Journal articles on the topic 'Aerial photography in soil surveys'

The application of remote sensing methods provides useful information that can be used for numerous research. Thus, spatial changes in soil, vegetation, hydrography and such can be analyzed. By analyzing the data obtained by remote sensing methods, high-quality and important data can be obtained for monitoring changes in soil movement caused by landslides. This method provides the possibility of determining the state of the observed space over a longer period of time. Historical aerial imagery has a high level of spatial detail analysis. Comparative analysis of the aerial imagery from the past, recent ones and other surveys can certainly provide information on the trend of ground movement, as well as lead to conclusions for taking specific measures. The present paper gives an example of the analysis of the particular area of the “Umka” landslide based on historical surveys. The “Umka” landslide is located along the right bank of the Sava River near the city of Belgrade, which, with its long-term activity, jeopardizes residential buildings, infrastructure facilities and the population that still lives on it.

The transition zone of the Wonosari and Nglanggran Formation in Purwosari District has the characteristics of thick soil, steep slopes, and no outcrops. The different characteristics found in the Wonosari Formation Zone are characterized by polygonal karst formations with thin soil and limestone rocks, and the Nglanggran Formation in the form of thick soil, andesite rock outcrops, and steep slopes. Geomorphological mapping of the Nglanggran and Wonosari Formation can be done easily through morphological approaches and outcrops. Geomorphological mapping is quite difficult to do in the transition of the Wonosari and Nglanggran Formation because it does not have outcrops and is difficult to interpret from morphology. Soil geomorphological approach needs to be done to define landform units for areas that do not have outcrops dan difficult to interpret through morphology. The purpose of this study was to map the geomorphological distribution of soil characteristics in the geological transition zone. The methods used to identify landform units are morphological delineation and soil survey. The morphological delineation for landform units was obtained from aerial photographs. The results of the delineation of landforms from aerial photographs are detailed by soil surveys. The results of the delineation of landforms using aerial photography produce high resolution, smooth, and firm compared to other sources. The results of the delineation of landforms from aerial photos obtained two units of landforms, limestone karst hills, Wonosari formation and andesitic rocky hills, Nglanggran formation. There is a transitional transition zone in the TP7 soil sample with the color change from dark brown (karst) to light brown (old volcanic). The thickness of the soil in the old volcanic is more than 1 meter and deeper than the karst soil (< 60 cm). The transition zone has three soil horizons A, B, and B/C which are classified as more developed than the karst region (A and B horizons). The soil texture in old volcanic is clay and silt, while the dominant karst area is clay.

Northern China’s agropastoral ecotone has been a key area of desertification control for decades, and digital maps of its soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are needed to reveal the gaps between the actual SOC levels and baseline to support land degradation neutrality (LDN) under the Sustainable Development Goals. However, reliable soil information is scarce, and accurate prediction is hindered by the fragmented landscape, which is a dominant characteristic of desertified land. To improve the patchiness identification and accuracy of SOC prediction, we conducted field surveys and collected low-altitude aerial images along the desertification degrees (severe and extremely severe, moderate, slight) in the Horqin Sandy Land. Linear regressions were performed on the relationships between the normalized difference vegetation index and the fractional vegetation cover (FVC) extracted from aerial images, and regression kriging was applied to predict SOC stocks based on the soil-forming factors (vegetation, climate, and topography). Our prediction and cross-validation showed that the fragmented structure and prediction accuracy of SOC stocks were both greatly improved for desertified land. The FVC (R2c = 0.94) and evapotranspiration (R2c = 0.86) had significant positive effects on SOC stocks, respectively, with indirect and direct causal relationships. Our results could provide soil information with better patchiness and accuracy to help policymakers determine the future LDN status in this fragmented desertification landscape. As drone technology becomes more available, it will fully support digital mapping of soil properties.

Land use changes and land intensification has played a more and more important role in food production. The environment has been influenced by it greatly. Land use data were derived from several sources: aerial photographs, current land use maps, Second National Soil Survey (SNSS) map, and fieldwork. The aerial photographs, 1:50,000 for both 1980 and 2006 were obtained from the Department of Surveys and Mapping (DSM). Bulk soil samples were collected at 79 sites across Quzhou district. Samples were collected again at the same locations in 2000 and 2006. To compare the soil data of 2006, 2000 and 1980, latitude and longitude of the sampling locations were recorded using the Global Position System at the time of soil collection. The samples site selection was done on behalf of the Second National Soil Survey. A great change had taken place in land use and land use intensification. The changes, which have converted natural landscapes into the use for human, have made a large proportion of the Quhzou’s landscape change greatly.

Abstract The problems that arise in the surface layer of the soil during periodic emissions at nuclear power plants are considered. The necessity of constant monitoring of this soil layer at different times of the year is substantiated. Various methods of this control are considered. It has been established that it is extremely difficult to implement them in remote areas. A method has been developed for monitoring the surface layer of the soil using aerodynamic survey of the distribution of γ-radiation on the soil surface. This is extremely important during the preparation of agricultural fields for sowing crops in the spring. A new algorithm for restoring images obtained using aerodynamic imaging of γ-radiation is proposed. The results of a new algorithm for image processing and identification are presented.

It has been established that with the development of society, the growth of the impact of human actions on the agro-ecological system of the Earth, and at the same time the satisfaction of its life activity, there is a need to apply new methods in the management of natural resources. Today, space photography, which is carried out through various carriers from space with the support of filming equipment, is the primary means of obtaining information. It is highlighted that information from space and photo-aerial imaging is sufficiently used in cartography, when solving problems in all areas of science and technology and the formation of geo-information systems. Every year, the volume of products related to mapping and geoinformation expands, new areas for using information from space surveys appear. The specificity of space surveying for several decades is the acquisition of data from aerial surveys with very high spatial resolution (<1 m), the growth in the spectral resolution of surveying systems and the implementation of spectral surveying. It is highlighted that by the model of remote sensing of the Earth we understand the system of receiving and converting input signals of the electromagnetic spectrum into outputs that form images or point output data about objects on the terrain. It is emphasized that in the last decades, remote sensing of the Earth is especially used to obtain informative data about the agro-ecological surface of the earth. Natural characteristics of soil types, vegetation, etc. were obtained with the help of remote sensing of the Earth. Many countries of the world use the information obtained with the help of aerospace means of remote sensing of the Earth quite widely, on its basis they successfully search for minerals, assess the rural potential of regions and countries, conduct analysis of agricultural lands, distinguish types and types of agricultural crops, implement yield forecasts, monitor the condition soils and pastures, perform its monitoring. The crisis of a soil science nature in Ukraine is caused by the functioning of the administrative-command economy in the past.

Reclamation system is a complex of engineering structures and devices that ensure the creation of the required water, air, thermal and nutrient regimes of soils. The composition of reclamation systems includes underground pipelines, drains, hydraulic structures that may fail and require repair, but it is impossible to detect a problem area without monitoring the area of the system by antediluvian methods or conducting survey work. The purpose of the work: to justify the use of soil moisture maps obtained by the DJI PHANTOM 4 MULTISPECTRA UAV to identify problem areas of the reclamation network or vice versa absence. Aerial photography was carried out in May 2021 on the treated section of the drainage and humidification network of the Yakhrom floodplain of the Moscow region. As a result of the survey, a digital relief model, an operational humidity map based on the calculated NDWI water index were obtained. The flight altitude of the quadcopter was 180 m above the earth’s surface, the pixel size of the image of the earth’s surface to be 7.9 cm. According to the results of aerial photography on the selected site, the absolute marks of the earth’s surface vary from 134.67 to 135.23. On average, the slope of the earth’s surface of the selected site is 0.002 in the direction from northwest to southeast. There are no pronounced microforms of relief moisture in the surface layer of the soil obtained in the field corresponds to the variety of color areas of the NDWI water indices highlighted on the operational humidity map. In the soil conditions of the studied area, the moisture content of the surface soil layer is logarithmic with the normalized difference water index NDWI. The correlation coefficient is 0.9 ± 0.06, which indicates a very high relationship between the studied indicators. Such a map can be used to identify problem areas of the reclamation network.

