Journal articles: '3rd millennium BCE'

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Döpper, Stephanie. "Ground stone tools from the copper production site Al-Khashbah, Sultanate of Oman." Journal of Lithic Studies 7, no. 3 (December 15, 2020): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2218/jls.3082.

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Archaeological research at Al-Khashbah, Sultanate of Oman, conducted by the University of Tübingen, revealed a large Early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE) site. During the intensive surface survey and excavations, several ground stone tools were found. Most of them came from the vicinity of monumental stone and mud-brick structures, so-called towers, and are clearly connected to copper-processing waste such as slag, furnace fragments and prills, i.e., droplets of molten copper. Therefore, it is assumed that these ground stone tools were used within the operational procedures of copper-processing. Interestingly, only the monumental towers from the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE, i.e., the Hafit period, feature larger quantities of ground stone tools as well as copper processing waste. Towers from the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE, i.e., the Umm an-Nar period, have none. Within the scope of this paper, the distribution of the different types of ground stone tools in Al-Khashbah as well as their find context will be presented. They are illustrated with drawings generated from 3D models created using digital photography processed with the software Agisoft Photoscan. Comparisons with other 3rd millennium BCE sites in Eastern Arabia show that there as well, copper-processing remains are often associated with ground stone tools. The overall variety of types seems to be rather homogeneous in the region.

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Barta, Peter, Ján Sládek, Mária Hajnalová, and Ivan Nagy. "Monoxyl z doby laténskej zo Šamorína." Musaica Archaeologica 5, no. 2 (2020): 79–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.46283/musarch.2020.2.04.

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In the article we present preliminary results of research of a logboat housed in the Žitný Ostrov Museum in Dunajská Streda. According to our research the boat comes from the 3rd century or later part of the last third of 1st millennium cal BCE. It is the earliest chronometrically dated vessel countrywide and the second specimen of Late Iron Age logboats known from Slovak and Czech Republics.

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Senra, Marta, Cláudia Costa, Ana Bettencourt, Lídia Baptista, and Sérgio Gomes. "Faunal Remains from Torre Velha 12 (Serpa, Beja, Southwest of Portugal): Relationship between Animals and Bronze Age Communities." Heritage 2, no. 1 (January 15, 2019): 216–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage2010016.

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Torre Velha 12 is located in Serpa (Beja) and was excavated and directed by two of the authors (LB and SG), during an emergency intervention within the Alqueva Project. This site is characterized by negative structures filled with pottery sherds and other materials dating to the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. The aim of this paper is to publish the study of the faunal remains dated from Bronze Age (2nd millennium BCE). The faunal assemblage is small and comes from non-funerary pits and from funerary hypogea. Other than a bone artefact and an undetermined shell fragment, all of the remains integrated in the pits were classified as mammals. Sheep/goat is was frequently found while other species such as cattle and swines had lower frequencies. Fragments of cattle limbs are the only faunal remains associated with human burials and reveal a clear taxonomical and anatomical pattern that may be an indicator of a careful and structured anthropogenic behavior. The aim of this paper is to understand the social relationship between animals and the Bronze Age communities.

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Bruins, Hendrik J. "Near East Chronology: Towards an Integrated 14C Time Foundation." Radiocarbon 43, no. 3 (2001): 1147–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200038443.

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Chronology is the backbone of all history, as the flow of time is identical in scholarly and scientific fields, even in the Near East. Radiocarbon dating can provide an essential and unifying chronological basis across disciplines, despite precision limitations. This issue presents exciting new 14C developments in archaeological and environmental contexts, ranging from Proto-Neolithic cultures to historic earthquakes along the Dead Sea. Dark periods devoid of settlement in the deserts of the southern Levant seem to disappear with 14C dating. Significant new findings collectively indicate the need for major chronological revisions in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE in Egypt and the Levant. The implications for the 2nd millennium BCE are not yet established, but the use of 14C dating in the Iron Age is finally beginning to focus on current controversies. The chronological way forward for Dynastic Egypt and the Levantine Bronze and Iron Ages is a multi-disciplinary approach based on detailed high-quality 14C series as a unifying time foundation to anchor archaeological, textual, and astronomical data.

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Bruins, Hendrik J., Johannes van der Plicht, and J. Alexander MacGillivray. "The Minoan Santorini Eruption and Tsunami Deposits in Palaikastro (Crete): Dating by Geology, Archaeology, 14C, and Egyptian Chronology." Radiocarbon 51, no. 2 (2009): 397–411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003382220005579x.

