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Journal articles on the topic 'Acoli language'
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Ojok, James Onono, Ajok Beatrice Abonga, and Arthur Owor. "Communication inside the LRA: Militarization of Acoli Language, a Cultural Patriotism or mere Rebel Indoctrination?" International Journal of Advanced Research 7, no. 1 (June 29, 2024): 152–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.37284/ijar.7.1.2004.
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In an ideal situation, there should be no positive effect of the LRA war in Northern Uganda, but what of the real testimonies that the LRA war brought in many development partners with school fees scholarships through institutions like Acoli Education Initiatives, Invisible Children, Windle Trust Uganda among others. But where are they going to pay for school, the northern children in ‘war affected areas’, and others up to universities, if it were not because of the devastating effect of the war on Education? This is still without the many successful grants and PhD projects completed within Uganda and around the globe based on LRA attachment to spirituality, transitional justice or interrogating the Acoli traditional justice system versus international laws. A debate can be constructed, if necessary, that the authorities on the LRA scholarships are from the global north -meaning the war pulled scholars from their comfort zones. Secondarily, what do we owe this to? For lack of a better word, other scholars would call it the ‘unintended’ positive effect of the war. This journal paper borrows the philosophy that if you are telling a story, it should be told up-side-down. Chimamanda Ngozi, the Nigerian writer, baptised it as a one-sided story and called it the danger of a single story (Adichie 2009). Schulz, Apio et al (2024) tell us about the ‘Love and Care in the LRA’, which this paper calls bravery, with all the horror stories of the LRA! This paper is grounded in some of these philosophies of Adichie (2009) and Schulz, Apio et al. (2024) of telling all sides of the story, attempting to reconstruct the LRA use of Acoli language throughout their military operations as a demonstration of Acoli cultural attachment, loyalty and depiction of Acoli cultural patriotism or activism argued by this paper. This was through using secondary data review and holding in-depth purposive interviews with four former LRA returnees plus two cultural chiefs, including extracting the archival journalistic records of the first author, who was an active journalist in northern Uganda for over 10 years between 2010 and 2021. This journal paper, however, does not underscore the pain and sufferings, the LRA brought on the people of Uganda and other neighbouring countries. However, this paper just gives an ontological side of the LRA, which is hard to find in terms of their particular role in promoting Acoli culture by using Acoli language as their military operational medium of communication
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Beckmann, Gitte. "Sign language as a technology: existential and instrumental perspectives of Ugandan Sign Language." Africa 92, no. 4 (August 2022): 430–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001972022000432.
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AbstractThe introduction of Ugandan Sign Language in Acholi, northern Uganda, was part of a growing internationally linked disability movement in the country and was set within the framework of development policy and human rights-based approaches. In this context, Ugandan Sign Language appeared as a technology of development. But how did the appropriation of Ugandan Sign Language change deaf people’s lives, their being-in-the-world, in Acholi? In using the theoretical approach of existential and instrumental perspectives on technologies by Martin Heidegger, this article analyses the complex transitions following the appropriation of Ugandan Sign Language on international, national and local levels. The disability movement – including Ugandan Sign Language projects – reached Acholi during the time of war between the Lord’s Resistance Army and Ugandan national forces. Displacement brought scattered deaf people together in towns and camps, where Ugandan Sign Language was introduced through workshops and institutions including churches. This created new forms of communication and possibilities of sociality. After the war, gender differences emerged, as many deaf women returned to rural homes where they had few opportunities to communicate with other sign language users.
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Otim, Patrick W. "Local Intellectuals: Lacito Okech and the Production of Knowledge in Colonial Acholiland." History in Africa 45 (April 23, 2018): 275–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/hia.2018.8.
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Abstract:In 1953, Lacito Okech, a precolonial royal messenger, Christian convert, and colonial chief, became the first Acholi to write and publish a history of his people. The book was instantly popular, inspiring many other Acholi to write histories of their respective chiefdoms. However, although these works constitute the bulk of vernacular Acholi histories, scholars have not paid attention to them, partly because of language limitations and partly due to limited scholarly interest in the history of the region. This article uses Okech’s life and book to explore important questions about the production of local history in colonial Acholiland. In particular, it explores Okech’s adroit manipulation of his complex circumstances at the intersection of the roles of messenger, convert, and colonial employee, his dilemmas as a local historian, and the influence of his roles as an intermediary between the Acholi on the one hand and the Church Missionary Society and the colonial regime on the other on his writing of history.