Mapping Iron Age field systemsAn assessment of the applicability of aerial photographyThere is little doubt that agriculture constituted the fundamental activity in prehistoric Denmark following its introduction 6000 years ago. Traces of cultivation are, however, almost solely preserved in the form of ard marks on surfaces sealed beneath barrows or layers of aeolian sand. Only one period in prehistory shows coherent traces revealing how field systems were formed and how they fitted into the landscape. During the course of the Late Bronze Age (1000-500 BC), a system of cultivation was introduced over large parts of NW Europe in which the individual fields or plots were separated from one another by low earthen banks and terrace edges or lynchets. These field systems could extend over several hundred hectares.These cultivation systems appear primarily to have been in use between 500 BC and AD 200. Research into prehistoric field systems has a long tradition extending all the way back to the 1920s in England, The Netherlands and Denmark, whereas in NW Germany and on Gotland work took place during the 1970s, with the Baltic Countries being involved in the 1990s. Early research was directed in particular towards mapping the field systems which, at that time, lay untouched in agriculturally marginal areas such as heath and woodland.In Denmark, Gudmund Hatt was a pioneer in this field. During the course of several campaigns, especially during the 1930s, he recorded 120 occurrences of field systems, primarily on the heaths of Northern and Western Jutland. These were published in 1949 in his major work Oldtidsagre (i.e. Prehistoric Fields). His work was continued by Viggo Nielsen who recorded 200 field systems in the forests of Zealand and Bornholm, largely between 1953 and 1963. In the former Aarhus county, the record has subsequently been augmented by a systematic reconnaissance of the forests which took place between 1988 and 1992. Subsequently, this led to the extensive investigations of field systems at Alstrup Krat near Mariager. As early as the 1920s, English researchers were aware of the fact that both ploughed-down and preserved field systems were visible on aerial photographs. However, the method was first applied in Denmark, The Netherlands and NW Germany in the 1970s, leading to a several-fold increase in the number known localities. In Denmark, P.H. Sørensen recorded 447 field systems in the former Viborg and North Jutland counties alone. P. H. Sørensen has published a series of articles dealing with various aspects of aerial photography in relation to ancient field systems. For example, the colour and origin of the various soil marks, the shape and size of the plots, different types of field systems and the relationship with soil type. He has also published several surveys of individual field systems. A significant problem with P.H. Sørensen’s work relates to the very few published plans showing the field systems and to the fact that these are based exclusively on a single series of aerial photographs.The main aim of this article is to demonstrate the potential for mapping field systems on the basis of not one but several series of aerial photographs. This is done through the detailed survey and mapping of three individual field systems and access to a series of data sources with respect to the interpretation of information contained in the aerial photographs. These comprise an interpretation of the origin of soil marks of banks and lynchets and an evaluation of the degree to which this interpretation is influenced by subjectivity. It is beyond the scope of this investigation to locate the field systems within a settlement and landscape context.Sources and study areaIn order to explore the problems and questions outlined above, three field systems were chosen in the central part of Himmerland: Skørbæk Hede, Gundersted and Store Binderup (fig. 1). This selection took place on the basis of an examination and assessment of almost all recorded field systems in Himmerland evident on several series of aerial photographs. These three field systems chosen are among those best preserved and also the most cohesive. Furthermore, all three have been mapped previously: Skørbæk Hede by Hatt on the basis of field survey, and the two others by P.H. Sørensen on the basis of aerial photographs. This provides the opportunity to evaluate any possible subjectivity in the procedure employed. Hatt makes a distinction between field boundary banks and lynchets. This opens up the possibility of evaluating how the two forms of boundary appear on aerial photographs. At Gundersted Hatt cut two sections through boundary banks. These, together with sections from other of Hatt’s excavations and more recent examples from the investigations at Alsing Krat, form the basis for an investigation of how soil marks arise and develop over time. In this investigation, use has also been made of historical maps in order to reveal the influence of historical cultivation on the presence/absence of soil marks. The earliest maps are from c. 1780. The primary source remains, however, series of vertical aerial photographs. Access to the latter has become considerably easier in recent years. A large proportion is now accessible via various web portals, and recently an overview became available of the contents of private and public archives. For the purposes of this investigation, use has been made of scanned contact copies of aerial photograph series from 1954, 1961 and 1967. From digital archives, use has been made of aerial photographs from 1979 and 1981 and the orthophoto maps from 2007 and 2008, respectively.Digitalisation and rectification of aerial photographsPreviously, mapping on the basis of aerial photographs was a laborious process involving tracing paper and the transfer of features to topographic maps. The introduction of GIS has, however, eased the process considerably and has also made it easy to compare various map themes such as soil-type, land-use, and digital finds databases. Before mapping can commence, the aerial photograph must be scanned, rectified and geo-referenced. rectification was carried out using the programme Airphoto, while geo-referencing and drawing in of the features were done in MapInfo. An example is shown in figure 2.Soil marks – how do they originate?In order to understand how the boundary banks and lynchets between plots appear as soil marks on the aerial photographs, it is necessary to examine how these boundaries were built up and also the influences to which they have been exposed from their creation and up until the time when they are visible on aerial photographs. Figures 3 and 4 show sections through two boundary banks at Gundersted These were carried out by Hatt at the beginning of the 1930s, just prior to the area coming under cultivation again and 20-25 years before the first aerial photographs revealed pale traces of boundary banks. As the area had not been cultivated since the Iron Age, the stratigraphy is the result of natural soil-formation processes: a podsol has been formed, comprising a heath mor layer uppermost, beneath this a bleached sand layer and an iron pan, and at the base the old cultivation layer and the topsoil core of the boundary bank, consisting of brown and grey sand. Ploughing of the boundary banks will, initially, not result in significant soil marks as the three uppermost layers are of equal thickness along the whole length of the section. A pale soil mark will, however, appear when the boundary bank has been levelled out and the plough begins to turn up material from the light topsoil core. This soil transport can in some instances continue for more than 70 years, but the soil marks will as a consequence also become wide and fragmented. This account of the processes leading to the appearance of the pale soil marks is completely different from the only other theory proposed in this respect, i.e. that of P.H. Sørensen. He describes a development involving three phases, beginning with the ploughing up of the bleached sand horizon which generates a pale soil-colour trace. Later in the development there is a shift to a dark trace, when the material in the topsoil core becomes ploughed up. In the final phase, the trace shifts again to a pale colour, when the plough begins to bring up the subsoil. However, these two sections show neither a bleached sand horizon nor a darker topsoil core. Furthermore, no colour changes have been observed at any of the localities. The fact that the boundary banks are apparent as pale soil marks is not due to ploughing up of the bleached sand layer but of the topsoil bank core. Ploughing down of the other boundary form, the terrace edge or lynchet, as shown in figure 5, will similarly result in the formation of a pale soil-colour trace through material being brought up from the pale topsoil core. P.H. Sørensen was also fully aware of this situation, and it can be confirmed by comparing Hatt’s map of the Skørbæk Hede site, where a distinction is made between boundary banks and lynchets, with the soil marks apparent on the aerial photograph series Basic Cover 1954 (fig. 6).Dark vegetation marks and pale erosion marksAlmost all the soil marks that form a basis for the mapping of the three field systems appear pale in relation to the surroundings. There are, however, occasional exceptions to this rule in the form of dark marks in areas of heather heathland and newly-ploughed heath. On the aerial photograph of Skørbæk Hede from 1954, a few dark marks can be seen directly south of Trenddalen (fig. 6) which correspond with the results of Hatt’s survey. These lie in an area which was cultivated between 1937 and 1954. In 1961, the area was taken out of cultivation and became covered with small trees. A corresponding phenomenon can be observed to the west of the settlement where the heather heathland was cultivated between 1954 and 1961 (fig. 7). These marks probably arise from the vegetation as a consequence of better growing conditions over the topsoil cores of the boundary banks. The fact that lynchets and boundary banks offer different growing conditions has been documented at Alstrup Krat where it could be seen that in several places anemones grew on the lynchets. Differences in the vegetation on the field surfaces and the boundary banks have also been observed on aerial photographs showing the scheduled examples of field systems at Lundby Hede and Øster Lem Hede.The final type of soil-colour trace to be dealt with here comprises the very pale patches that occur on both sides of Trenddalen at Skørbæk Hede and on the western margins of the field system at Gundersted. These could possibly be interpreted as ploughed-up deposits of aeolian sand, but this is not the case. By comparison with the topography and through stereoscopic viewing of the aerial photographs it becomes clear that these features are located on steeply sloping terrain and that they are due to ploughing up of the sandy subsoil. They become both larger and more pronounced with time as more and more subsoil sand is progressively eroded out due to ploughing (figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9).The influence of historic cultivation on soil marksThe fact that Hatt could still see boundary banks and lynchets in the landscape during his investigations in the 1930s was of course due to these areas not having been ploughed since they were abandoned at some time during the Iron Age. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters’ conceptual map from the end of the 18th century shows that 30% of Himmerland was covered by heath, 42% was cultivated, 21% lay as meadow and bog and only 4% was covered by woodland (fig. 1). By comparing the identified field systems with the heath areas on the maps, an idea can be gained of the duration of cultivation and how it has influenced the soil marks. Correspondingly, by comparing plans showing soil marks with the cultivated area shown on the conceptual map, it is possible to investigate whether cultivation, presumably continuous here since the 12th century, has erased traces of field systems dating from the Early Iron Age. Plates I-III show combined plans of soil marks from boundary banks, lynchets and recorded barrows at the three localities. The ordnance maps from the 1880s have been chosen as a background, showing contour lines, land use and wetland areas, and the cultivated areas have been added from the conceptual map. At both Gundersted and Skørbæk Hede, there are clearly no soil marks in the areas marked as cultivated on the conceptual map. Conversely, the immediately adjacent heath areas show many coherent traces. On this basis, it must be assumed that the field systems from the Early Iron Age also once extended into areas shown as cultivated on the conceptual map but that the long-term cultivation has apparently erased any trace of them. It should, however, be mentioned that Lis Helles Olesen’s investigations in NW Jutland only reveal a slight preponderance of field systems located on the old heath areas, so there may well be regional differences.The original total extent of the field systems is of course difficult to assess, but the field system at Store Binderup provides an idea of the order of magnitude. This field system is apparent as a well-defined topographic unit surrounded by wetland areas; the latter are shown on the conceptual map to be completely covered by heath. The field system extends over c. 75% of the cultivable area. In order to examine the influence of modern cultivation on the clarity of the soil marks, plans showing traces of the boundary banks have been compared with a series of historical maps. In general, the soil marks at all three localities appear most clear in areas which were cultivated latest. Former heath areas completely lacking in soil marks have probably never been cultivated. The last 50 years of cultivation with large agricultural machinery has had a dramatic effect on the soil marks. On figures 7, 8 and 9, clear evidence of ploughing out can be seen, whereby the soil marks in several places increase from 5 to 9 m in width. The negative effect of long-term cultivation on soil marks documented here only applies to pale soil marks on sandy soils. A number of field systems are apparent as dark soil marks, the visibility of which does not appear to be affected to the same extent by long-term cultivation. These make up only 3% of those recorded by P.H. Sørensen, and no sections through boundary banks are available from any of these field systems.Comparison of maps produced by field survey and from aerial photographsEvery map expresses an interpretation of what has been observed. This also applies of course to both Hatt’s mapping of the field systems on the ground in the 1930s and the subsequent mapping conducted on the basis of aerial photographs. Quality and credibility are, however, increased considerably, if the features observed can be confirmed by several sources or several researchers, reducing the subjective aspect to a minimum.On figures 10 and 11, the author’s plan of Skørbæk Hede based on aerial photographs is compared with the results of Hatt’s field survey. There is no doubt whatsoever that the aerial photographs are better able to show the overall extent of the field system. Conversely, the resulting plan is less detailed than Hatt’s map. In a few cases, however, sub-divisions of the fields are seen on the aerial photographs which Hatt did not record in his survey (figs. 8-9). In order to investigate subjectivity in the interpretation of the aerial photographs, a comparison has been made between the author’s and P.H. Sørensen’s plans of the field systems at Gundersted and Store Binderup (figs. 12, 13 and 14). Good agreement can be seen in the interpretation of the soil marks apparent on the aerial photographs of both localities. This suggests that the subjective aspect of the interpretational process is not a major problem.Evaluation of the method’s range with respect to studies of the agrarian landscapeAerial photographs encompass a great research potential relative to studies of the arable landscape during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. They are the only source available with respect to mapping the morphology and extent of the field systems, with the exception of the few remains tangible which still exist in woodland and on heaths. Field systems are particularly important in a cultural-historical context because they constitute the sole example from prehistory of the appearance of a total integrated cultivation system and how it was adapted to the landscape.The information contained on the aerial photographs, particularly in the form of pale soil marks resulting from the exposure or ploughing-up of the topsoil core of the boundary banks and lynchets, is a credible source relative to the mapping of the morphology and extent of field systems. Comparison between the maps and plans produced by several researchers mapping does not give cause to perceive the interpretation of the information as the aerial photographs as being particularly subjective. On the contrary, very good agreement can be seen between these interpretations.In a mapping exercise, use should be made of a number of different series of vertical aerial photographs as this provides the most detailed picture of the morphology of the field systems.A very significant source of error has been identified which must be taken into account when mapping the extent of the field systems, i.e. cultivation during historical times. In areas that were cultivated prior to the enclosure movement, i.e. in the very great majority of cases presumably since the 12th century, it cannot be expected to find pale soil marks. Long-term cultivation and the consequent mixing of the upper soil layers have erased most traces of boundary banks and lynchets. Renewed cultivation within the last 100-150 years appears, conversely, only seems to have had a marginal effect on the occurrence of soil marks. As mentioned above there can, however, be marked regional differences on the influence of historical cultivation on the clarity and degree of preservation of the soil marks. This is an aspect it will be interesting to study in more detail in the future.Michael VinterMoesgård Museum