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Deposits from the Minoan Santorini (Thera) eruption in the eastern Mediterranean region constitute the most important regional stratigraphic marker in the chronological perplexity of the 2nd millennium BCE. Extensive tsunami deposits were discovered in Crete at the Minoan archaeological site of Palaikastro, containing reworked volcanic Santorini ash. Hence, airborne deposition of volcanic ash, probably during the 1st (Plinian) eruption phase, preceded the tsunami, which was apparently generated during the 3rd or 4th phase of the eruption, based on evidence from Thera. Average radiocarbon dates (uncalibrated) of animal bones in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits along the coast (3350 ± 25 BP) and at the inland archaeological site (3352 ± 23 BP) are astoundingly similar to the average 14C date for the Minoan Santorini eruption at Akrotiri on Thera (3350 ± 10 BP). The wiggle-matched 14C date of the eruption in calendar years is 1627–1600 cal BCE. Late Minoan IA pottery is the youngest element in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits, fitting with the LM IA archaeological date for the Santorini eruption, conventionally linked at ~1500 BCE with Dynasty XVIII of the historical Egyptian chronology. The reasons for the discrepancy of 100–150 yr between 14C dating and Egyptian chronology for part of the 2nd millennium BCE are unknown. 14C dates from Tell el-Dabca in the eastern Nile Delta show that the 14C age of the Santorini eruption matches with 14C results from 18th Dynasty strata C3 and C2, thereby confirming grosso modo the conventional archaeo-historical correlations between the Aegean and Egypt. We propose that a dual dating system is used in parallel: (1) archaeological material-cultural correlations linked to Egyptian chronology; (2) 14C dating. Mixing of dates from the 2 systems may lead to erroneous archaeological and historical correlations. A “calibration curve” should be established between Egyptian chronology and 14C dating for the 2nd millennium BCE, which may also assist to resolve the cause of the discrepancy.

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Truex, Lise A. "3 Households and Institutions: A Late 3rd Millennium BCE Neighborhood at Tell Asmar, Iraq (Ancient Eshnunna)." Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 30, no. 1 (July 2019): 39–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apaa.12112.

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Frumkin, Amos. "Stable isotopes of a subfossil Tamarix tree from the Dead Sea region, Israel, and their implications for the Intermediate Bronze Age environmental crisis." Quaternary Research 71, no. 3 (May 2009): 319–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2009.01.009.

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AbstractTrees growing on the Mt. Sedom salt diapir, at the southern Dead Sea shore, were swept by runoff into salt caves and subsequently deposited therein, sheltered from surface weathering. A subfossil Tamarix tree trunk, found in a remote section of Sedom Cave is radiocarbon dated to between ∼ 2265 and 1930 BCE. It was sampled in 109 points across the tree rings for carbon and nitrogen isotopes. The Sedom Tamarix demonstrates a few hundred years of 13C and 15N isotopic enrichment, culminating in extremely high δ13C and δ15N values. Calibration using modern Tamarix stable isotopes in various climatic settings in Israel shows direct relationship between isotopic enrichment and climate deterioration, particularly rainfall decrease. The subfossil Tamarix probably reflects an environmental crisis during the Intermediate Bronze Age, which subsequently killed the tree ∼ 1930 BCE. This period coincides with the largest historic fall of the Dead Sea level, as well as the demise of the large regional urban center of the 3rd millennium BCE. The environmental crisis may thus explain the archaeological evidence of a shift from urban to pastoral culture during the Intermediate Bronze Age. This was apparently the most severe long-term historical drought that affected the region in the mid-late Holocene.

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Vierzig, Angelika. "Anthropomorphic Stelae of the 4th and 3rd Millennia Between the Caucasus and the Atlantic Ocean." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 86 (November 19, 2020): 111–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ppr.2020.12.

