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1

Commission, Massachusetts Rate Setting, ed. Key trends in Massachusetts acute hospitals, 1981-1986: A report of the Massachusetts Rate Setting Commission. The Commission, 1987.

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2

Office, General Accounting. Medicare: Health maintenance organization rate-setting issues : report to congressional committees. The Office, 1989.

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3

Connecticut. Office of Health Care Access., ed. Charges & utilization for Connecticut acute care hospitals. The Office, 1997.

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Office, General Accounting. Medicare: Changes to HMO rate setting method are needed to reduce program costs : report to Congressional committees. The Office, 1994.

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5

Harley, Michael. Acute hospital admission rates: Comparison between Northern Ireland and Great Britain. Inter-Authority Comparisons and Consultancy, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham, 1996.

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6

Harley, Michael. Acute hospital admission rates: Comparison between Northern Ireland and Great Britain. Inter-Authority Comparisons and Consultancy, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham, 1996.

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7

Harley, Michael. Acute hospital admission rates: Comparison between Northern Ireland and Great Britain : executive summary. Inter-Authority Comparisons and Consultancy, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham, 1996.

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8

Office, Massachusetts Attorney General's, ed. The Attorney General's community benefits guidelines for nonprofit acute care hospitals. Attorney General, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 2000.

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9

Bazargani, Farhan. Acute inflammation in peritoneal dialysis : experimental studies in rats: Characterization of regulatory mechanisms. Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at Goteborg University, 2005.

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10

Kapp-Schwoerer, Silke. Acute panmyelosis with myelofibrosis: Clinicopathological and molecular features of a rare malignant bone marrow disease. s.n.], 2013.

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11

Program, Washington (State) Hazardous Waste and Toxics Reduction. Biological testing methods 80-12 for the designation of dangerous waste. The Dept., 2009.

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12

Farmakis, Dimitrios, John Parissis, George Papingiotis, and Gerasimos Filippatos. Acute heart failure. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0051_update_001.

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Acute heart failure is defined as the rapid development or change of symptoms and signs of heart failure that requires urgent medical attention and usually hospitalization. Acute heart failure is the first reason for hospital admission in individuals aged 65 or more and accounts for nearly 70% of the total health care expenditure for heart failure. It is characterized by an adverse prognosis, with an in-hospital mortality rate of 4–7%, a 2–3-month post-discharge mortality of 7–11%, and a 2–3-month readmission rate of 25–30%. The majority of patients have a previous history of heart failure and
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13

Wilson, John W., and Lynn L. Estes. Acute Native Joint Infections. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199797783.003.0109.

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•Clinical: Acute monoarticular swelling, typically of a large joint, with fever and pain•Radiology: Normal osseus structures (early) with soft-tissue swelling•Laboratory: Elevated leukocytes, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and C-reactive protein•Arthrocentesis: >50,000–100,000 leukocytes (predominantly neutrophils), absence of crystals, Gram stain often negative...
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14

Chakera, Aron, William G. Herrington, and Christopher A. O’Callaghan. Acute kidney injury. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0162.

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Acute renal failure (also referred to as acute kidney injury) refers to a rapid decrease in renal function; it is reflected by an increase in blood urea and creatinine and is often associated with oliguria (a urine volume of less than 400 ml/24 hours). It usually develops over days to weeks. Acute kidney injury has been variously classified, but the current classifications are based on the glomerular filtration rate (or creatinine), looking at changes from baseline, and the presence of oliguria or anuria. The potential etiologies of acute kidney injury are usually considered anatomically under
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15

Effects of acute dehydration and subsequent rehydration on metabolic rate in college wrestlers. 1990.

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16

Effects of acute dehydration and subsequent rehydration on metabolic rate in college wrestlers. 1991.

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17

Goligorsky, Michael S., Julien Maizel, Radovan Vasko, May M. Rabadi, and Brian B. Ratliff. Pathophysiology of acute kidney injury. Edited by Norbert Lameire. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0221.