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Amarorwot, Sarah, and Bebwa Isingoma. "Order of adjectives and adverbs in L2 English: Evidence from L1 Acholi speakers of Ugandan English." Studies in Linguistics, Culture, and FLT 9, no. 3 (November 24, 2021): 44–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.46687/yxuv9786.
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L2 Englishes are quintessentially characterized by cross-linguistic influence at all levels of linguistic analysis as a result of contact phenomena. This study examines the contribution of the syntax of a Ugandan indigenous language (Acholi) to how its L1 speakers speak English and the extent of variability observed among them, taking into account two grammatical aspects, i.e. how multiple attributive adjectives are sequenced in a noun phrase and the placement of adverbs in a sentence. The findings of the study show notable differences from L1 English (e.g. Standard British English), as L1 Acholi speakers of English do not necessarily pay attention to the prescribed L1 English order of adjectives. At the same time, the position of adverbs in a sentence also seems to be modeled, to some extent, on what takes place in Acholi syntax insofar as some legitimate L1 English structures are rejected by L1 Acholi speakers of English (as L2). Crucially, the study also reveals interspeaker variability among L1 Acholi speakers of English in Uganda based on occupation, with students being the closest to L1 English norms (as opposed to teachers and the business community), most likely due to exonormative orientation imposed on students in Ugandan schools.
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Myers-Scotton, Carol. "Embedded Language elements in Acholi/English codeswitching: What's going on?" Language Matters 36, no. 1 (January 2005): 3–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228190508566232.
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Han, Yi, Ryan Bruggeman, Joseph Peper, Estefania Ciliotta Chehade, Tucker Marion, Paolo Ciuccarelli, and Mohsen Moghaddam. "EXTRACTING LATENT NEEDS FROM ONLINE REVIEWS THROUGH DEEP LEARNING BASED LANGUAGE MODEL." Proceedings of the Design Society 3 (June 19, 2023): 1855–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pds.2023.186.
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AbstractAspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA) provides an opportunity to systematically generate user's opinions of specific aspects to enrich the idea creation process in the early stage of product/service design process. Yet, the current ABSA task has two major limitations. First, existing research mostly focusing on the subsets of ABSA task, e.g. aspect-sentiment extraction, extract aspect, opinion, and sentiment in a unified model is still an open problem. Second, the implicit opinion and sentiment are ignored in the current ABSA task. This article tackles these gaps by (1) creating a new annotated dataset comprised of five types of labels, including aspect, category, opinion, sentiment, and implicit indicator (ACOSI) and (2) developing a unified model which could extract all five types of labels simultaneously in a generative manner. Numerical experiments conducted on the manually labeled dataset originally scraped from three major e-Commerce retail stores for apparel and footwear products indicate the performance, scalability, and potentials of the framework developed. Several directions are provided for future exploration in the area of automated aspect-based sentiment analysis for user-centered design.
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Edith Ruth, Natukunda-Togboa. "Peace, Culture and Communication: “Languaging” Post-conflict Disputes." English Linguistics Research 6, no. 4 (December 18, 2017): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/elr.v6n4p79.