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Anthropomorphic stone stelae of monumental dimensions dated to the 4th and 3rd millennia BC have been found in southern Europe between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caucasus. They are understood as symbolic human representations the size of which arises out of a new self-awareness of humankind in the world. Anthropomorphic stelae are one of many innovations appearing during this epoch. Other innovations are copper metallurgy and tools, in particular weapons and jewellery, as well as the wheel, the wagon, and the plough drawn by animals. These innovations are depicted on stelae; what is more, the stele itself is an innovation in which the other changes are bundled. Comparable stylistic features of stelae in different areas demonstrate far-reaching contacts. Often the origin of anthropomorphic stelae is seen in the Russian steppes, with the archaeogenetically proven migration from east to west being the cause for the building of stelae in central and western Europe. However, the oldest known stelae apparently originate in western Europe. The impulses behind the dissemination of innovations must have emanated from continuous exchange relations, but the migration in the 3rd millennium bce did not bring with it the idea itself of anthropomorphic stelae. Nowadays the question about the function of stelae is usually answered with the representation of ancestors. When anthropomorphic stones keep the memory of common roots alive, they serve the building of identity.

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Sołtysiak, Arkadiusz. "The Bull of Heaven in Mesopotamian Sources." Culture and Cosmos 05, no. 02 (October 2001): 3–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.46472/cc.0205.0203.

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This paper deals with the imagery of the constellation Taurus in the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia. The constellation appears explicitly in the well-known story about Gilgamesh, in which the Bull of Heaven attacks Gilgamesh on the order of Inanna, the deity associated with the planet Venus. It can be argued from other sources that, as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, the Bull was particularly related to this goddess and to An, the god of heaven, both of whom were worshipped in the city of Uruk, itself ruled by Gilgamesh according to Mesopotamian tradition. The Bull of Heaven was represented pictorially in association with the gate of the heavenly palace of An. The later traditions and the iconography of the Bull of Heaven are also explored in the paper.

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Cortesi, Elisa, Maurizio Tosi, A. Lazzari, and Massimo Vidale. "Cultural Relationships beyond the Iranian Plateau: The Helmand Civilization, Baluchistan and the Indus Valley in the 3rd Millennium BCE." Paléorient 34, no. 2 (2008): 5–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2008.5254.

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Moreno García, Juan Carlos. "Elusive “Libyans”: Identities, Lifestyles and Mobile Populations in NE Africa (late 4th–early 2nd millennium BCE)." Journal of Egyptian History 11, no. 1-2 (October 8, 2018): 147–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18741665-12340046.

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Abstract The term “Libyan” encompasses, in fact, a variety of peoples and lifestyles living not only in the regions west of the Nile Valley, but also inside Egypt itself, particularly in Middle Egypt and the Western Delta. This situation is reminiscent of the use of other “ethnic” labels, such as “Nubian,” heavily connoted with notions such as ethnic homogeneity, separation of populations across borders, and opposed lifestyles. In fact, economic complementarity and collaboration explain why Nubians and Libyans crossed the borders of Egypt and settled in the land of the pharaohs, to the point that their presence was especially relevant in some periods and regions during the late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BCE. Pastoralism was just but one of their economic pillars, as trading activities, gathering, supply of desert goods (including resins, minerals, and vegetal oils) and hunting also played an important role, at least for some groups or specialized segments of a particular social group. While Egyptian sources emphasize conflict and marked identities, particularly when considering “rights of use” over a given area, collaboration was also crucial and beneficial for both parts. Finally, the increasing evidence about trade routes used by Libyans points to alternative networks of circulation of goods that help explain episodes of warfare between Egypt and Libyan populations for their control.

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Van Calker, Daniel. "The lithic assemblage from Lapa da Galinha (Alcanena, Portuguese Estremadura) and the “Cave Megalithism” phenomenon in the 4th and 3rd millennium BCE." Journal of Lithic Studies 6, no. 1 (March 15, 2019): 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2218/jls.2857.

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The present work proposes to present the analysis results of the flaked stone artefacts from Lapa da Galinha, a cave necropolis, located in the Estremadura Limestone Massif, that is a classic example of the funerary practices of the 4th and 3rd millennium BCE. The excavation dates back to 1908, and it was performed by members of the current National Museum of Archaeology, resulting in an extensive votive ensemble, associated with a minimum number of 70 burials. The evident collective nature of the burials, the votive ensemble and the rituals there identified emphasise its “Cave Megalithism” character, an expression that invokes only one of the many facets of the complex phenomenon that is Megalithism. Since the Megalithic funerary structures, such as natural caves, are utilized over a long period of time, it’s not easy- but not impossible- to reclaim in full, the events that took place. Focusing on the flaked stone artefacts, the main goal of this text is to contribute to the reconstruction of the belief system that characterizes the Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities from this region. Hence, the morpho-technological criteria, that followed previously established standards, and raw material analysis of the artefactual categories, even on a macroscopic level, were absolutely essential for us to suggest an extensive diachrony of the funerary use of the natural cave With that in mind, we reflected on the importance of the transformations that occur within the material culture exposed throughout the text and their chronological meaning, but also on the true potential of this artefactual category as a tool to build a solid perspective regarding the symbolism inherent to these funeral practices.