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In the intricate maze of proposed mechanisms, modifiers, modulators, and sensitizers for acute kidney injury (AKI) and diverse causes inducing it, this chapter focuses on several common and undisputable strands which do exist.Structurally, the loss of the brush border, desquamation of tubular epithelial cells, and obstruction of the tubular lumen are commonly observed, albeit to various degrees. These morphologic hallmarks of AKI are accompanied by functional defects, most consistently reflected in the decreased glomerular filtration rate and variable degree of reduction in renal blood flow, a
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18

Comparison of acute heart rate and blood pressure responses among isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic exercise. 1992.

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19

Comparison of acute heart rate and blood pressure responses among isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic exercise. 1992.

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20

Comparison of acute heart rate and blood pressure responses among isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic exercise. 1992.

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21

Farmakis, Dimitrios, John Parissis, and Gerasimos Filippatos. Acute heart failure: epidemiology, classification, and pathophysiology. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0051.

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Acute heart failure is defined as the rapid development or change of symptoms and signs of heart failure that requires urgent medical attention and usually hospitalization. Acute heart failure is the first reason for hospital admission in individuals aged 65 or more and accounts for nearly 70% of the total health care expenditure for heart failure. It is characterized by an adverse prognosis, with an in-hospital mortality rate of 4-7%, a 2-3-month post-discharge mortality of 7-11%, and a 2-3-month readmission rate of 25-30%. The majority of patients have a previous history of heart failure and
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22

Clement, Jan. Acute kidney injury and hantavirus disease. Edited by Norbert Lameire. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0242_update_001.

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Hantavirus disease or at least its renal form, the so-called haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome is the only globally emerging acute kidney injury (AKI) form, and currently without doubt the most underestimated form of community-acquired AKI. Hantavirus disease is a viral zoonosis, caused by inhalation of infectious aerosolized excreta from chronically infected rodents, which are both the reservoir and the vector of different hantavirus species. Clinical presentation consists of sudden flu-like symptoms (fever, headache, myalgia), followed by gastrointestinal discomfort and AKI, often with
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23

Prowle, John, and Rinaldo Bellomo. Acute kidney injury in severe sepsis. Edited by Norbert Lameire. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0244_update_001.

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Septic acute kidney injury (S-AKI) accounts for close to 50% of all cases of AKI in ICU and, in its various forms, affects between 15% and 20% of ICU patients. Patients typically present with clinical evidence of severe sepsis and septic shock, developing oliguria or anuria, and rapidly rising serum creatinine concentration. The pathophysiology of S-AKI is poorly understood. Although haemodynamic factors might play a role in the loss of glomerular filtration rate, this may not be through the induction of renal ischaemia. Inflammation, microvascular shunting, and changes in glomerular arteriola
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24

Lisnevskaia, Larissa. Acute effects of controlled exposure to concentrated particles with/without added ozone on heart rate variability. 2004.

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25

Elser, Francine Jaquet. The acute and chronic effects of smoking on blood pressure and heart rate: An ambulatory study. 1993.

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26

Bueno, Héctor, and José A. Barrabés. Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0046.

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Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are life-threatening disorders, usually caused by acute coronary thrombosis and subsequent myocardial ischaemia, presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation in the initial electrocardiogram. According to the occurrence of myocardial necrosis, non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are divided into non-ST-segment myocardial infarction or unstable angina. The management of non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes requires an early diagnosis and risk stratification, urgent hospitalization, monitoring, and medical treatme
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27

Bueno, Héctor, and José A. Barrabés. Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0046_update_001.

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Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are life-threatening disorders, usually caused by acute coronary thrombosis and subsequent myocardial ischaemia, presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation in the initial electrocardiogram. According to the occurrence of myocardial necrosis, non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are divided into non-ST-segment myocardial infarction or unstable angina. The management of non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes requires an early diagnosis and risk stratification, urgent hospitalization, monitoring, and medical treatme
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28

Bueno, Héctor, and José A. Barrabés. Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0046_update_002.

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Non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are life-threatening disorders, usually caused by acute coronary thrombosis and subsequent myocardial ischaemia, presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation in the initial electrocardiogram. According to the occurrence of myocardial necrosis, non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes are divided into non-ST-segment myocardial infarction or unstable angina. The management of non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes requires an early diagnosis and risk stratification, urgent hospitalization, monitoring, and medical treatme
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29

Sever, Mehmet Şükrü, and Raymond Vanholder. Acute kidney injury in polytrauma and rhabdomyolysis. Edited by Norbert Lameire. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0252_update_001.

