenuation, muting, deconvolution, static corrections, spike-like random noise elimination, normal moveout (NMO) velocity analysis, NMO correction, stacking, and band-pass filtering. A 3D velocity model in depth is created using Dix conversion and time-to-depth scaling. Three-dimensional poststack depth migration is then performed followed by [Formula: see text]-[Formula: see text] deconvolution and structure-enhancing filtering of the migrated image to suppress random noise and enhance the useful signal. We show that Madagascar, as a powerful open-source environment, can be used to construct a basic workflow to process and image 3D seismic data in a reproducible manner.

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Gómez, Julián L., Danilo R. Velis, and Juan I. Sabbione. "Noise suppression in 2D and 3D seismic data with data-driven sifting algorithms." GEOPHYSICS 85, no. 1 (November 11, 2019): V1—V10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2019-0099.1.

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We have developed an empirical-mode decomposition (EMD) algorithm for effective suppression of random and coherent noise in 2D and 3D seismic amplitude data. Unlike other EMD-based methods for seismic data processing, our approach does not involve the time direction in the computation of the signal envelopes needed for the iterative sifting process. Instead, we apply the sifting algorithm spatially in the inline-crossline plane. At each time slice, we calculate the upper and lower signal envelopes by means of a filter whose length is adapted dynamically at each sifting iteration according to the spatial distribution of the extrema. The denoising of a 3D volume is achieved by removing the most oscillating modes of each time slice from the noisy data. We determine the performance of the algorithm by using three public-domain poststack field data sets: one 2D line of the well-known Alaska 2D data set, available from the US Geological Survey; a subset of the Penobscot 3D volume acquired offshore by the Nova Scotia Department of Energy, Canada; and a subset of the Stratton 3D land data from South Texas, available from the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin. The results indicate that random and coherent noise, such as footprint signatures, can be mitigated satisfactorily, enhancing the reflectors with negligible signal leakage in most cases. Our method, called empirical-mode filtering (EMF), yields improved results compared to other 2D and 3D techniques, such as [Formula: see text] EMD filter, [Formula: see text] deconvolution, and [Formula: see text]-[Formula: see text]-[Formula: see text] adaptive prediction filtering. EMF exploits the flexibility of EMD on seismic data and is presented as an efficient and easy-to-apply alternative for denoising seismic data with mild to moderate structural complexity.

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Karbalaali, Haleh, Abdolrahim Javaherian, Stephan Dahlke, Rafael Reisenhofer, and Siyavash Torabi. "Seismic channel edge detection using 3D shearlets-a study on synthetic and real channelised 3D seismic data." Geophysical Prospecting 66, no. 7 (July 5, 2018): 1272–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2478.12629.

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Miharno, Fatimah. "ANALISA POTENSI MINYAK DAN GAS BUMI DENGAN ATRIBUT SEISMIK PADA BATUAN KARBONAT LAPANGAN *ZEFARA* CEKUNGAN SUMATRA SELATAN." KURVATEK 1, no. 2 (May 23, 2017): 21–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.33579/krvtk.v1i2.250.

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ABSTRACT*Zefara* Field formation Baturaja on South Sumatra Basin is a reservoir carbonate and prospective gas. Data used in this research were 3D seismik data, well logs, and geological information. According to geological report known that hidrocarbon traps in research area were limestone lithological layer as stratigraphical trap and faulted anticline as structural trap. The study restricted in effort to make a hydrocarbon accumulation and a potential carbonate reservoir area maps with seismic attribute. All of the data used in this study are 3D seismic data set, well-log data and check-shot data. The result of the analysis are compared to the result derived from log data calculation as a control analysis. Hydrocarbon prospect area generated from seismic attribute and are divided into three compartments. The seismic attribute analysis using RMS amplitude method and instantaneous frequency is very effective to determine hydrocarbon accumulation in *Zefara* field, because low amplitude from Baturaja reservoir. Low amplitude hints low AI, determined high porosity and high hydrocarbon contact (HC). Keyword: Baturaja Formation, RMS amplitude seismic attribute, instantaneous frequency seismic attribute

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Leopoldino Oliveira, Karen M., Heather Bedle, and Karelia La Marca Molina. "Identification of polygonal faulting from legacy 3D seismic data in vintage Gulf of Mexico data using seismic attributes." Interpretation 9, no. 3 (July 7, 2021): C23—C28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/int-2019-0255.1.