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Egfjord, Anne Friis-Holm, Ashot Margaryan, Anders Fischer, Karl-Göran Sjögren, T. Douglas Price, Niels N. Johannsen, Poul Otto Nielsen, et al. "Genomic Steppe ancestry in skeletons from the Neolithic Single Grave Culture in Denmark." PLOS ONE 16, no. 1 (January 14, 2021): e0244872. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244872.

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The Gjerrild burial provides the largest and best-preserved assemblage of human skeletal material presently known from the Single Grave Culture (SGC) in Denmark. For generations it has been debated among archaeologists if the appearance of this archaeological complex represents a continuation of the previous Neolithic communities, or was facilitated by incoming migrants. We sampled and analysed five skeletons from the Gjerrild cist, buried over a period of c. 300 years, 2600/2500–2200 cal BCE. Despite poor DNA preservation, we managed to sequence the genome (>1X) of one individual and the partial genomes (0.007X and 0.02X) of another two individuals. Our genetic data document a female (Gjerrild 1) and two males (Gjerrild 5 + 8), harbouring typical Neolithic K2a and HV0 mtDNA haplogroups, but also a rare basal variant of the R1b1 Y-chromosomal haplogroup. Genome-wide analyses demonstrate that these people had a significant Yamnaya-derived (i.e. steppe) ancestry component and a close genetic resemblance to the Corded Ware (and related) groups that were present in large parts of Northern and Central Europe at the time. Assuming that the Gjerrild skeletons are genetically representative of the population of the SGC in broader terms, the transition from the local Neolithic Funnel Beaker Culture (TRB) to SGC is not characterized by demographic continuity. Rather, the emergence of SGC in Denmark was part of the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age population expansion that swept across the European continent in the 3rd millennium BCE, resulting in various degrees of genetic replacement and admixture processes with previous Neolithic populations.

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Lorentz, K. O., W. de Nolf, M. Cotte, G. Ioannou, F. Foruzanfar, M. R. Zaruri, and S. M. S. Sajjadi. "Synchrotron radiation micro X-Ray Fluorescence (SR-μXRF) elemental mapping of ancient hair: Metals and health at 3rd millennium BCE Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran." Journal of Archaeological Science 120 (August 2020): 105193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105193.

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Moreira, José, and Ana Bettencourt. "Depictions of Shoeprints in Northwest Portugal." Heritage 2, no. 1 (December 24, 2018): 39–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage2010004.

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From the end of the 3rd millennium and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, new motifs appear in Northwest Portugal. This corresponds to what one of the authors has called Figurative Art. The engravings of human feet—barefoot or with shoes—fall within this new “style”. This motif is not well known in Northern Portugal, although it has recently been the subject of a synthesis study on the Atlantic façade of this region. Starting from an inventory work, contextualising the several scales of analysis and the theoretical posture that knowledge is simultaneously cumulative and interpretative, this text reveals the shoeprints existing in Northwest Portugal and the interpretations that have been made about them. Currently there are 81 shoeprints in the region, distributed on 18 outcrops, in 17 different sites. This study has made it possible to create two typological subgroups, namely shoeprints with simple soles and with sole and heel. Within each group it was possible to perceive the existence of places with only one or few shoeprints, versus places with many shoeprints and that there are shoeprints of different dimensions and different orientations. The analysis of this data has made it possible to hypothesise that the engraving of these motifs may have arisen at the end of the Chalcolithic, beginning of the Bronze Age, reaching its peak during the latter period and ending at the beginning of the Iron Age. It is also hypothesised that they represent different age groups and that they may relate to pilgrimages or trips that formed part of rites of passage to adulthood, probably of individuals of higher status within a hierarchised society and which occurred at certain times of year, especially during the summer.

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Tanasi, Davide. "Sicily Before the Greeks. The Interaction with Aegean and the Levant in the Pre-colonial Era." Open Archaeology 6, no. 1 (October 1, 2020): 172–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opar-2020-0107.