The article is devoted to the topical issue of geodetic planning in agro-landscape and its importance for efficient land use. The authors review modern methods and technologies for creating digital maps and models of agricultural landscapes based on the use of geographic information systems and aerial photography from unmanned aerial vehicles. Modern new approaches to geodetic planning within agrolandscapes are investigated. The requirements of the agricultural sector for digital mapping and modeling for the optimal use of land resources are determined. The tools for the formation of digital maps of agro-territories of united territorial communities are substantiated. Proposals for the use of geodetic methods for effective agro-landscape planning are formulated. The main attention is paid to the practical significance of the data obtained for optimizing land use, planning agricultural operations and rational use of land resources. The studied approaches and developments can be useful for farmers, landowners, ecologists and specialists in the field of geodesy. In the course of the study, a methodology and procedure for mapping agricultural landscapes using GIS and aerial survey materials using UAVs were developed. This methodology made it possible to obtain high-quality images of agricultural landscapes and develop a cartographic model in GIS based on them. The approach was successfully tested on the example of the selected model area near the ATC. The created digital map and database are promising for further research of agricultural landscapes. The research clearly shows that the data obtained as a result of UAV surveys is a high-quality source of reliable information. Aerial photography allows you to quickly create an accurate digital terrain model, which can serve as the basis for geographic information systems in the development of a number of thematic maps and terrain models important for the agricultural sector. The geographic information system makes it possible to visualize the main elements of agricultural landscapes as separate layers (e.g., relief, soil-forming rocks) with appropriate detailing of their characteristics in attribute tables. By combining different data sources, GIS allows you to create detailed maps of the agro-ecological conditions of a particular area. GIS can also be used to store information on field work, yields and other indicators, which ensures the rational management of agricultural processes on land plots.

This study is based on an interdisciplinary approach to the prospection of archaeological sites impacted by modern agricultural plowing activity. We applied remote sensing, combined with geophysical, geochemical, and archaeological methods at Kushmanskoye III — a medieval Finno-Ugric site in the Cheptsa River basin, northern Udmurtia (9th–13th centuries AD). As a result of many years of plowing, the site cannot be visually demarcated, and visual traces of its extent have been obliterated. Scientifi c methods included aerial photography from unmanned vehicles (visual range, thermal, and multispectral imaging), geophysical techniques (resistivity and magnetometry surveys, ground penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography), and soil studies (grain size composition, micromorphology, and chemical and biological analyses of soil cores). As a result, we effectively traced the boundaries of the site and of its “household periphery”, delineating areas with various degrees of disruption. Our research identifi ed two lines of defensive constructions, previously invisible on the surface. Our fi ndings have enabled us to initiate revision of the site’s status in the register of state-protected archaeological resources. The location of geophysical anomalies, caused by buried features, reveals a regularized row layout to the site. The results are supported by those of archaeological surveys.

The composition of melioration systems includes underground pipelines, drains, hydraulic structures that may fail and require repair, but it is impossible to detect a problem area without monitoring the area of the system by antediluvian methods or conducting survey work. The purpose of the work: to justify the use of soil moisture maps obtained by the DJI PHANTOM 4 MULTISPECTRA UAV to identify problem areas of the reclamation network or vice versa absence. Aerial photography was carried out in May 2021 on the treated section of the drainage and humidification network of the Yakhrom floodplain of the Moscow region. As a result of the survey, a digital terrain model, an operational humidity map based on the calculated NDWI water index were obtained. The flight altitude of the quadcopter was 180 m above the earth's surface, the pixel size of the image of the earth's surface to be 7.9 cm. According to the results of aerial photography on the selected site, the absolute marks of the earth's surface vary from 134.67 to 135.23. On average, the slope of the earth's surface of the selected site is 0.002 in the direction from northwest to southeast. There are no pronounced microforms of relief moisture in the surface layer of the soil obtained in the field corresponds to the variety of color areas of the NDWI water indices highlighted on the operational humidity map. In the soil conditions of the studied area, the moisture content of the surface soil layer is logarithmic with the normalized difference water index NDWI. The correlation coefficient is 0.9 ± 0.06, which indicates a very high relationship between the studied indicators. Such a map can be used to identify problem areas of the reclamation network.

At the research points, the relationship between the Normalized Difference Vegetation and Normalized Green Red Difference indices is characterized by a determination coefficient equal to 0.52. The estimation of the emission of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide in the forest air at an altitude of 40 m above the level of the soil cover during the growing season showed differences in their values during the daytime and at night. The results helped determine promising methods of inventory of the carbon landfill forest area for aboveground woody biomass assessment based on data obtained from several sources and land forest estimation research. The research involved: 1) integration of an unmanned aerial vehicle -based digital camera and lidar sensors in order to optimize the efficiency and cost of data collection; 2) taking advantage of high-resolution aerial photographs and sparse lidar point clouds using an information fusion approach and the ability to compensate for their shortcomings.