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Geological feature: Polygonal faults Seismic appearance: Variable-amplitude plane-parallel horizons without clear discontinuities Features with similar appearance: Seismic noise in stratigraphic sequences without brittle deformation Age: Cenozoic Location: Northern Gulf of Mexico Seismic data: Survey B-01-91-MS obtained by the U.S. National Archive of Marine Seismic Surveys Analysis tools: Geometric seismic attributes

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Miller, Brian E., Steven D. Sloan, Georgios P. Tsoflias, and Don W. Steeples. "The 3D Autojuggie: automating acquisition of 3D near-surface seismic reflection data." Near Surface Geophysics 15, no. 1 (August 1, 2016): 3–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2016035.

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Chopra, Satinder, Vladimir Alexeev, Abhi Manerikar, and Andrew Kryzan. "Processing/integration of simultaneously acquired 3D surface seismic and 3D VSP data." Leading Edge 23, no. 5 (May 2004): 422–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.1729227.

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Urosevic, Milovan, Ganesh Bhat, and Marcos Hexsel Grochau. "Targeting nickel sulfide deposits from 3D seismicreflection data at Kambalda, Australia." GEOPHYSICS 77, no. 5 (September 1, 2012): WC123—WC132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2011-0514.1.

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The greenstone belts of the Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia, host numerous Archaean gold, nickel, and iron ore deposits. These deposits typically are found in complex geologic structures hidden by a deep, heterogeneous, and often conductive regolith profile. This added complexity limits the depth of penetration for the potential field methods, but at the same time opens new revenue possibilities through the application of seismic methods. To explore this opportunity, we acquired high-resolution, experimental, 3D seismic data over Lake Lefroy in Kambalda, Western Australia. The main objective was to map exceptionally complex, deep structures associated with Kambalda dome. Survey design used 3D ray tracing to improve the distribution of the common reflection points across ultramafic-basalt contacts which host numerous small, high-grade nickel sulfide deposits. A combination of small explosive sources, high-shot/receiver density, and exceptionally good coupling over the ultrasalty lake surface produced seismic data of very high quality. Processing focused on computation of accurate static and dynamic corrections, whereas imaging was helped by the existing geologic model. Advanced volumetric interpretation supported by seismic forward modeling was used to guide mapping of the main lithological interfaces and structures. Forward modeling was carried out using rock properties obtained from ultrasonic measurements and one borehole, drilled in the proximity of the 3D seismic volume. Using this information, geometric constraints based on the typical size of ore bodies found in this mine and a simple window-based seismic attribute, several new targets were proposed. Three of these targets subsequently have been drilled and new zones of mineralization were intercepted. The case study presented demonstrates that high-quality, high-resolution, 3D seismic data combined with volumetric seismic interpretation could become a primary methodology for exploration of deep, small, massive sulfide deposits distributed across the Kambalda area.

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Cohen, Israel, Nicholas Coult, and Anthony A. Vassiliou. "Detection and extraction of fault surfaces in 3D seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 71, no. 4 (July 2006): P21—P27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2215357.

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We propose an efficient method for detecting and extracting fault surfaces in 3D-seismic volumes. The seismic data are transformed into a volume of local-fault-extraction (LFE) estimates that represents the likelihood that a given point lies on a fault surface. We partition the fault surfaces into relatively small linear portions, which are identified by analyzing tilted and rotated subvolumes throughout the region of interest. Directional filtering and thresholding further enhance the seismic discontinuities that are attributable to fault surfaces. Subsequently, the volume of LFE estimates is skeletonized, and individual fault surfaces are extracted and labeled in the order of decreasing size. The ultimate result obtained by the proposed procedure provides a visual and semantic representation of a set of well-defined, cleanly separated, one-pixel-thick, labeled fault surfaces that is readily usable for seismic interpretation.

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Barone, Ilaria, Emanuel Kästle, Claudio Strobbia, and Giorgio Cassiani. "Surface wave tomography using 3D active-source seismic data." GEOPHYSICS 86, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): EN13—EN26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2020-0068.1.