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AbstractThe relationship between Sicily and the eastern Mediterranean – namely Aegean, Cyprus and the Levant – represents one of the most intriguing facets of the prehistory of the island. The frequent and periodical contact with foreign cultures were a trigger for a gradual process of socio-political evolution of the indigenous community. Such relationship, already in inception during the Neolithic and the Copper Age, grew into a cultural phenomenon ruled by complex dynamics and multiple variables that ranged from the Mid-3rd to the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. In over 1,500 years, a very large quantity of Aegean and Levantine type materials have been identified in Sicily alongside with example of unusual local material culture traditionally interpreted as resulting from external influence. To summarize all the evidence during such long period and critically address it in order to attempt historical reconstructions is a Herculean labor.Twenty years after Sebastiano Tusa embraced this challenge for the first time, this paper takes stock on two decades of new discoveries and research reassessing a vast amount of literature, mostly published in Italian and in regional journals, while also address the outcomes of new archaeometric studies. The in-depth survey offers a new perspective of general trends in this East-West relationship which conditioned the subsequent events of the Greek and Phoenician colonization of Sicily.

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Sazonov, Vladimir. "Mõningad märkused nelja ilmakaare kuninga ja jumal-kuninga kontseptsiooni kohta Sumeris ja Akkadis 3. at eKr." Mäetagused 78 (December 2020): 173–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.7592/mt2020.78.sazonov.

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This article is dedicated to the issues related to the King of the Four Corners and the God-King in ancient Sumer and Akkad in the 3rd millennium BCE. The author shows that the title King of the Four Corners has always deified the ruler, but the ruler who used the title King of the Universe never claimed divinity. What conclusions can we draw? Except in two cases – the case of Erri-dupizir and the case of Utu-ḫeĝal – all kings who used the title king of the four corners were deified. Erri-dupizir was a foreigner, more a warlord or tribal chief of the Gutians than a king, but he tried to legitimate his power by using Akkadian-Sumerian formulas, among them royal titles. Utu-ḫeĝal freed Sumer from the Gutians’ yoke and re-introduced old Sumero-Akkadian ideological elements, among them the king of the four corners, because he wanted to be as powerful and strong as the Akkadian king Narām-Su’en, who was an example for Utu-ḫeĝal. We do not have any proof regarding the deification of Utu-ḫeĝal, as he ruled only 6–7 years, and we have only a few texts from the time of his reign. More interesting is the fact that none of the Sumerian or Akkadian kings who used the title king of the universe in the 3rd millennium and even in the early 2nd millennium BCE (Isin-Larsa period) were deified (at least we do not have a firm proof). How to explain this phenomenon? Firstly, I think the title king of the four corners had a slightly different meaning than king of the universe; however, both are universalistic titles. The title king of the four corners was probably seen as a wider and more important universalistic title in the sense not only of universal rule, but also of ruling the divine universe and divine spheres (heaven, sun, stars, etc.). It seems that it included some kind of divine aspect, while at least the Sumerian version of the title lugal an-ubda-limmuba means “king of the heaven’s four corners”. The title king of the four corners was related to the universe order, to the sun and the cosmos, and to cosmic divine powers, and they were connected to the universal order. We can see that sometimes the title king of the four corners was used to refer to gods in Ancient Mesopotamia – for example in the case of the god Tišpak in Ešnunna – but never king of the universe. Secondly, early dynastic rulers (e.g. Lagash or Uruk), who never used universalistic titles for themselves, addressed universalistic expressions and epithets to the main gods – e.g., Enlil, Ningirsu, etc. For example, Lugal-kiğine-dudu of Uruk claimed: “Enlil, king of all lands, for Lugal-kiğine-dudu – when the god Enlil truly summoned him, and (Enlil) combined (both) lordship and kingship for him”. Thirdly, ruling over all the lands from east to west or over the corners of the universe – these epithets may be used for gods. LUGAL KIŠ (later Akkadian šar kiššati(m)) in its early original meaning was seen only as “ruler over Kiš (or ruler over (the northern part of) Sumer)”; it was an important though more regional and geographic title. Fourthly, only much later did it acquire the meaning king of the universe but I am not sure about that meaning at all. In that case, king of the four corners had a different meaning; the title designated not only ruling over the world but it probably included some kind of divine aspect as well (Michalowski 2010). In that case the title šar kibrāt arbaˀi(m) – king of the four corners could be seen as more universal than LUGAL KIŠ (šar kiššati(m)). There still remain several questions which need to be solved: * Was LUGAL KIŠ in its Akkadian form šar kiššati(m) a universalistic title at all? * Or was LUGAL KIŠ a hegemonic title showing certain hegemonic rule or lordship over (all) Sumer (and Akkad?) but not including the whole world (here: Mesopotamia)? * Could it be for this reason that the king who used the title king of the four corners had to be deified but the king who was LUGAL KIŠ had not?