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Language, which is rarely neutral, shapes perception and behavior. Consequently, it plays an important role in relation to conflict and peace. The language of conflict usually functions on the basis of using differences to promote violence. Interviews conducted on land disputes in the post-conflict context of Northern Uganda, showed that language can be used to reduce these differences and affirm dignity thus diffusing tensions. Our preceding studies of conflict discourse within returnee communities have endeavored to show how language use, by imposing certain misrepresentations as legitimate, undermines efforts of social reintegration, perpetuates conditions of negative peace and can pose a threat of returning to conflict.In this study of Gulu elders dealing with post-conflict disputes, language is perceived as a tool of positive peace. Borrowing from the sociocultural theory of mind and its application to concepts of language, the paper shows how language can foster open and inclusive communication and support the pursuit of peaceful cohabitation within returnee communities. It goes on to demonstrate how language, within the cultural institutions of returnee communities, constitutes power that can be used in “languaging” conflict resolution. According to the study, language has embedded within it actual relations of power, so much so that those who control it exercise an enormous influence on how the communities perceive conflict and peace-building and what behaviors they accept in relation to resolving post-conflict disputes.Consequently, the quick revitalization of traditional arrangements of dispute settlement has been possible in the area of Gulu because language is a strong social institution which has enhanced the efforts of peace maintenance in the Acholi post conflict context. Languaging or talking through disputes as an alternative discourse to conflict should be embraced as a strategy of empowering the voiceless. It is an effective and sustainable cost effective strategy for dealing with cyclic disputes especially when applied as complementary to other dispute settlement approaches.
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Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade, and Patrick Charles Alex. "ANALYSIS OF RELIGIOUS SATIRE IN PBITEKS SONG OF LAWINO." Celtic: A Journal of Culture, English Language Teaching, Literature and Linguistics 6, no. 2 (December 26, 2019): 33–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.22219/celtic.v6i2.9929.
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This paper focuses on the analysis of religious satire in Song of Lawino. The study occasionally refers to Okots life history and ideological inclinations and the review of related literature giveng background information that clarifies Okot pBiteks writing as a product of a rich Acholi oral tradition. While a lot has been written on Okots creative works, little attention has been given to the use of satire. The study therefore, identifies and evaluates Okots use of satire in Song of Lawino determines the use of language to achieve satire in the text, and discusses how the author uses satire as a tool to share ideas and opinions on religious perspectives in the society. This study treats satire as the humorous criticism of human weaknesses and foibles and uses this parameter to identify it in the Song of Lawino. This is to throw light on the creative works of Okots and highlight circumstances that may have shaped him into a satirist. The upshot of all these is that the songs are appropriately contextualized with the ultimate finding that satire is an indigenous African phenomenon amply and ably deployed in Okots art.
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Adetuyi, Chris Ajibade, and Patrick Charles Alex. "ANALYSIS OF RELIGIOUS SATIRE IN PBITEKS SONG OF LAWINO." Celtic: A Journal of Culture, English Language Teaching, Literature, & Linguistics 6, no. 2 (December 26, 2019): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.22219/celticumm.vol6.no2.33-41.
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This paper focuses on the analysis of religious satire in Song of Lawino. The study occasionally refers to Okots life history and ideological inclinations and the review of related literature giveng background information that clarifies Okot pBiteks writing as a product of a rich Acholi oral tradition. While a lot has been written on Okots creative works, little attention has been given to the use of satire. The study therefore, identifies and evaluates Okots use of satire in Song of Lawino determines the use of language to achieve satire in the text, and discusses how the author uses satire as a tool to share ideas and opinions on religious perspectives in the society. This study treats satire as the humorous criticism of human weaknesses and foibles and uses this parameter to identify it in the Song of Lawino. This is to throw light on the creative works of Okots and highlight circumstances that may have shaped him into a satirist. The upshot of all these is that the songs are appropriately contextualized with the ultimate finding that satire is an indigenous African phenomenon amply and ably deployed in Okots art.
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Luo, Jingjing, and Zhonghua Wu. "Maren Rüsch. 2020. A conversational analysis of Acholi: structure and socio-pragmatics of a Nilotic language of Uganda. Leiden: Brill Academic, 376pp. ISBN 978-90-04-43758-6, $174.00." Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 43, no. 1 (May 1, 2022): 133–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jall-2022-8895.
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Katona, Lindsay B., William S. Douglas, Sean R. Lena, Kyle G. Ratner, Daniel Crothers, Robert L. Zondervan, and Charles D. Radis. "Wilderness First Aid Training as a Tool for Improving Basic Medical Knowledge in South Sudan." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 30, no. 6 (October 23, 2015): 574–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x15005270.