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Surface wave tomography (SWT) is a powerful and well-established technique to retrieve 3D shear-wave (S-wave) velocity models at the regional scale from earthquakes and seismic noise measurements. We have applied SWT to 3D active-source data, in which higher modes and heterogeneous spatial sampling make phase extraction challenging. First, synthetic traveltimes calculated on a dense, regular-spaced station array are used to test the performance of three different tomography algorithms (linearized inversion, Markov chain Monte Carlo [MCMC], and eikonal tomography). The tests suggest that the lowest misfit to the input model is achieved with the MCMC algorithm, at the cost of a much longer computational time. Then, real phases were extracted from a 3D exploration data set at different frequencies. This operation included an automated procedure to isolate the fundamental mode from higher order modes, phase unwrapping in two dimensions, and the estimation of the zero-offset phase. These phases are used to compute traveltimes between each source-receiver couple, which are input into the previously tested tomography algorithms. The resulting phase-velocity maps show good correspondence, highlighting the same geologic structures for all three methods. Finally, individual dispersion curves obtained by the superposition of phase-velocity maps at different frequencies are depth inverted to retrieve a 3D S-wave velocity model.

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Zou, Zheguang, Parsa Bakhtiari Rad, Leonardo Macelloni, and Likun Zhang. "Temporal and spatial variations in three-dimensional seismic oceanography." Ocean Science 17, no. 4 (August 12, 2021): 1053–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1053-2021.

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Abstract. Seismic oceanography is a new cross-discipline between geophysics and oceanography that uses seismic reflection data to image and study the oceanic water column. Previous work on seismic oceanography was largely limited to two-dimensional (2D) seismic data and methods. Here we explore and quantify temporal and spatial variations in three-dimensional (3D) seismic oceanography to address whether 3D seismic imaging is meaningful in all directions and how one can take advantage of the variations. From a 3D multichannel seismic survey acquired for oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Mexico over a 6-month period, a 3D oceanic seismic volume was derived. The 3D seismic images exhibit both temporal and spatial variations of the ocean, and theoretical and data analyses were used to quantify their contribution. Our results suggest that temporal variation is more prominent in the crossline direction than in the inline direction, causing discontinuities in crossline images. However, a series of 3D inline images can be seen as snapshots of the water column at different times, capturing temporal variation of thermohaline structures induced by ocean dynamics. Our findings suggest the potential uses of marine 3D seismic data in studying time-evolving mesoscale ocean dynamics.

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Al-Dossary, Saleh. "Preconditioning seismic data for channel detection." Interpretation 3, no. 1 (February 1, 2015): T1—T4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/int-2014-0031.1.

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Random seismic noise, present in all 3D seismic data sets, hampers manual interpretation by geoscientists and automatic analysis by a computer program. As a result, many noise-suppression techniques have been developed to enhance image quality. Accurately suppressing seismic noise without damaging image details is crucial in preserving small-scale geologic features for channel detection. The automatic detection of channel patterns theoretically should be easy because of their unique spatial signatures and scales, which differentiate them from other common 3D geobodies. For example, one notable channel characteristic has high local linearity: Spatial coherency is much greater in one direction than in other directions. A variety of techniques, such as spatial filters, can be used to enhance this “slender” channel feature in areas of high signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). Unfortunately, these spatial filters may also reduce the edge detectability in areas of low S/N. In this paper, I compared the effectiveness of three noise reduction filters: (1) running average, (2) redundant wavelet transform (RWT), and (3) polynomial fitting. I demonstrated the usefulness of these filters prior to edge detection to enhance channel patterns in seismic data collected from Saudi Arabia. The data examples demonstrated that RWT and polynomial fitting can successfully preserve, enhance, and delineate channel edges that were not visible in conventional seismic amplitude displays, whereas the running average filter further smeared the detectability of channel edges.

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Yang, Bo, Zhan Liu, and Kaijun Xu. "Integrating multigeophysical data to improve structural imaging in the Dayangshu Basin." Interpretation 8, no. 4 (October 26, 2020): SS87—SS96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/int-2019-0263.1.

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We have used the integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetotelluric (MT) data, and seismic data to improve the structural imaging of the Dayangshu Basin. The Dayangshu Basin is mainly composed of clastic and volcanic rocks. The logging data in the basin show different degrees of direct hydrocarbon indication, suggesting that the Dayangshu Basin has good potential for exploration. However, the widely distributed volcanic rocks attenuate seismic waves and lead to poor seismic imaging. Thus, the seismic signal is weak in the Ganhe Formation (K1g) and reliable seismic images cannot be obtained below that formation. MT data can accurately obtain images of deep structures because the resistivity of volcanic rocks is significantly higher than that of sedimentary rocks. Therefore, to obtain a more reliable geologic model, we combine the traditional 3D MT inversion result with logging and seismic data to establish an initial model. The 3D MT fuzzy constrained inversion (FCI) produces a more reliable geophysical model and geologically meaningful results. The resistivity model inverted from FCI shows that volcanic rocks are widely distributed in the Ganhe Formation, and the resistivity value of the lower section of the Longjiang Formation is greater than that of the upper section of the Longjiang Formation. Finally, the 3D gravity inversion with structural constraints from 3D MT FCI method was performed to improve the model resolution in depth and to highlight the density variations within the Jiufengshan Formation, which can further optimize the geologic model. We have determined how the effective integration of gravity, MT, and seismic data can improve the structural imaging of the Dayangshu Basin.