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The term ‘polytrauma’ refers to blunt (or crush) trauma that involves multiple body regions or cavities, and compromises physiology to potentially cause dysfunction of uninjured organs. Polytrauma frequently affects muscles resulting in rhabdomyolysis. In daily life, it mostly occurs after motor vehicle accidents, influencing a limited number of patients; after mass disasters, however, thousands of polytrauma victims may present at once with only surgical features or with additional medical complications (crush syndrome). Among the medical complications, acute kidney injury (AKI) deserves spec
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30

Acute Effects of Hand Elevation and Wrist Position on Mean Arterial Pressure and Pulse Rate Measured in the Hand. Storming Media, 2000.

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31

Blazeck, Alice Maus. THE EFFECTS ON HEART RATE, HEART RHYTHM, AND ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE OF THREE PROCEDURES USED BY ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION PATIENTS TO MOVE TO THE HEAD OF THE BED. 1987.

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32

Papadia, Francesco, and Tuomas Vӓlimӓki. Central Banking during the Great Recession. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198806196.003.0003.

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Monetary policy before the Great Recession rested on three unacknowledged assumptions: first, the central bank could effectively control a short-term rate; second, this short-term rate had a stable relationship with longer/riskier rates; third, the central bank could move the short-term rate up or down as needed. In one or the other phase of the Great Recession one or more of these assumptions no longer held. The Fed and the ECB reacted to these difficulties, adding balance sheet management to their weaponry. After the failure of Lehman Brothers, measures of financial stress exploded and the b
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33

Durand, Eric, Aures Chaib, and Nicolas Danchin. Chest pain and chest pain units. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0008.

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Patients presenting at the emergency department with acute chest pain and suspected to represent an acute coronary syndrome were classically admitted as routine to the cardiology department, resulting in expensive and time-consuming evaluations. However, 2-5% of patients with acute coronary syndromes were discharged home inappropriately, resulting in increased mortality. To address the inability to exclude the diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome, chest pain units were developed, particularly in the United States. These provided an environment where serial electrocardiograms, cardiac biomarker
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34

Durand, Eric, Aurès Chaib, Etienne Puymirat, and Nicolas Danchin. Chest pain and chest pain units. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0008_update_001.

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Patients presenting at the emergency department with acute chest pain and suspected to represent an acute coronary syndrome were classically admitted as routine to the cardiology department, resulting in expensive and time-consuming evaluations. However, 2-5% of patients with acute coronary syndromes were discharged home inappropriately, resulting in increased mortality. To address the inability to exclude the diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome, chest pain units were developed, particularly in the United States. These provide an environment where serial electrocardiograms, cardiac biomarkers
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35

Bowker, Lesley K., James D. Price, Ku Shah, and Sarah C. Smith. Cardiovascular. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198738381.003.0010.

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This chapter provides information on the ageing cardiovascular system, chest pain, stable angina, acute coronary syndromes, myocardial infarction, hypertension, treatment of hypertension, presentation of arrhythmias, management of arrhythmias, atrial fibrillation, rate/rhythm control in atrial fibrillation, stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation, bradycardia and conduction disorders, common arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities, heart failure assessment, acute heart failure, chronic heart failure, dilemmas in heart failure, heart failure with preserved left ventricular function, valvular
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36

Wilson, John W., and Lynn L. Estes. Osteomyelitis. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199797783.003.0107.

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•Clinical: Localized pain and tenderness of involved bone; systemic signs and symptoms of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis•Radiology: Bone destruction or sequestrum in chronic cases; use of nuclear scanning, magnetic resonance imaging, or computed tomography may aid diagnosis and staging•Laboratory: White blood cell count is often normal; erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein are usually elevated...
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37

Greenberg, Benjamin M., and Allen Desena. Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199937837.003.0089.

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Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is a rare inflammatory disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that can be fatal or lead to long-term disability. Various triggers have been identified in children and adults, which presumably cause an autoimmune response targeting myelin. The resulting inflammation causes demyelination and edema of the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. Depending on which portion of the CNS is affected, patients will experience a variety of symptoms including weakness, numbness, ataxia, encephalopathy, and seizures. Treatment is currently focused on reducing
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38

Beattie, R. Mark, Anil Dhawan, and John W.L. Puntis. Acute liver failure. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569862.003.0063.