Goal. The purpose of the work is to develop an aerial photography complex based on a DJI S1000 helicopter UAV for aerial photography, which includes a laser scanner (LS) and a digital camera (CPC). Method. For several decades, aerial photography has been an effective tool for geodetic works, geophysical surveys and various types of monitoring. On the other hand, the use of not only digital imaging, but also laser scanning of objects allows to maximize the accuracy of obtaining the coordinates of points on the ground and eliminate such a process as plan-height binding in the field, which occupies more than 80 % of field work that is, much cheaper the process of creating cartographic materials. In addition, the use of laser scanners on board unmanned aerial vehicles helps to solve a number of scientific and applied problems in various fields, such as engineering research, environmental monitoring, landscape research and modeling, construction, architecture, archeology and more. Comprehensive study, research and monitoring of the environment involves the availability and use of highly efficient modern technologies, special software for data processing and analysis and qualified human resources. Aerial laser scanners are the latest high-precision technology for obtaining data about the object by noncontact method and have a multi-purpose purpose. I have been actively using them in the world since the early 2000s. They have a number of advantages over traditional aerial photography. Drugs are manufactured by the world’s leading companies, they are available on the market and are in great demand among foreign specialists. Unfortunately, in Ukraine, airborne laser scanners are used in limited quantities to perform special tasks with the involvement of foreign experts. In this area we have a significant lag compared to other European countries. Therefore, the acquisition and application of such a software and technology complex and UAV will help solve and accelerate the solution of many important scientific and applied problems in Ukraine, as well as increase the potential, opportunities and prestige in domestic and world science and practice. Results. A mock-up model of installation and implementation of Velodyne VLP-16 on a DJI S1000 helicopter UAV has been developed. The authors analyzed the known systems and created the best option for connecting and connecting the elements, which made it possible to simplify the layout of the devices, which in turn made it possible to reduce the cost of the proposed complex. Scientific novelty and practical significance. For the first time in Ukraine, a method of installing a helicopter-type UAV was developed and proposed. With the help of an airborne laser scanning system installed on board an unmanned aerial vehicle of helicopter type it is possible to solve a number of important scientific and applied tasks, such as: monitoring the technical condition of large and hard-to-reach structures – nuclear, hydro and thermal power plants, power lines, etc. ; monitoring the condition of roads, detecting places of surface damage and other dangerous places in order to prevent car accidents; detection of damage to forests and agricultural lands; observation and prevention of landslides in mountains and industrial quarries, places of soil erosion; monitoring of water resources, changes in contours and heights of the coastal strip; detection of roof defects, deformations, wall cracks on highrise buildings for architectural measurements, 3D modeling, documentation and preservation of cultural heritage sites; assistance in archaeological exploration to identify archaeological sites and study artifacts. In addition, peripheral drugs can be installed on other moving objects (cars, railcars, boats, etc.) and scanning from fixed bases in stationary conditions.

A classification of habitats is given for the area studied on the right bank of the Shapkina River, (East European tundra, southern subzone). The classification is based on the topographic position of biotopes and their plant communities. The mosaic of tundra vegetation makes it difficult for mapping. Usually in nature the combinations of plant communities are confined to specific types of habitats. To display the regularities of a fine-contour vegetation cover on maps, we used the habitat approach diagnosed by combinations of plant communities. The field survey was done in the summer of 2020; total area of about 150 km2 was surveyed. Ultra-high resolution (3–5 cm/px) aerial photography was carried out for key areas, using a DJI Mavic Pro Platinum quadrocopter (shooting height from 80 to 200 m). 25 geobotanical relevés were completed; in addition 180 short descriptions were made for map verification. All types of habitats in the proposed scheme are correlated with EUNIS units, lists of syntaxa are given. A large-scale map (1 : 50 000) of habitats was prepared. All tundra habitats are divided into two groups. First level of habitat classification confined to the main landscape types: watersheds and river valleys of watercourses with a floodplain regime. Watershed habitats are subdivided into 5 categories (second level of habitat classification), determined by their runoff-geochemical position on the generalized geomorphological profile (from the highest relief elements to the lowest ones), including underlying rocks, moisture regime and migration of elements, exposure features. Due to the small amount of data mapping of river valley habitats was performed only for units of the second level. At the third level watershed habitats are well diagnosed by vegetation at the level of associations, combinations of commuities, soil cover, and microrelief. As a result, most units of the second and third levels are clearly distinguished on aerial photography obtained using a quadrocopter, and also correlate with specific syntaxa. As a result of field data and aerial photographs analyses, 12 categories of habitats, represented by 17 syntaxa, were identified for watersheds at the 3rd level.

The work presents the formation of a system for assessing soil fertility and plant development using test monitoring polygons. Monitoring polygons became the basis for the introduction of modern technologies to increase plant productivity and soil fertility. The monitoring sites were located in the main agro-climatic regions of the Leningrad Region on soil types typical for the respective region. Analysis of the dynamics of the main parameters of soil fertility in test plots shows a tendency towards a decrease in the content of mobile forms of potassium and acidification of soils, as well as other signs of degradation. A decrease in soil fertility is associated with a decrease in the proportion of applied fertilizers and a decrease in soil liming. This process develops on all types of soils, with the exception of those areas that are located in suburban farms. The data for the test sites are consistent with the overall results of the agrochemical surveys. For industrial practice, test sites and information collected on them can serve as “information keys” for decoding space and aerial photographs in order to assess the state of agroecosystems, monitor changes in soil fertility and plant development. On the example of the cultivation of spring wheat, the way of precision assessment of the management of the productivity of cultivated crops and the increase of soil fertility is shown. The mechanism for the implementation of the plant productivity management system was carried out with the introduction of elements of precision farming.

Variations of naturally emitted gamma radiation have been used in geological prospecting for over 20 years to detect anomalies associated with exploitable ore deposits. We examined their ability to detect spatial variation of soil material by comparing simultaneous ground and airborne measurements of gamma emissions with ground observations over a catchment in south-western Australia. Measurements were taken in the spectral windows for 40K, 238Uand 232Th. Variations of gamma radiation corresponded with the distribution of soil-forming materials over the landscape, and were used to distinguish between highly weathered residuum and fresh material from granitic outcrops. Gamma radiometric data also discriminated clearly between doleritic, lateritic and granitic soil parent materials. Airborne data indicated the distribution of these materials through the catchment, with the exception of dolerite dikes, which were too narrow to be detected using pixels greater than 20 m wide. It is concluded that gamma radiometric data can provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of soil-forming materials but, given their limitations to provide direct information of pedological alteration, such data are likely to prove most valuable to soil survey when considered jointly with other information such as terrain models or aerial photography.

Abstract. Monitoring agricultural areas threatened by soil erosion often requires decimetre topographic information over areas of several square kilometres. Airborne lidar and remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) imagery have the ability to provide repeated decimetre-resolution and -accuracy digital elevation models (DEMs) covering these extents, which is unrealistic with ground surveys. However, various factors hamper the dissemination of these technologies in a wide range of situations, including local regulations for RPAS and the cost for airborne laser systems and medium-format RPAS imagery. The goal of this study is to investigate the ability of low-tech kite aerial photography to obtain DEMs with decimetre resolution and accuracy that permit 3-D descriptions of active gullying in cultivated areas of several square kilometres. To this end, we developed and assessed a two-step workflow. First, we used both heuristic experimental approaches in field and numerical simulations to determine the conditions that make a photogrammetric flight possible and effective over several square kilometres with a kite and a consumer-grade camera. Second, we mapped and characterised the entire gully system of a test catchment in 3-D. We showed numerically and experimentally that using a thin and light line for the kite is key for a complete 3-D coverage over several square kilometres. We thus obtained a decimetre-resolution DEM covering 3.18 km2 with a mean error and standard deviation of the error of +7 and 22 cm respectively, hence achieving decimetre accuracy. With this data set, we showed that high-resolution topographic data permit both the detection and characterisation of an entire gully system with a high level of detail and an overall accuracy of 74 % compared to an independent field survey. Kite aerial photography with simple but appropriate equipment is hence an alternative tool that has been proven to be valuable for surveying gullies with sub-metric details in a square-kilometre-scale catchment. This case study suggests that access to high-resolution topographic data on these scales can be given to the community, which may help facilitate a better understanding of gullying processes within a broader spectrum of conditions.

The materials obtained from the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) are used to solve many problems, including large-scale mapping and monitoring of linear objects, as well as the ecological situation and monitoring of emergency situations. The promptly obtained photographic materials make it possible to reveal the consequences of man-made human impact associated with degradation of the soil cover, flooding of lands, salinization and pollution of the soil layer, and changes in the vegetation cover. Control points are used for absolute orientation of the generated models in the most projects of photogrammetric processing of aerial photos and images obtained from UAVs. In areas with low contour, before aerial survey, targeting is carried out in the required zones. The research is devoted to the study of the influence of the shape of ground targets on the accuracy of photogrammetric processing. It involved three different types of ground targets located on the land cover along the survey path at a distance not exceeding 1 m from each other. The targets were used as ground control points in the photogrammetric processing of the materials from the UAV. Two three-stripe photographic surveys of the 900 m long track were carried out: with UAV DJI PHANTOM 4 PRO camera FC6310 at a scale of 1:3400 and ground resolution of 1 cm and with the DJI Mavic PRO UAV camera FC220 at a scale of 1:12 700 and ground resolution of 2 cm. In both cases, the direction of flight is north - south, 36 targets were included in the photogrammetric processing. In the first case, 502 images were processed, in the second - 152. The photogrammetric processing for the orthophoto mosaic generation was carried out using the Agisoft Photo Scan Professional software. Four different contrasting sites in the study area were selected for the study: green grass, dry grass, clay, sand. Accuracy was assessed according to two criteria: 1) the degree of visualization of the target on the images; 2) the accuracy of the orthophoto mosaic, generated using various targets.