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Geniş, Evren Y., and Thomas Zimmermann. "Early Bronze Age metalwork in Central Anatolia – An archaeometric view from the hamlet." Praehistorische Zeitschrift 89, no. 2 (June 30, 2014): 280–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pz-2014-0019.

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Zusammenfassung: Folgender Beitrag diskutiert die Ergebnisse von an Metallfunden der frühbronzezeitlichen Nekropole Kalınkaya-Toptaştepe in Zentralanatolien vorgenommenen Spektralanalysen. Da archäometrische Daten für Zentralanatolien im 3. Jahrtausend immer noch lückenhaft sind und bevorzugt Fundkomplexe früher Zentralorte berücksichtigt, Assemblagen aus dörflichen Ansiedlung jedoch bislang weitgehend unerschlossen sind, ist diese Studie in erster Linie als dringend benötigte Verbreiterung der Quellenbasis zu verstehen. Arsen-Kupferlegierungen bestehen neben „echten“ Bronzen (Kupfer-Zinn), Kontaminationen wie Nickel mögen Rückschlüsse auf bestimmte Lagerstätten zulassen. Die erzielten Resultate ergeben somit einen guten Einblick in Metallverwendung und Legierungstraditionen einer Kleinsiedlung in der jüngeren anatolischen Frühbronzezeit Résumé: L’article ci-dessous présente les résultats d’analyses spectroscopiques menées sur un ensemble d’objets de l’âge du Bronze Ancien provenant de la nécropole de Kalınkaya-Toptaştepe en Anatolie centrale. Vu que les données archéométriques concernant le 3e millénaire av. J.-C. en Anatolie centrale sont encore fort rares, qu’elles proviennent surtout de grands centres occupés précédemment et que les ensembles provenant d’établissements ruraux n’ont presque pas fait l’objet de recherches, l’intention primaire de l’étude que nous présentons ici est d’attirer l’attention sur les données qui sont à notre disposition. Les alliages de cuivre et d’arsenic existent à côté de ‘vrais’ bronzes (alliages de cuivre et d’étain), et la contamination, par exemple par le nickel, peut fournir de nombreux indices sur la présence de dépôts spécifiques. Les résultats permettent de se faire une bonne idée de l’emploi des métaux et des techniques traditionnelles d’alliage utilisés dans un habitat mineur d’Anatolie vers la fin de l’âge du Bronze Ancien. Abstract: The following contribution discusses the results of spectroscopic analyses carried out on metal artefacts from the Early Bronze Age cemetery of Kalınkaya-Toptaştepe in central Anatolia. Given that archaeometric data from 3rd- millennium BCE Central Anatolia are still quite sparse, tend to stem mainly from earlier central places, and the assemblages from village sites have so far remained largely unexplored, the study we present here is primarily intended to draw much needed attention to the data that are available. Copper-arsenic alloys exist alongside ‘true’ bronzes (copper-tin alloys), and contamination, for example by nickel, can yield much information about specific deposits. The results obtained provide good insights into the use of metals and traditional alloying techniques on a minor settlement at the end of the Anatolian Early Bronze Age.

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Szmyt, M. "Between the seas: Baltic-Pontic contact space in the 3rd millennium BC." Vita Antiqua 1, no. 10 (2018): 155–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.37098/2519-4542-2018-1-10-155-164.

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Odriozola, C. P., J. A. Garrido-Cordero, J. Daura Luján, and M. Sanz. "Resin-coated beads in Iberian Late Prehistory (3rd–2nd millennia BCE)." Materials and Manufacturing Processes 35, no. 13 (September 10, 2020): 1420–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2020.1750634.

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Heath, Robin. "An Astronomical Basis for the Myth of the Solar Hero." Culture and Cosmos 1, no. 01 (June 1997): 3–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.46472/cc.0101.0203.

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Our increasing knowledge of the megalithic culture of the British Isles in the 2nd and 3rd millennia BCE tends to confirm the proposition that megalithic astronomers measured celestial positions with considerable accuracy. The evidence indicates that they understood the 18.6 year nodal period and the moon’s nine minute declination wobble. They also had sufficient geometrical ability to re-proportion spacings between lines, divide circles into whole number polygons and divide lines into equal integer spacings. We should therefore ask whether there is evidence of such early astronomy in the numbers which recur in certain myths.