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Definition 476Aetiology 476Therapy 480Complications 480Transplantation 484Liver support system 484Prognosis 485Acute liver failure (ALF) in children is defined as ‘a rare multisystem disorder in which severe impairment of liver function, with or without encephalopathy, occurs in association with hepatocellular necrosis in a patient with no recognized underlying chronic liver disease’. Liver function is considered severely impaired if prothrombin time (PT) is >15 s or international normalized ratio (INR) is >1.5 and not corrected by vitamin K, in the presence of hepatic encephalopathy (HE
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39

Peeran, Syed M. Combined Endovascular and Surgical Retrograde Superior Mesenteric Artery Recanalization. Edited by S. Lowell Kahn, Bulent Arslan, and Abdulrahman Masrani. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199986071.003.0027.

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Acute mesenteric ischemia is a life-threatening vascular emergency associated with a very high mortality rate. In the setting of necrotic bowel, the current standard of care requires a laparotomy with bowel resection and surgical or endovascular revascularization of the superior mesenteric artery. Unfortunately, mesenteric bypass confers high perioperative mortality, in some reports up to 45%. A hybrid technique that employs an exploratory laparotomy, catheterization of the distal superior mesenteric artery, and stent deployment across the atherosclerotic lesion was first described in 2004 for
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40

Doumouchtsis, Stergios K., S. Arulkumaran, Eleftheria L. Chrysanthopoulou, et al. Intrapartum procedures and complications. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199651382.003.0005.

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This chapter discusses the diagnosis of labour, and describes what to do in the case of cord prolapse, abnormal fetal heart rate patterns in labour, continuous abdominal pain in labour, instrumental delivery for fetal distress in the second stage of labour, shoulder dystocia, acute tocolysis, symphysiotomy and destructive operations, along with twin delivery, breech delivery, abnormal lie or presentation in labour, and anaesthetic complications on the labour ward.
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41

Jones, Alison L. Management of opioid poisoning. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0319.

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Opioids are ‘morphine like’ substances that have actions at specific opioid receptors (especially µ receptors) in the central nervous system (CNS). Tolerance of respiratory depression develops at a slower rate than analgesic tolerance, placing patients with a long history of opioid use at particular risk for respiratory depression. If chronic users abruptly stop taking opioids, they develop an acute withdrawal syndrome. Most opioid toxicity is the result of inadvertent overdosage during recreational use or in self-harm, but it can also be due to medication misuse and drug errors. It is charact
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42

Menon, Ashok, Haris A. Khwaja, Ariel Ortiz Lagardere, Manoel Galvao Neto, and Jaime Ponce. Complications of the Intragastric Balloon. Edited by Tomasz Rogula, Philip Schauer, and Tammy Fouse. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190608347.003.0038.

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Intragastric balloons (IGB) have been used in the treatment of obesity for over 30 years. The first notable IGB device (the Garren Edwards Gastric Bubble) was withdrawn from the market due to patients’ poor weight loss and a high rate of complications. Several subsequent devices have been designed to address these shortcomings, but high-quality data are needed to compare complication rates among devices. Mortality across all IGB variants is extremely low compared to other bariatric procedures. Complications are mainly associated with visceral injury related to device insertion and retrieval, a
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43

Bauman, Kristy A., and Robert C. Hyzy. Volume-controlled mechanical ventilation. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0095.

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The goal of mechanical ventilation is to achieve adequate gas exchange while minimizing haemodynamic compromise and ventilator-associated lung injury. Volume-controlled ventilation can be delivered via several modes, including controlled mechanical ventilation, assist control (AC) and synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV). .In volume-controlled modes, the clinician sets the flow pattern, flow rate, trigger sensitivity, tidal volume, respiratory rate, positive end-expiratory pressure, and fraction of inspired oxygen. Patient ventilator synchrony can be enhanced by setting appro
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44

Haymann, Jean-Philippe, and Francois Lionnet. The patient with sickle cell anaemia. Edited by Giuseppe Remuzzi. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0167.