The assessment of the soil resource of any region has two parts, namely, an inventory of the kinds of soil and their distribution, and knowledge of the way each kind can be used and its performance under a range of circumstances. Soil varies substantially and intricately over short distances in most parts of the world. Inventory by field survey and air–photo interpretation must be done at a local scale. Inventories may be combined so that an individual nation state or region of similar size can know what kinds of soil it has, how much and where they are, how much each can produce, how to manage each in perpetuity, and the risks of degradation in use. Local classifications, with classes defined simply and identifiably on aerial photographs, will serve for mapping, and in combination with classical statistics can provide sound estimates from stratified sampling and agronomic experimentation. Sound assessment should also be at this local scale initially. This should combine fundamental understanding of the soil's behaviour, strategic agronomic research on regional stations, and on–farm trials. The last are crucial for estimating productivity of the soil in practice. Data from all sources can be stored, sorted and displayed by geographic information systems that now have abundant capacity. They should be indexed by soil class and other attributes, with clear distinction being made between assessments of productive potential and basic data. They should be publicly accessible, to ensure that data are readily available and never lost. Estimates of the soil resource and its productivity for large regions, nation states, and the world can be compiled from local surveys by sampling through a ‘bottom–up’ procedure.

The assessment of soil pollution is only one instance where geographic information systems (GIS) have shown to be an invaluable tool in environmental management and assessment. Globally, there is growing worry over soil pollution since it can have catastrophic repercussions on plant, animal, and human life. A more in-depth understanding of the scope and severity of contamination is made possible by GIS, which offers a flexible and all-encompassing method to studying and assessing soil pollution. With the aid of GIS technology, precise maps of soil contamination may be produced by combining data from numerous sources, such as remote sensing, aerial photography, and ground surveys. This information can then be evaluated using a variety of techniques, such as spatial analysis, to pinpoint polluted areas, possible sources of pollution, and the effects they are most likely to have on the environment and human health. By making it easier to identify sensitive regions that need additional research or remediation, GIS can also help with the analysis of the risk of pollutant movement and dispersion. Comparing GIS to conventional methods for assessing soil pollution has various benefits. First of all, it enables a more thorough and in-depth examination of the degree and breadth of contamination, enabling the identification of locations that need urgent care. Second, it makes it easier for different stakeholders, such as environmental agencies, researchers, and policymakers, to share data and information, enabling better decision-making. Thirdly, it makes it possible to monitor and control soil contamination more effectively, allowing for the early detection of potential issues and the implementation of suitable corrective actions. In general, GIS technology is a useful tool for assessing soil pollution since it offers a more thorough and knowledgeable approach to environmental management. It is a crucial tool for environmental experts engaged in the assessment and control of soil pollution due to its capacity to combine different data sources, perform spatial analysis, and promote information sharing.

A transect-based quadrat survey was conducted within 11 spring wetlands fed by permanent groundwater flows from the Great Artesian Basin at Elizabeth Springs in western Queensland. Flow patterns within individual wetlands change with sedimentation associated with mound building, siltation of abandoned drains and changes in aquifer pressure associated with artificial extraction from bores. The pattern of floristic groups for the wetland quadrats was poorly related to soil texture, water pH, slope and topographic position. Patterns were most clearly related to wetland age as determined from aerial photography, with a clear successional sequence from mono-specific stands of Cyperus laevigatus on newly formed wetland areas to more diverse wetland assemblages. However, evidence from other Great Artesian Basin springs suggests that succession can also result in reduced species richness where the palatable tall reed Phragmites australis develops mono-specific stands.

The capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) content of pastures in the agricultural areas of Western Australia was estimated from coloured aerial photographs taken during flowering. Linear regressions were obtained between a visual score for capeweed content based on colour and the actual capeweed content of calibration sites. Surveys in 1972, 1973 and 1975 showed that 1973 was a year of high capeweed content in all areas compared with 1972 and 1975. The content was higher in lower-rainfall wheatbelt areas, where it averaged about 50% of pasture dry matter in 1973, than in the high-rainfall grazing areas, where the average was 37%. Fluctuations from year to year were followed on fixed sites between 1973 and 1977. The high rainfall sites varied more from year to year in capeweed content than did the low-rainfall sites. A detailed survey of one farm was made between 1972 and 1976 and this confirmed the indications from the other broadscale surveys that 1973 and 1976 were years that favoured capeweed. They were years when germination was followed by a 4-5 week dry period. Soil type and position in the landscape were also shown to influence the capeweed content of pastures.

Abstract Poland’s Koźle Basin contains numerous craters created from the explosions of World War II aerial bombs as well as craters left by unexploded ordnance. The state of the local environment has been severely affected. This situation presents an obstacle to spatial management of the land to this day. This research programme studied the distribution of postmilitary anthropogenic geohazards in the area. It was intended to help to indicate the appropriate courses of action, including in the field of spatial planning, in the areas affected by former bombing. Desk studies focused on photo-interpretive analysis of archival aerial photographs and took advantage of the potential of high-resolution shaded relief rasters created from digital terrain models derived from LiDAR scanning. Field studies used classic geomorphological methods. Studies conducted so far in the bombed areas indicate the necessity of carrying out systematic, anticipatory, accurate surveys of the land and soil surface with the use of geophysical methods. Currently, the traces identified in the field suggest that the amount of unexploded ordnance remaining in the ground is very large.

This paper addresses an experimental approach to the archaeological study of Roman camps in NW Iberia using ground-penetrating radar (henceforth GPR). The main goal is to explore the capabilities of GPR to extract datasets from ephemeral features, such as temporary camps or siege works, among others. This information aims to maximise the data available before excavation, orienting it to areas that could provide good results in terms of feature detection and contrast between soil matrix and archaeological deposits. This paper explores the potential of the GPR approach and volumetric data visualisation to improve our understanding of four ephemeral sites: Alto da Raia (Montalegre, Portugal–Calvos de Randín, Spain), Sueros de Cepeda (Villamejil, Spain), Los Andinales (Villsandino, Spain), and Villa María (Sasamón, Spain). Despite the focus of this paper, other survey techniques (namely LiDAR, aerial photography, and magnetometry) were used in combination with GPR. Further excavation of the sites provided ground truthing for all data remotely gathered.

<p style="text-align: justify;">In order for the characterization of terroir in vineyard situations to benefit both viticultural and wine making practices, it is necessary to consider the spatial aspect of the vineyard environment. An exploratory approach at characterising terroir in the Nyons-Valreas Basin (figure 1) considers both the spatial analysis and frequency analysis of the harvest. Data gathered from stereoscopic aerial photographic examination, satellite image processing, land surveys, and the Digital Elevation Model are combined and structured within a Geographic Information System along with the existing soil and geological data (figure 2). The result is a comprehensive soils model applicable to a relatively large area (11,340 ha). The Nyons-Valreas Basin is a neogene and quaternary sedimentary basin, and the soils found there are described by 21 soil landscape units which integrate 15 variables (table I). The area examined is considered to be representative of the surrounding regional diversity. The variables used in characterising terroir include soil types, geomorphology, lithology, stratigraphy, vegetation, land form, and land use. The various viticultural terroirs are regarded as parts of agricultural land consistent with both soil landscapes and harvest/wine responses. Multivariate clustering of the soil landscape units indicates that there exists 7 distinct viticultural terroirs, essentially on the basis of geomorphology and soils (figures 3 and 4, table II). Four distinct terroirs were compared (figures 5 and 6) using data gathered from 14 sites over the course of 15 vintages (1982-1996). Grenache is the grape variety planted at each site, and the variables measured at harvest (pH, sugar content, titratable acidity, the weight of 200 berries, and the sugar/acidity ratio) appear to significantly discriminate the sites examined according to the terroir modeling performed (tables III, IV and V).</p>

The Kuro-dake Campsite in Daisetsuzan National Park is situated in a fragile alpine setting. Since it opened in 1992, it has not been under formal management. With camping increasingly affecting the Kuro-dake Campsite, this study aims to gain deeper insights into the soil erosion and overcrowding at the campsite and to suggest a corresponding strategy for future management. A detailed topographic map was created using pole photogrammetry to understand the ground surface condition of the campsite in 2017. Aerial photographs taken in 2012 and 2017 were used to understand the long-term changes in the ground surface. Furthermore, questionnaire surveys with campers, interview surveys with organizations related to the park management and secondary data collection were conducted. Two gullies were identified on the topographic map of the campsite. From 2012 to 2017, the campsite size increased by 48 m2. The daily-use level on busy days is nearly seven times the mean daily-use level for the year. Some campers illegally pitch tents on nearby trails on such busy days. The questionnaire surveys in 2017 and 2018 (n = 346) show that most respondents oppose a future closure of the campsite and two-thirds oppose a use limit. The 2018 survey (n = 210) shows that 71% of respondents were not aware of the reservation system in national parks elsewhere; however, 76% agreed to a reservation system to secure their tent space. Introducing formal management oversight, along with a reservation system, is urgently needed.