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43

Shi, Ying, and Yanghua Wang. "Reverse time migration of 3D vertical seismic profile data." GEOPHYSICS 81, no. 1 (January 1, 2016): S31—S38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2015-0277.1.

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Reverse time migration (RTM) has shown increasing advantages in handling seismic images of complex subsurface media, but it has not been used widely in 3D seismic data due to the large storage and computation requirements. Our prime objective was to develop an RTM strategy that was applicable to 3D vertical seismic profiling (VSP) data. The strategy consists of two aspects: storage saving and calculation acceleration. First, we determined the use of the random boundary condition (RBC) to save the storage in wavefield simulation. An absorbing boundary such as the perfect matching layer boundary is often used in RTM, but it has a high memory demand for storing the source wavefield. RBC is a nonabsorbing boundary and only stores the source wavefield at the two maximum time steps, then repropagates the source wavefield backwards at every time step, and hence, it significantly reduces the memory requirement. Second, we examined the use of the graphic processing unit (GPU) parallelization technique to accelerate the computation. RBC needs to simulate the source wavefield twice and doubles the computation. Thus, it is very necessary to realize the RTM algorithm by GPU, especially for a 3D VSP data set. GPU and central processing unit (CPU) collaborated parallel implementation can greatly reduce the computation time, where the CPU performs serial code, and the GPU performs parallel code. Because RBC does not need the same huge amount of storage as an absorbing boundary, RTM becomes practically applicable for 3D VSP imaging.

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44

Evans, B. J., B. F. Oke, M. Urosevic, and K. Chakraborty. "A COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL MODEL WITH FIELD DATA OVER OLIVER FIELD, VULCAN GRABEN." APPEA Journal 35, no. 1 (1995): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj94002.

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Physical models representing the three dimensional geology of oil fields can be built from materials such as plastics and resins. Using ultrasound transmitters and receivers, 2D and 3D seismic surveys can be simulated to aid in the survey design of field work, provide insight into data processing, and can test interpretation concepts. Such modelling simulates most aspects of both land and marine seismic.In 1993 BHP Petroleum, on behalf of the AC/P6 Joint Venture, contracted Curtin University's Geophysics Group to build a 1:40,000 scale, 11-layer, 2.5D model of the Oliver Field so that 2D and 3D field data acquisition and processing could be simulated. A 2.5D model is invariant in the strike direction, but can answer most of the questions of a true 3D model at a fraction of the effort and cost. This was the first such model built in Australia, and one of the most complex physical models ever built.Of interest was the quality of imaging under the fault shadow near reservoir level, and whether the application of dip or strike 3D acquisition and processing approaches could improve the seismic data quality. Consequently, both dip (2D) and strike (2.5D) seismic data were acquired over the model using similar parameters to those used in conventional offshore acquisition. The data were processed to migration stage and compared with the field seismic data. Numerical model and field VSP data were also processed and compared with the field and physical model seismic data.The good agreement between processed physical model seismic and field seismic shows that physical modelling of geology has application in both two and three dimensional interpretation, acquisition planning, and processing testing and optimisation.This physical model experiment proved conclusively that shallow faults with a relatively large velocity contrast across them cause 'back' faults on the seismic data which do not exist in reality. Furthermore, this experiment proved for the first time using a physical model that strike 3D marine recording is preferable to dip 3D marine recording.

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Tsingas, Constantinos, Mohammed S. Almubarak, Woodon Jeong, Abdulrahman Al Shuhail, and Zygmunt Trzesniowski. "3D distributed and dispersed source array acquisition and data processing." Leading Edge 39, no. 6 (June 2020): 392–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/tle39060392.1.