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AbstractIntroductionThe challenges presented by traumatic injuries in low-resource communities are especially relevant in South Sudan. This study was conducted to assess whether a 3-day wilderness first aid (WFA) training course taught in South Sudan improved first aid knowledge. Stonehearth Open Learning Opportunities (SOLO) Schools designed the course to teach people with limited medical knowledge to use materials from their environment to provide life-saving care in the event of an emergency.MethodsA pre-test/post-test study design was used to assess first aid knowledge of 46 community members in Kit, South Sudan, according to a protocol approved by the University of New England Institutional Review Board. The course and assessments were administered in English and translated in real-time to Acholi and Arabic, the two primary languages spoken in the Kit region. Descriptive statistics, t-test, ANOVA, and correlation analyses were conducted.ResultsResults included a statistically significant improvement in first aid knowledge after the 3-day training course: t(38)=3.94; P<.001. Although men started with more health care knowledge: (t(37)=2.79; P=.008), men and women demonstrated equal levels of knowledge upon course completion: t(37)=1.56; P=.88.ConclusionsThis research, which may be the first of its kind in South Sudan, provides evidence that a WFA training course in South Sudan is efficacious. These findings suggest that similar training opportunities could be used in other parts of the world to improve basic medical knowledge in communities with limited access to medical resources and varying levels of education and professional experiences.KatonaLB, DouglasWS, LenaSR, RatnerKG, CrothersD, ZondervanRL, RadisCD. Wilderness first aid training as a tool for improving basic medical knowledge in South Sudan. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2015;30(6):574–578.
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Akello, LD. "Mother Tongue Word Order Competence and Second Language Writing Skills: A Case Study of Acoli and English." Journal of Science and Sustainable Development 2, no. 1 (June 30, 2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jssd.v2i1.67557.
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Rettová, Alena. "Generic fracturing in Okot p’Bitek’s White Teeth." Journal of Commonwealth Literature, February 5, 2021, 002198942098482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021989420984826.
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Based on a stylistic analysis of selected African novels, centrally Okot p’Bitek’s Lak Tar/White Teeth (1953; English translation: 1989), this article identifies a narrative technique employed by these novels, to use heterogeneous genres inserted into the prose fiction of the novel. Typically, various genres of poetry are used in this way, creating a textuality that is richly “heteroglossic” (Bakhtin, 1981). However, the range of genres that can be used in this way is not limited and includes proverbs, sayings, songs, newspaper articles, letters, or more recently digital texts such as blogs or tweets. The article uses the term “generic fracturing” to refer to this technique. Generic fracturing is used in novels for specific purposes. The article focuses on the employment of a genre of Acoli praise poetry, mwoc, in White Teeth for characterization. It is further argued here that such heterogeneous genres do not only serve to construct the narrative, but are in fact markers of thought systems that differ from the “default” ontology, epistemology, and aesthetics of the novel. These features were inherited from the genre’s European history and imposed in Africa by colonial administration through which novelistic production was initially engineered. Generic fracturing is thus a textual strategy to effectuate disruptions and subversions of an intellectual framework that was a colonial imposition, and it points towards alternative ways of thinking. These were usually derived from local African cultural traditions in early African-language novelistic production. Generic fracturing, however, continues being used up to the present day in African novels to signal the co-existence and interaction of heterogeneous knowledges and philosophical frameworks.
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Nakatumba‐Nabende, Joyce, Claire Babirye, Peter Nabende, Jeremy Francis Tusubira, Jonathan Mukiibi, Eric Peter Wairagala, Chodrine Mutebi, et al. "Building Text and Speech Benchmark Datasets and Models for Low‐Resourced East African Languages: Experiences and Lessons." Applied AI Letters, March 26, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ail2.92.
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ABSTRACTAfrica has over 2000 languages; however, those languages are not well represented in the existing natural language processing ecosystem. African languages lack essential digital resources to effectively engage in advancing language technologies. There is a need to generate high‐quality natural language processing resources for low‐resourced African languages. Obtaining high‐quality speech and text data is expensive and tedious because it can involve manual sourcing and verification of data sources. This paper discusses the process taken to curate and annotate text and speech datasets for five East African languages: Luganda, Runyankore‐Rukiga, Acholi, Lumasaba, and Swahili. We also present results obtained from baseline models for machine translation, topic modeling and classification, sentiment classification, and automatic speech recognition tasks. Finally, we discuss the experiences, challenges, and lessons learned in creating the text and speech datasets.