For 30 years, large-scale aerial photography has been used to map the extent of Phytophthora dieback disease in native forests in the southwest of Western Australia, with validation of the observations involving routine testing of soil and root samples for the presence of Phytophthora cinnamomi. In addition to P. cinnamomi, six morpho-species have been identified using this technique: P. citricola, P. megasperma, P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. nicotianae, and P. boehmeriae. In recent years, many new Phytophthora species have been described worldwide, often with similar morphology to existing species; thus, as many of the isolates collected in Western Australia have been difficult to identify based on morphology, molecular identification of the morpho-species is required. Based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rDNA gene, sequence data of more than 230 isolates were compared with those of existing species and undescribed taxa. P. inundata, P. asparagi, P. taxon PgChlamydo, P. taxon personii, and P. taxon niederhauserii were identified based on sequence data. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that nine potentially new and undescribed taxa can be distinguished. Several of the new taxa are morphologically indistinguishable from species such as P. citricola, P. drechsleri, and P. megasperma. In some cases, the new taxa are closely related to species with similar morphology (e.g., P.sp.4 and P. citricola). However, the DNA sequences of other new taxa such as P.sp.3 and P.sp.9 show that they are not closely related to morphologically similar species P. drechsleri and P. megasperma, respectively. Most of the new taxa have been associated with dying Banksia spp., while P.sp.2 and P.sp.4 have also been isolated from dying Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah). Some taxa (P.sp.3, 6, and 7) appear to have limited distribution, while others like P.sp.4 are widespread.

It is necessary to investigate the relationship between the vegetation each area with the soil because with this method determines the relationship between the condition and different factors in nature with the area vegetation. Therefore, was investigated the relationship in Delazian, Semnan. To study the vegetation, we identified vegetation types by aerial photography and determination of work units and using field survey and GPS. Typing based on physical appearance, canopy cover percentage, density, and distribution range of dominant plant species was carried out by plot and transect. 5 vegetation types were diagnosed (respectively, from upland to the saline lake are including Tamarix Sp. (1), Seidlitzia rosmarinus (2), Nitraria Schubert (3), Salsola rigida (4) and Haloxylon persicum (5)). Then, the soil samples were taken from within the types. Physicalchemical soil factors such as salinity, Gypsum, soluble cations, and anions, organic matter, lime, etc. were taken from depths of 0-30 and 30-60 cm. In order to investigate the relationship between vegetation types and environmental factors (soil factors such as salinity, SAR, cations and anions and other environmental factors such as groundwater depth, rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, altitude) was used of software PC-ORD and principal component analysis (PCA). The results showed that soil factors are effective in the establishment and distribution of vegetative tape and factors affecting on the differentiation of plant communities are including salinity, SAR, cation exchange capacity, OM, clay, silt, sand, K+, Cl-, calcium, magnesium, sodium, gypsum and limestone, carbonate and bicarbonate, sulfate and water table level.

The article discusses the use of digital aerial photography and aircraft laser scanning to assess the state of rice systems. An analysis of the state of affairs in rice growing shows that today there is not enough financial resources not only for the reconstruction and technical re-equipment of outdated elements of rice systems, updating technologies and equipment in accordance with the achievements of science and best practices, but also to maintain the existing technical level of the systems. The article presents the results of a study of planning technology options and the prospects for its improvement based on the introduction of laser control systems. Rational use of water, material and labor resources is the main reserve for increasing the efficiency of rice systems. The resource-saving potential contributes to the intensification of the production activities of water users. Rice is the most productive and most water-intensive crop. Rice cultivation in Russia was most widespread in the Kuban, occupying a technologically advanced position. Rice irrigation systems occupy once unproductive lands with a thin humus horizon, with a low humus content and unfavorable water-physical properties, prone to swimming and the formation of a surface soil crust. Research has shown that significant improvements in planning quality in the construction of rice paddies can be achieved with laser control systems. As part of the modern development of aerial survey work, a network of base stations, reference and control points is being created to conduct a technical survey of the structures of the rice system. Measurements are made using GNSS satellite measurements. The distance between base stations is no more than 60 km, between control points – no more than 20 km. At each 20-kilometer aerial survey site, it is necessary to provide four planned altitude landmarks and one control point. Identification marks and control points should be applied on the ground, the coordinates of these points should be determined by instrumental geodetic methods for conducting a technical survey of the structures of rice systems.

We used General Land Office survey data (1860–1890) and interpreted aerial photography from the 1930s, 1970s, and 1990s to quantify forest disturbance frequency and spatial patterns for four time periods in the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota. The study region included eight subsections within the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota’s Ecological Classification System. Presettlement disturbance and spatial pattern estimates varied across the eight subsections indicating a strong relationship to soil and landform characteristics. Land surveyors primarily recorded higher severity disturbances that resulted in significant tree mortality. The 1900–1940 era was characterized by a short-term increase in fire frequency that was relatively uniform across the study region, in contrast to the variability of the presettlement (1860–1890) landscape. In the postsettlement period (1940–1995), timber harvest replaced fire as the dominant disturbance factor. Similar management practices among subsections created similar harvest rates throughout the study region. These management practices imposed a more homogeneous pattern dominated by small (10–25 ha) patches. Management practices now have a greater influence than natural processes in the generation of landscape pattern in the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota. Information on presettlement forest conditions and subsequent changes can be used by land managers to restore spatial pattern variability in managed forest landscapes.

The study of the ridge systems’ morphology on accumulative coastal land forms makes it possible to reconstruct their development. The spatial orientation and height of the beach ridges provide information on the predominance of certain processes at different time intervals. The Dolgaya Spit, which is one of the largest accumulative forms of the Sea of Azov, is characterized by the presence of well-distinguishable generation of sand-shell ridges. The article discusses the possibility of using various remote sensing data to identify beach ridges on the Dolgaya Spit. In this study the data of ground measurements of elevation points performed during the expedition in the summer of 2020 are used. The statistical characteristics of the ridges on the investigated area of the spit are given. The analysis of the possibility of identifying beach ridges on the spit based on high-resolution satellite optical images has been done. It was concluded that it is impossible to unambiguously determine the ridges, since the optical characteristics of the soil and vegetation cover on the Dolgaya Spit do not allow separation of the microrelief forms. The second source of remote sensing data was aerial photography of a part of the Dolgaya Spit using the unmanned aerial vehicle “Phantom 3 PRO”, followed by photogrammetric processing of the obtained digital images. The stages of processing the survey results for the construction of a digital elevation model and an orthomosaic of the investigated area are considered. The quality of the obtained digital elevation model was assessed by comparison with ground measurements of elevation points. The article discusses the source of errors in the obtained digital elevation model. It is noted that the construction of a digital elevation model with acceptable quality is possible only for the spit’s regions with sparse vegetation cover.

In recent years, the growth of urban populations in hazardous areas has increased the impact of natural disasters in both developed and developing countries. The purpose of the current study is to assess the landslide susceptibility in Kalaleh township of Golestan province, Iran. In this study the Shannon’s entropy approach was applied. A total of 82 landslide locations were identified primarily from aerial photographs and field surveys. Then eighteen landslides conditioning factors were prepared in GIS. These landslide conditioning factors are: slope degree, slope aspect, altitude, plan curvature, profile curvature, tangential curvature, surface area ratio (SAR), lithology, land use, soil texture, distance from faults, distance from rivers, distance from roads, fault density, road density, topographic wetness index (TWI), stream power index (SPI), and sediment transport index (STI). Using these conditioning factors, landslide susceptibility index was calculated using Shannon’s entropy. For model validation, the results of the analyses were then compared with the field-verified landslide locations. Additionally, the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves for landslide susceptibility maps were drawn and the area under curve values was calculated. Verification results showed 82.15% accuracy. According to the results of the AUC (area under curve) evaluation, the map produced exhibits satisfactory properties.

Mud volcanism is observed in many tectonically active regions worldwide. One of the typical areas of mud volcanic activity is the Taman Peninsula, Russia. In this article, we examine the possibilities of multiscale analysis of remote sensing and morphometric data of different origins, years, scales, and resolutions for studying mud volcanic landscapes. The research is exemplified by the central-northern margin of the Taman Peninsula, where mud volcanism has only been little studied. The data set included one arc-second gridded Advanced Land Observing Satellite World three-dimensional (3D) digital surface model (AW3D30 DSM); a Corona historical declassified satellite photography; high-resolution imagery from an unmanned aerial survey (UAS) conducted with a multi-copter drone DJI Phantom 4 Pro, as well as a series of 1-m gridded morphometric models, including 12 curvatures (minimal, maximal, mean, Gaussian, unsphericity, horizontal, vertical, difference, vertical excess, horizontal excess, accumulation, and ring one) derived from UAS-based images. The data analysis allowed us to clarify the conditions of neotectonic development in the central-northern margin of the Taman Peninsula, as well as to specify manifestations of the mud volcanism in this region. In particular, we were able to detect minor and weakly topographically expressed mud volcanic features (probably, inactive gryphons, and salses), which are hidden by long-term farming practice (e.g., ploughed and covered by soil).