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Masi, Alessia, Francesca Balossi Restelli, Diego Sabato, Cristiano Vignola, and Laura Sadori. "Timber exploitation during the 5th–3rd millennia BCE at Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey): environmental constraints and cultural choices." Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 10, no. 2 (June 13, 2017): 465–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12520-017-0499-0.

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Colin, Frédéric, Anita Quiles, Mathieu Schuster, Dominique Schwartz, Catherine Duvette, Sylvie Marchand, Mennat-Allah El Dorry, and Johan van Heesch. "The End of the “Green Oasis”: Chronological Bayesian Modeling of Human and Environmental Dynamics in the Bahariya Area (Egyptian Sahara) from Pharaonic Third Intermediate Period to Medieval Times." Radiocarbon 62, no. 1 (September 16, 2019): 25–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2019.106.

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ABSTRACTAfter the sharp transition to aridity that followed the “Green Sahara” episode 5500 years ago, human settlements took refuge in Egyptian oases, which have to varying extents been “Green Oases” for centuries. In that period, synchronous with the beginning of historical times, the desert’s aridity is generally regarded as broadly comparable to the current period. Natural and anthropogenic deposits studied during 13 excavation campaigns in Bahariya Oasis (Egyptian Desert) suggest that a fairly clear transition from a relatively green environment to much more arid landscapes occurred in the first millennia BCE and CE. This article aims at establishing the chronology of human occupations and environmental change within this period, by combining archaeological and radiocarbon data, using Bayesian modeling. It reveals that the drying up of the environment experienced by desert farmers occurred at some point between the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Caracalla (2nd–3rd century CE). The accuracy of the produced chronological models made it possible to highlight synchronisms between the end of this “Green Oasis” phase and comparable aridification phenomena on regional and interregional scales. Similar degradation processes on remote sites inside the Roman Empire might be explained by globalized anthropogenic agencies overlapping with a broader climatic drying.

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Horwath, B. C., A. J. Waterman, K. T. Lillios, and J. D. Irish. "Assessing change in diet and biological affinity between the 4th and 3rd millennia cal BCE in the Portuguese Estremadura: A preliminary dental comparison of Feteira II and Bolores." HOMO 65, no. 2 (April 2014): 87–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2013.11.003.

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Montes-Landa, Julia, Mercedes Murillo-Barroso, Ignacio Montero-Ruiz, Salvador Rovira-Llorens, and Marcos Martinón-Torres. "Interwoven traditions in Bell Beaker metallurgy: Approaching the social value of copper at Bauma del Serrat del Pont (Northeast Iberia)." PLOS ONE 16, no. 8 (August 9, 2021): e0255818. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255818.

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Debates on early metallurgy in Western Europe have frequently focused on the social value of copper (between utilitarian and symbolic) and its purported role in the emergence and consolidation of hierarchies. Recent research shows that generalisations are increasingly untenable and highlights the need for comparative regional studies. Given its location in an intermediate area, the early metallurgy of Northeast Iberia provides an interesting case in point to explore the interaction between the well-characterised traditions of southern Iberia and southern France during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Here the analytical study of seven Bell Beaker (decorated and undecorated) vessels reused as crucibles at Bauma del Serrrat del Pont (Tortellà, Girona) are presented. We employed pXRF, metallography, SEM-EDS and lead isotope analyses. The results show evidence for copper smelting employing a remarkable variety of ore sources, including Solana del Bepo, Turquesa and Les Ferreres mines, and an extra unknown area. The smelting vessels were manufactured using the same clay, which contained both mineral and organic inclusions. Our results are discussed with reference to all the evidence available for metals and metallurgy in the Northeast, and more broadly in comparison to southern Iberia and southern France, with special emphasis on issues of production organisation and social complexity. Taken together, our results support the notion that copper metallurgy played a predominantly utilitarian role in Bell Beaker societies and highlight idiosyncratic aspects of the metallurgical trajectory in the Northeast. Differences between territories challenge unilinear explanations of technological and social development after the introduction of metallurgy. Separate trajectories can only be explained in relation to area-specific socio-cultural and environmental factors.