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Abonga, Francis, Jacky Atingo, Jacob Awachango, Akena Denis, Julian Hopwood, Ocitti James, Opiyo Dick Kinyera, Susan Lajul, Auma Lucky, and Joseph Okello. "Collaborative Autoethnography and Reclaiming an African Episteme: Investigating “Customary” Ownership of Natural Resources." African Studies Review, January 26, 2024, 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/asr.2023.112.
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Abstract Collaborative autoethnography can function as a means of reclaiming certain African realities that have been co-opted by colonial epistemes and language. This can be significant in very concrete ways: northern Uganda is suffering a catastrophic loss of tree cover, much of which is taking place on the collective family landholdings that academia and the development sector have categorized as “customary land.” A collaboration by ten members of such landholding families, known as the Acholi Land Lab, explores what “customary ownership” means to them and their relatives, with a view to understanding what may be involved in promoting sustainable domestic use of natural resources, including trees.
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D'hondt, Sigurd, Juan-Pablo Pérez-León-Acevedo, Fabio Ferraz de Almeida, and Elena Barrett. "Trajectories of spirituality: Producing and assessing cultural evidence at the International Criminal Court." Language in Society, January 9, 2024, 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404523001008.
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Abstract In this article, we examine the production and assessment of evidence about spirit beliefs in the international criminal trial of Ugandan rebel commander Dominic Ongwen, submitted by the defense to show that their client committed the crimes he is accused of under duress. This duress defense was ultimately rejected by the ICC Judges, based on a binary understanding of ‘believing’ that depicts Ongwen and other LRA commanders as impostors. However, our analysis of how this evidence about Acholi spirituality is entextualized in testimony-taking and recontextualized in the Judgment reveals that this belief-binary is not exclusively the outcome of the Judges’ recontextualization efforts. In fact, the foundations are already established at entextualization stage, in the questioning by the defense. These continuities, we argue, offer a fresh perspective on the notion of text trajectory, redirecting attention to the underlying ‘grammar’ of the legal language game. (International Criminal Court, text trajectory, entextualization, recontextualization, evidence, spirit belief, Dominic Ongwen, Uganda)*
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Okot, Betty J. "Speargrass Blossoms: Patriarchy and the Cultural Politics of Women’s Ephemerality on the Land in Acholi." Journal of African Cultural Studies, November 12, 2021, 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13696815.2021.1989671.
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Masters, Eliot T. "Medicinal plants of the upper Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda - a cultural crossroads." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 19, no. 1 (October 27, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13002-023-00620-5.
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Abstract Background This paper presents a comparative inventory of medicinal plant taxa and their uses by smallholder farming communities of four cultures in the Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda, situated in the eastern Sudanian savanna parkland ecotype of sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose of the study was to document the ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants by the Lango, Acholi, Teso (Atesot) and Ethur (jo Abwor), in an historical moment before civil conflict and mass displacement of the respondent communities disrupted the inter-generational transmission of traditional technical knowledge within the study area. Methods Following community consultations in four districts of northern Uganda during 1999–2000, interviews were conducted with holders of specialist knowledge on plants used as medicine on basis of a plant specimen allocated a voucher number and identified by the national herbarium. Use reports reflecting specific medicinal applications were compiled in aggregate to obtain a Relative Importance Index ranking. The commonality of medicinal taxa cited between each cultural interface was assessed by the Jaccard Index of Similarity, and the similarity of specific medicinal usage by taxon using Rahman’s Similarity Index. Results The data collected from 112 respondents comprise 280 medicinal use reports describing 263 applications for 62 medical conditions, citing 108 taxa from 44 botanical families of which Fabaceae comprised 20% of all use reports. No earlier mention could be found to corroborate 72 use reports (27% of the total), representing medicinal indications as yet undocumented, and potentially worthy of investigation. The RI values ranged between 15 and 94%, with 13 taxa having RI values above 50%. The JI ratios indicate the highest degree of similarity in the plant taxa used as medicine (21%) between the Lango and Teso cultures who share a common origin; however, Rahman’s Similarity Index indicates the highest similarity of specific medicinal usage by taxon between the Lango and Acholi, who share a common language group through cultural assimilation over time. Conclusions As a comparative study, the results imply that cultural exchange and assimilation may be a greater driver of inter-cultural similarity of ethnopharmacological use of a given taxon, as compared to shared historical origins.