Karstic features generally develop in carbonatic rocks, but can also occur in siliciclastic rocks, as quartzites. The present research aims to create superficial morphology mapping and reconnaissance of karstic area deposits in quartzitic rocks. The study was developed in the hydrographic basin of the Ribeirão Santana (210 km²), mid-valley of the Preto river, a tributary of the Paraíba do Sul river, located between the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil. Aerial photographs at 1:25.000 scale were reconstituted in 3D environments, resulting in a planimetric and altitudinal map at 1:10.000 scale. Closed depressions, concavities with and without channels and deposits, were detached from these maps. Precise field topographic surveys at 1:500 scale resulted in planimetric and altitudinal maps related to identified forms. Also, soil samples were collected in the valley basins and depressions and analyzed according to their color, texture and grain morphoscopy criteria. Such study resulted in soil profiles for deposits confined at the bottoms of depressions and schematic representations of sediments from valley bottoms and slopes. The results indicate that the closed depressions a generally positioned at the limit of the drainage. In all sampler from the slope and fluvial valley bottom deposits the sand fraction predominates over fine particles, which were probably carried away in solution. Similar to the literature description, deep organic and/or hydromorphic profiles were found in depressions confined deposits. The present data can contribute to future geologic, hydrologic and geochemical characteristics to interpretet the origin and development of karstic features

Little is known about the long-distance telecoupling effects of urban food demands on land use changes (LUCs) in remote oases of the Southern Sahara. Using the example of two typical oasis settlements on Mont Bagzam in the southern Aϊr Mountains of Niger which are linked to regional and global markets by an unpaved road since 2015, this study aimed at analyzing time trajectories of LUCs and related changing agricultural production patterns. LUCs were quantified for 1955 to 2022 using GIS-based mapping of agriculture and natural vegetation based on historical aerial photographs, CORONA and multi-spectral satellite images, and high resolution drone-based surveys. The results show a major increment in actively used agricultural land in the 850 ha watershed of the two oases from 11 ha in 1955 to 13 ha in 2003 and 68 ha in 2022 as well as the addition of 92 irrigation wells to 16 existing ones between 2003 and 2022. LUCs and evapotranspiration calculated from climatic data of a local weather station allowed to estimate changes of irrigation water needs in the selected watershed. While annual precipitation averages only 214 mm, local reference evapotranspiration may reach 1,476 mm year-1. Therefore, the additional annual irrigation water needs for the newly established fields between 2003 and 2022 cultivated to cash crops rose by 696 million l. To detect LUC effects on soil quality, soil samples of onion and garlic fields of different ages were collected employing a false-time-series approach. Results reveal increasing soil pH and salt concentrations and falling ground water tables, which reflects a negative water balance and ground water extraction above recharge levels. Our study provides evidence that the newly established telecoupled production systems on Mont Bagzam threaten the sustainability of existing local agricultural production and related livelihoods of agro-pastoralists.

Landslide is one of the most disastrous natural hazards in Indonesia, causing significant fatalities and economic losses. Landslides can be triggered by several factors, such as rainfall, earthquakes, soil conditions, and others, where each landslide event has its own triggering and controlling factors. A progressive landslide occurred on the Central Java railway line which resulted in damage to the double-track railway as a transportation infrastructure. The objective of this paper is to understand the process and triggering factors of the landslide. Information was collected through field investigations and measurements based on drilling results at 3 points, geophysical surveys at 5 lines, and laboratory testing of several soil samples. Geological and geotechnical settings, topography, lithology, hydrogeology, and rainfall data of the area were analyzed. Aerial photographs and other remote sensing data were used to evaluate and discuss the information. Landslides in the study area occurred in stages, starting with the formation of a tension crack, followed by two landslides over five months. The results show that the clay material that dominates the study area is the dominant controlling factor of a landslide, triggered by long-duration, low-intensity rainfall. Rainwater entering through tension cracks increases moisture content, adding load to the slope and triggering landslides. Furthermore, the train's external load on the slope also contributes to the occurrence of landslides. The static and cyclic load of the train causes changes in the slope's pressure balance, generating a force that drives the downslope soil. Further analysis was performed using back analysis method with the limit equilibrium method to enhance understanding of slope stability parameters at the time of slope failure. The analysis was performed considering the rising groundwater level. A factor of safety (FS) value of 0.989 was obtained at the end of the simulation, indicating that the slope had failed.

Sediment generation and vegetation recovery was measured over a 2-year post-harvest period in a 36-ha catchment of exotic forest located in andesitic terrain, Whangapoua Forest (36.46°S, 175.36°E), Coromandel, New Zealand. Slopewash, soil scraping (on-slope removal of the regolith by the repeated dragging of logs), and storm-initiated landsliding were identified as the principal sediment-generating processes. Slopewash and vegetation recovery rates were measured using field-based plots located on sites of shallow- and deep-disturbance and a regression relationship was established between sedimentation rate (accumulation (g)/day.mm rain.m2) and per cent vegetation cover for both plot types. At the basin scale, slopewash was calculated using the plot-based rates times the total area of deep- and shallow-disturbance sites as identified from a ground-based, transect survey and using sequential aerial photography. Sediment production, by soil scraping and landsliding, was determined by multiplying mean scar depth by the total affected area. In the first post-harvest year deep-disturbance sites generated 92% of total slopewash produced from both disturbance classes combined, and in year 2, slopewash halved. Half of the first post-harvest year’s slopewash-derived sediment was generated within the first 7 months following the completion of harvesting and before the application of desiccant. Thereafter, on deep-disturbance sites, slopewash rates declined further as sites became hardened against the generation of new sediment (i.e. sites became sediment limited). In contrast, during both the initial post-harvest recovery period and the post-desiccation period, the decline in sediment production on shallow-disturbance sites was more a consequence of site recolonisation. Sediment generated and redistributed by scalping and by landsliding occurred at the time of the respective events and coincided with the early part of the first post-harvest year. Collectively, soil scraping, slopewash, and landslides generated 1864 t (52 t/ha) of sediment, 88% of which remained on-slope. Of the sediment delivered to streams (228 t), landslides contributed 72%, soil scraping 26%, and slopewash 2%. For this harvested basin a single, storm-initiated, landsliding event was the most important hillslope process responsible for the generation of sediment and its delivery to streams, and slopewash was the least important.

In recent years, many riverbanks in Europe had their protections removed to reactivate natural erosion processes and improve riparian habitats. Yet, other river functions may be affected, such as navigation and flood conveyance. The quantification and prediction of erosion rates and volumes is then relevant to manage and control the integrity of all river functions. This work studies the morphological evolution of riverbanks along two restored reaches of the Meuse River in the Netherlands, which are taken as case studies. This river is an important navigation route and for this its water level is strongly regulated with weirs. Through aerial photographs and two airborne LIDAR surveys, we analysed the evolution over nine years of restoration and reconstructed the topography along 2.2 km. of banks. An extraordinary low-water level after a ship accident provided the opportunity to observe and measure the bank toe. The banks show a terrace of erosion close to the normally regulated water level, highly irregular erosion rates up to 7 m/year, embayments evolving with upstream and downstream shifts, and sub-reaches with uniform erosion. Probable causes of erosion include ship-waves, high water flows and water level fluctuations. Distinct patterns might be explained by the presence of riparian trees and soil strata of different compositions. These intriguing case studies will continue to be studied to disentangle the role of different erosion drivers, predict erosion magnitudes and establish whether bank erosion will stop or continue in the future.

This article describes the results of integrated archaeological-geophysical works at the Novaya Kurya-1 burial ground in the Northern Kulunda Steppe. The strategy for archaeological research in 2021 was based on the geomagnetic map of the site compiled in 2019. Archaeological study continued the search for the Bronze Age objects and attempted to clarify the chronology of the burial ground. Main excavation pits were made in the southern part of the site above the group of three lined up geomagnetic anomalies (trench 1) and above the completely evened up burial mound which repeated the structure of large objects of the burial mound - the central grave and round ditch - in small scale (trench 3). A completely destroyed child burial of the Early Iron Age was studied in trench 3, and seven graves which were preliminary attributed to the late Early Iron Age - Early Middle Ages were studied in trench 1. A ceramic pot, stone abrasives, and wood and birch bark remains of the interior elements of burial chambers were discovered in the graves in trench 1. Composition and scarcity of burial objects do not make it possible to clarify the dates of complexes without using radiocarbon dating. Archaeological observations and aerial photography indicate that mounds were present over both complexes, which were completely or partly destroyed by plowing. Comparison of the archaeological-geophysical data reveal clear correlation between the total volume of humified soil in the filling of the grave pits and amplitude of magnetic anomalies. Magnetic susceptibility of soils and underlying rocks measured in the trenches was 65-85*10-5 SI units and 25-35*10-5 SI units, respectively. The contrast between these values was sufficient for generating distinct anomalies above archaeological objects. Their amplitude values reached 10-12 nT at the Novaya Kurya-1 site. Results of inversed data ofprofile magnetic survey which were made at four altitude levels (trench 1) show that the simulated depth where the archaeological objects were supposed to occur, was close to actual depth.