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In sickle cell anaemia (SCA) a single mutation in the haemoglobin beta-globin gene is responsible for a pleomorphic phenotype leading to acute and chronic life-threatening complications. Healthcare management programmes, patient and family education, infection prophylaxis (especially in childhood), and long-term treatment for some patients (such as hydroxyurea) have significantly improved survival, giving rise to some new long-term issues.Sickle cell-associated nephropathy (SCAN) leads in some cases to chronic renal failure with a significant impact on survival. SCAN is characterized by an inc
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45

Mannucci, Pier Mannuccio, and Maddalena Lettino. Bleeding and haemostasis disorders. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0070_update_003.

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The main cause of haemostasis defects and related bleeding complications in patients with acute coronary syndromes admitted to the intensive cardiac care unit is the use of multiple antithrombotic drugs, alone or concomitantly with invasive procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention with stent deployment and coronary artery bypass surgery. These drugs, that act upon several components of haemostasis (platelet function, coagulation, fibrinolysis), are associated with bleeding complications, particularly in elderly patients (more so in women than in men), those who are underweight, an
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46

Viboud, Cécile, Hélène Broutin, and Gerardo Chowell. Spatial-temporal transmission dynamics and control of infectious diseases: Ebola virus disease (EVD) as a case study. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789833.003.0004.

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Disentangling the spatial-temporal dynamics of infectious disease transmission is important to address issues of disease persistence, epidemic growth and optimal control. In this chapter, we review key concepts relating to the spatial-temporal dynamics of infectious diseases in meta-populations, whereby geographically separate subpopulations are connected by migration or mobility rates. We review the dynamics of colonization, persistence and extinction of emerging and recurrent pathogens in meta-populations; the role of demographic and environmental factors; and geographic heterogeneity in epi
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47

Prasad, Abhiram. Ischemic Heart Disease. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199755691.003.0045.

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Ischemic heart disease, principally myocardial infarction, causes approximately 1 of 3 deaths in the United States, or nearly 800,000 deaths annually. The substantial decrease in the death rate from acute myocardial infarction that has occurred since 1970 is attributed to efforts in primary prevention and new interventions in the treatment of myocardial infarction. The variable presentation of patients with coronary heart disease includes patients who are asymptomatic (with or without silent ischemia), patients who have stable or unstable angina or myocardial infarction, and patients with sudd
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48

Rucci, Jennifer M., and Robert E. Feinstein. Neurocognitive Disorders and Mental Disorders Due to Another Medical Condition. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199326075.003.0005.

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The defining feature of neurocognitive disorders is a decline in cognitive functioning. Patients suffering from delirium experience an acute change in mental status, fluctuating levels of consciousness, and an inability to acquire new information. Patients with major neurocognitive disorder experience significant cognitive decline in complex attention, executive function, learning and memory, language, perceptual-motor, and social cognition. The chapter also discusses mental disorders due to another medical condition. These patients can experience psychotic, mood, or anxious symptoms or a pers
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49

Ducrocq, Gregory, Franck Thuny, Bernard Iung, and Alec Vahanian. Acute valve disease and endocarditis. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0059.

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The management of patients with acute valve disease is now a rare, but challenging, event, as valvular patients are often elderly with severe comorbidities. Furthermore, a proportion of previously operated patients present with acute valve dysfunction. The aim, in this situation, is to establish a rapid diagnosis, based on clinical examination and echocardiography, followed by early intervention. The primary treatment remains surgical valve replacement. However, a more conservative surgical approach is under development, and, more recently, percutaneous interventional techniques have been intr
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50

Ducrocq, Gregory, Franck Thuny, Bernard Iung, and Alec Vahanian. Acute valve disease and endocarditis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0059_update_001.

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The management of patients with acute valve disease is now a rare, but challenging, event, as valvular patients are often elderly with severe comorbidities. Furthermore, a proportion of previously operated patients present with acute valve dysfunction. The aim, in this situation, is to establish a rapid diagnosis, based on clinical examination and echocardiography, followed by early intervention. The primary treatment remains surgical valve replacement. However, a more conservative surgical approach is under development, and, more recently, percutaneous interventional techniques have been intr
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