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Numerous field acquisition examples and case studies have demonstrated the importance of recording, processing, and interpreting broadband land data. In most seismic acquisition surveys, three main objectives should be considered: (1) dense spatial source and receiver locations to achieve optimum subsurface illumination and wavefield sampling; (2) coverage of the full frequency spectrum, i.e., broadband acquisition; and (3) cost efficiency. Consequently, an effort has been made to improve the manufacturing of seismic vibratory sources by providing the ability to emit both lower (approximately 1.5 Hz) and higher frequencies (approximately 120 Hz) and of receivers by utilizing single, denser, and lighter digital sensors. All these developments achieve both operational (i.e., weight, optimized power consumption) and geophysical benefits (i.e., amplitude and phase response, vector fidelity, tilt detection). As part of the effort to reduce the acquisition cycle time, increase productivity, and improve seismic imaging and resolution while optimizing costs, a novel seismic acquisition survey was conducted employing 24 vibrators generating two different types of sweeps in a 3D unconstrained decentralized and dispersed source array field configuration. During this novel blended acquisition design, the crew reached a maximum of 65,000 vibrator points during 24 hours of continuous recording, which represents significantly higher productivity than a conventional seismic crew operating in the same area using a nonblended centralized source mode. Applying novel and newly developed deblending algorithms, high-resolution images were obtained. In addition, two data sets (i.e., low-frequency and medium-high-frequency sources) were merged to obtain full-bandwidth broadband seismic images. Data comparisons between the distributed blended and nonblended conventional surveys, acquired by the same crew during the same time over the same area, showed that the two data sets are very similar in the poststack and prestack domains.

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Yu, Zhou, Rodney Johnston, John Etgen, and Anya Reitz. "A nonlinear solution to 3D seismic data conditioning using trained dictionaries." GEOPHYSICS 85, no. 5 (August 17, 2020): V397—V406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2019-0557.1.

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Seismic analysis for reservoir characterization has been a primary focus for the geophysical community for decades. One of the critical steps in delivering high-quality processed seismic data for seismic analysis is to remove undesirable prestack seismic phenomena prior to amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis. Contrary to the conventional approach, which is mainly 2D gather-based and assumes flat events, we have developed a 3D nonlinear approach with a single principle: the 3D geologic structure should be invariant from offset to offset. Trained dictionaries, generated by 3D complex wavelet transformation over pilot volumes, are progressively constructed by stacking over selected offsets or angles. A sparse nonlinear approximation using the L0 norm is imposed on the data against the trained dictionaries after applying a 3D complex wavelet transform to the data. The final step is to apply an inverse 3D complex wavelet transform to the sparsified coefficients to return to the data space. This workflow is repeated for all offsets or angles. The workflow is automatic and requires minimal user input, resulting in a fast and efficient process. Multiple field data examples have demonstrated significant signal-to-noise ratio uplift, AVO and azimuthal AVO conservation, preservation of steeply dipping structural events, and multiple suppression. The processing time is significantly shorter compared with alternative conventional processes.

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Wu, Xinming, and Dave Hale. "3D seismic image processing for faults." GEOPHYSICS 81, no. 2 (March 1, 2016): IM1—IM11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2015-0380.1.

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Numerous methods have been proposed to automatically extract fault surfaces from 3D seismic images, and those surfaces are often represented by meshes of triangles or quadrilaterals. However, extraction of intersecting faults is still a difficult problem that is not well addressed. Moreover, mesh data structures are more complex than the arrays used to represent seismic images, and they are more complex than necessary for subsequent processing tasks, such as that of automatically estimating fault slip vectors. We have represented a fault surface using a simpler linked data structure, in which each sample of a fault corresponded to exactly one seismic image sample, and the fault samples were linked above and below in the fault dip directions, and left and right in the fault strike directions. This linked data structure was easy to exchange between computers and facilitated subsequent image processing for faults. We then developed a method to construct complete fault surfaces without holes using this simple data structure and to extract multiple intersecting fault surfaces from 3D seismic images. Finally, we used the same structure in subsequent processing to estimate fault slip vectors and to assess the accuracy of estimated slips by unfaulting the seismic images.

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48

Mao, Shuguang, and André G. Journel. "Conditional 3D simulation of lithofacies with 2D seismic data." Computers & Geosciences 25, no. 7 (August 1999): 845–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0098-3004(99)00006-0.

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Denney, Dennis. "Imaging Through Gas With Four-Component, 3D-Seismic Data." Journal of Petroleum Technology 52, no. 07 (July 1, 2000): 37–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/0700-0037-jpt.

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Chopra, Satinder, and Vladimir Alexeev. "Applications of texture attribute analysis to 3D seismic data." Leading Edge 25, no. 8 (August 2006): 934–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2335155.

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