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Joffe, Alexander H. "Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean 1989–1996, Volume 4: The 4th and 3rd Millennia BCE, edited by Amihai Mazar. Beth-Shean Valley Archaeological Project, Publication No. 4. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2012. XV + 437 pages, 87 figures, 49 plates, 79 tables. Cloth. $92.00. [Distributed in North America by Eisenbrauns]." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 372 (November 2014): 220–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.372.0220.

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Furtwängler, Anja, A. B. Rohrlach, Thiseas C. Lamnidis, Luka Papac, Gunnar U. Neumann, Inga Siebke, Ella Reiter, et al. "Ancient genomes reveal social and genetic structure of Late Neolithic Switzerland." Nature Communications 11, no. 1 (April 20, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15560-x.

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Abstract Genetic studies of Neolithic and Bronze Age skeletons from Europe have provided evidence for strong population genetic changes at the beginning and the end of the Neolithic period. To further understand the implications of these in Southern Central Europe, we analyze 96 ancient genomes from Switzerland, Southern Germany, and the Alsace region in France, covering the Middle/Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age. Similar to previously described genetic changes in other parts of Europe from the early 3rd millennium BCE, we detect an arrival of ancestry related to Late Neolithic pastoralists from the Pontic-Caspian steppe in Switzerland as early as 2860–2460 calBCE. Our analyses suggest that this genetic turnover was a complex process lasting almost 1000 years and involved highly genetically structured populations in this region.

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Lev, Ron, Shlomit Bechar, and Elisabetta Boaretto. "HAZOR EB III CITY ABANDONMENT AND IBA PEOPLE RETURN: RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS." Radiocarbon, September 14, 2021, 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2021.76.

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ABSTRACT Tel Hazor is one of only a few sites in Israel where remains of the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC were found on top of Early Bronze III (EB III) city remains. A probe excavation was held at Hazor in 2017 to explore the chronological relation between the EB III and the IBA occupation. The radiocarbon (14C) absolute dates generated from this probe excavation show that following the EB III city demise, the site was abandoned for up to a few hundred years before it was resettled in the IBA. 14C dates obtained from the last level of the EB III city are well before 2500 BCE, fully aligned with the recent “High Chronology” for the EBA in the southern Levant. The excavation also produced dates associated with IBA “Black Wheel-Made Ware” vessels, which were found in large numbers at Hazor.

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Schwall, Christoph, Michael Brandl, Tatjana M. Gluhak, Bogdana Milić, Lisa Betina, Lasse Sørensen, Danilo Wolf, and Barbara Horejs. "From near and far: Stone procurement and exchange at Çukuriçi Höyük in Western Anatolia." Journal of Lithic Studies 7, no. 3 (December 15, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.2218/jls.3093.

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The focus of this paper are the stone tools of Çukuriçi Höyük, a prehistoric site situated at the central Aegean coast of Anatolia. The settlement was inhabited from the Neolithic, through the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age 1 periods, a period lasting from the early 7th to the early 3rd millennium BCE. A long-term interdisciplinary study of the excavated lithics with different scientific methods on various stone materials (thin section analysis, pXRF, NAA, LA-ICP-MS) offer new primary data about the procurement strategies of prehistoric societies from a diachronic perspective. The results will be presented for the first time with an overview of all source materials and their distinct use through time. The lithic assemblages from Çukuriçi Höyük consist of a considerable variety of small finds, grinding stones and chipped stone tools. The high variability of raw materials within the different categories of tools is remarkable. In addition to stone tools manufactured from sources in the immediate vicinity of the settlement (i.e., mica-schist, limestone, marble, amphibolite, serpentinite), others are of rock types such as chert, which indicate an origin within the broader region. Moreover, volcanic rocks, notably the exceptionally high amount of Melian obsidian found at Çukuriçi Höyük, attest to the supra-regional procurement of distinct rock types. Small stone axes made of jadeite presumably from the Greek island of Syros, also indicate these far-reaching procurement strategies. The systematic and diachronic analyses of the stone tools found at Çukuriçi Höyük has demonstrated that as early as the Neolithic period extensive efforts were made to supply the settlement with carefully selected raw materials or finished goods procured from distinct rock sources.

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Gibaja, Juan Francisco, and Antoni Palomo. "Geometrics used as projectile points. Economic, social and ideological implications for the Neolithic societies of the 5th-3rd Millennium Cal. BC in Northeast Iberia." Trabajos de Prehistoria 61, no. 1 (June 30, 2004). http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/tp.2004.v61.i1.30.

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Journal articles on the topic '3rd millennium BCE'

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