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Masum, Ahmad. "UGANDA: A Country Profile." Journal of International Studies, January 6, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.32890/jis.8.2012.7931.
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Uganda lies in the heart of Sub-Saharan Africa. It is situated in East Africa and occupies an area of 241,038 sq km (roughly twice the size of the state of Pennsylvania) and its population is about 35,873,253 (CIA World Factbook, 2012). Uganda is bordered by Tanzania and Rwanda to the south, Democratic Republic of Congo to the west, South Sudan to the north, and Kenya to the east. Uganda is a landlocked country and occupies most of the Lake Victoria Basin, which was formed by the geological shifts that created the Rift Valley during the Pleistocene era. Uganda was a British colony and became an independent- sovereign nation in 1962 without a bloody struggle. Several ethnic groups reside in the country i.e. Baganda, Banyankole, Bahima, Bakiga, Bunyoro, Batoro, Basoga, Bagisu, Langi, Acholi, Lugbara, Karamojong and others. English is the official language by virtue of Article 6(1) of the 1995 Constitution and Swahili is also widely spoken especially in the urban areas. Uganda has no State religion. As a country, Uganda has witnessed some positive development in the area of security. The government managed to plant the seeds of peace in the north by defeating the Lord Resistance Army (LRA) led by Joseph Kony.
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Masters, Eliot T. "Traditional food plants of the upper Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda—a cultural crossroads." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 17, no. 1 (April 6, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00441-4.
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Abstract Background In the parkland agroforestry system of northern Uganda, smallholder farming households rely on a diversity of plant species to fulfil their nutritional requirements, many of which also serve a range of medicinal, cultural, and livelihood functions. The purpose of the study was to assemble an inventory of indigenous plant species used as food in four districts within the Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda, and to document their utilization and management by rural communities. Methods From July 1999 to August 2000, a series of 61 community-based focus group discussions on the utilization of plant biodiversity were conducted in the vernacular language at 34 sites in four districts of northern Uganda, with participation by key informants self-selected on basis of their technical knowledge and personal interest. Of these, 232 respondents subsequently contributed to a collection of herbarium specimens, which were submitted to the Makerere University Herbarium for identification. On receipt of each specimen collected, a structured interview was conducted to document the botanical, ecological, seasonal, and alimentary attributes of each identified taxon, and details of its processing and utilization by the community from which it was obtained. The data analysis was undertaken during 2019 and 2020, including statistical tests to assess the relative importance of the cited taxa using the Relative Importance Index (RI), and to determine the similarity of edible plant use between the four cultures using the Jaccard Index of similarity (JI). Results Key informant interviews yielded 1347 use reports (URs) for 360 identified specimens of 88 indigenous edible plant species. The data describes patterns of use of indigenous edible plants of four cultures of the Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda. RI scores ranged from 0.93 to 0.11, with fruit trees occupying the top 25 taxa (RI 0.45 and above). Jaccard similarity scores ranged from 25.8% between Lango and Acholi, to 15.8% between Acholi and Ethur, indicating that cultural factors appear to be more significant than shared ancestry as determinants of cultural similarity of plant use. Conclusions The data constitute an inventory of on-farm plant species, including cultivated, semi-cultivated, and wild plants, integrated into a parkland agroforestry system in which useful trees and other plant species are sustained and managed under cultivation. Agricultural and on-farm plant biodiversity may be seen as a food security resource, and a nutritional buffer against increasing risks and stressors on low-input smallholder agriculture. Further studies should assess the intra-species biodiversity of these resources, with respect to farmer-valued traits and vernacular (folk) classification systems.