Trees are the key components of urban vegetation in cities. The timely and accurate identification of existing urban tree species with their location is the most important task for improving air, water, and land quality; reducing carbon accumulation; mitigating urban heat island effects; and protecting soil and water balance. Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is frequently used for extracting high-resolution structural information regarding tree objects. LiDAR systems are a cost-effective alternative to the traditional ways of identifying tree species, such as field surveys and aerial photograph interpretation. The aim of this work was to assess the usage of machine learning algorithms for classifying the deciduous (broadleaf) and coniferous tree species from 3D raw LiDAR data on the Davutpasa Campus of Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. First, ground, building, and low, medium, and high vegetation classes were acquired from raw LiDAR data using a hierarchical-rule-based classification method. Next, individual tree crowns were segmented using a mean shift clustering algorithm from high vegetation points. A total of 25 spatial- and intensity-based features were utilized for support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and multi-layer perceptron (MLP) classifiers to discriminate deciduous and coniferous tree species in the urban area. The machine learning-based classification’s overall accuracies were 80%, 83.75%, and 73.75% for the SVM, RF, and MLP classifiers, respectively, in split 70/30 (training/testing). The SVM and RF algorithms generally gave better classification results than the MLP algorithm for identifying the urban tree species.

Burial Mounds seen from the airA source critical investigationDenmark was systematically surveyed in secret by means of aerial photography in May 1954. The operation, codename Basic Cover, was executed by the US Air Force and resulted in approximately 42.700 orto-photographs taken from a fixed height of 10.000 feet and rendering a national coverage of 99.6%. The series is now declassified and, as numerous types of archaeological features are apparent on the individual pictures, it is drawn upon with increasing frequency as part of the daily routine of ­archaeological institutions around the country. As a consequence of the aerial survey having taken place relatively early in the year, archaeological monuments such as burial mounds stand out against the newly ploughed fields primarily as differences in the colour of the soil (fig 1). In 2005 the increasing general interest in the use of aerial photography prompted a group of colleagues to create the archaeological aerial photography network (LAND). COWI A/S are presently in the process of making the entire series available digitally which will doubtless lead to a further increase in its usage. Despite a general awareness of the numerous burial mounds visible on Basic Cover, little information is available concerning its properties as a systematic source. The purpose of this article, based on the results of an empirical study, is to provide tangible data on Basic Cover as a general source for use in burial mound listing and, more specifically, as a supplement to the mounds listed in the national database. The starting point was a systematic recording of burial mounds apparent on Basic Cover images from West Jutland. This took place within the framework of a project with the aim of studying the barrow line phenomenon and its links with a number of archaeologically known fords and bridges dating to the Iron Age and medieval times.The recording of burial mounds from Basic Cover was carried out for an area of roughly 1270 km2 around Skern Å (River Skjern) (figs. 2-3). The area is divided in two by the river valley; the landscape in the northern part is relatively undulating with a maximum height of 86 m above sea level, whereas the southern area is predominately flat with long smooth ridges running north/south. The river, Skern Å, which has one of Denmark’s largest river catchments, constitutes a formidable ­obstacle in the landscape. Due to contrasting soil conditions caused by variations in local glacial deposits, any comparison with Basic Cover as a source for burial mound recording in the eastern parts of Denmark should be approached with caution.An unconventional approach was employed in recording to facilitate a comparative study of different sources for burial mound recording (fig. 4). Initially all visible burial mounds were recorded from Basic Cover regardless of previous listing in the national database. The criteria for a positive recording comprised the presence of either a circular white spot or a distinct shadow relief. As a supplement to Basic Cover, burial mounds were recorded from the highly detailed historic map Generalstabens Høje Målebordsblade from 1871, which subsequently became standard issue for many of the archaeological surveyors from the National Museum. All recorded burial mounds were finally correlated with the mounds listed in the national database. The data were then transformed into a ­single set of digital points where presence or absence on Basic cover and the 1871 map were indicated along with – if any – listing in the existing national database.The compiled results of the study are presented in figure 5a. At the start of the project, the national database contained records for 2872 burial mounds from the area. Identification on the 1871 map and Basic Cover resulted in the recording of 2186 and 2209 burial mounds, respectively. The total number of positive recordings was therefore 7267, whereas the number of unique burial mounds was 3983. This adds a total of 1111 to the number of listed mounds, equivalent to an increase of 39% or about 1.1 burial mound per km2 of dry land. The mutual correspondence in percentage coverage between mounds recorded from Basic Cover, the 1871 map and the mounds listed in the national database is shown as a graph in figure 5b. It can be seen that 69% of the listed mounds already appeared on the 1871 map prior to the ­national archaeological survey. The effects of various biasing factors, for example scheduled (and thus well preserved) mounds versus ploughed-over examples, are discussed in an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of Basic Cover as a source. Less than 50% of the mounds listed in the database and appearing on the 1871 map are evident on the aerial photos. However, the photos still make a notable contribution to the record because they “capture” the very faint traces of the almost completely destroyed mounds that were not detected by the surveyors of the other sources. The newly recorded burial mounds have a significantly positive effect on the clarity of the linear structures in the distribution of burial mounds in the area (fig. 6). Based on an hypothetical, but not unsupported, statistic calculation it is ­argued that as much as 80% of the original population of larger burial mounds has been recorded following the present study.The distribution of mounds was ­explored on the basis of agrarian land use categories shown on the Vidensskabernes Selskabs kort (map) from 1800, in order to evaluate the situation prior to the introduction of major agricultural reforms, (fig. 7) .The distribution of the mounds recorded from the various source categories on the different area types is presented in fig. 8a. When only area types heath and open land are taken into consideration it is clear that mounds recorded from Basic Cover are under-represented on heathland, whereas listed mounds and those on the1871 map are under-represented on open land (fig. 8b). The patterns are to be seen in conjunction with the long-term destructive effect of agrarian land use on open land throughout historical times. In order to investigate the effect of vegetation cover on the visibility of mounds on Basic Cover, the areas covered by forest and heath around 1950 have been added to the map. To understand the effect of agrarian land use on the records from the different sources, the open land category has been divided into two further categories, old open land and new open land, respectively. The latter represents the parts of the heath that were reclaimed for cultivation between about 1800 and 1950 (fig. 9). In order to understand the factors influencing visibility on Basic Cover the distribution of mounds has been studied with respect to heath/forest and old open land/new open land (fig. 10a). When attention is turned to the representation of mounds in old open land and new open land it can be seen that there is no significant difference in the distribution of mounds recorded on Basic Cover (fig 10b). This suggests that there was only a small difference in the density of the prehistoric settlement ­between these two areas. Furthermore, it indicates that the under-representation of mounds recorded in the open land on the 1871 map and in the listed mounds in fact mirrors a bias resulting from historic land use rather than an actual prehistoric pattern. The fact that Basic Cover makes its most significant contribution concerning new mounds in the old open land is thought to be a product of the time when photos were taken. When surveyors from the National Museum visited these areas of long-term ploughing in the late 1900s many of the mounds were already too ploughed-out to be recognisable as such. However, due to the late introduction of mechanical cultivation they were still visible as white spots when Basic Cover was executed in 1954. The aerial photos thus constitute a excellent source for supplementing existing records, but due to a weakness in identifying mounds in areas of dense vegetation cover, compensation is naturally only partial (fig. 10c).The project has generated some factual information on Basic Cover as a source for the recording of burial mounds:1. Basic Cover provided an increase of 32% in the number of recorded mounds compared with existing records.2. 45% of the listed mounds could be identified. This illustrates Basic Cover’s weakness in areas with dense vegetation cover. However, mounds have fre­quently already been listed from these areas3. There is a systematic negative bias in the national database concerning listed mounds in the cultivated areas of histor­ically open land.4. Basic Cover provides a good coverage in historically cultivated areas and it can thus productively be used to comp­ensate for this bias in existing records.5. The soils and topography in the study area are ideal for aerial photography and the results can, therefore, not be transferred directly to the rest of the country where conditions may be less ideal. Basic Cover was carried out at a fortuitous time; after the heath had been reclaimed but before mechanical cultivation had fully run its destructive course. The regrettable destruction of monuments had accelerated but was by no means complete. Fortunately, Basic Cover took place at a time when ploughing had exposed the features without destroying then altogether. Systematic recording of mounds from the Original-1 maps is also recommended ­because data from this source can compensate for the biases seen in the listed mounds from the open land. A study of place names connected to mounds has indicated that many more mounds have disappeared from the open land through historical times.Kasper Lambert JohansenDanmarks MiljøundersøgelserAarhus UniversitetSteffen Terp LaursenMoesgård Museum

Nowadays, surveys using unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming popular. The resulting orthophotomap is the final product for creating digital plans and cardboard. The objectives of the study are to study the possibilities of obtaining orthophotomaps from survey materials using unmanned aerial vehicles based on the results of the experiment. The article describes various types of aerial photography. Some types of unmanned flying vehicles to conduct aerial photography for the purpose of monitoring, engineering surveys, inventory of agricultural land, and crop forecasts are considered. A description of aerial photography surveying is given on the example of the city of Dzerzhinsk, Minsk Region, which is performed taking into account the unmanned flying vehicles of GeoScan 201 and the Republican agricultural aero-geodesic unitary enterprise BelPSHAGI. A description of the GeoScan Planner software and basic pre-flight preparation is given. The stages of the preparatory work before the aerial photography, the creation of the planning and high-altitude geodetic justification, the implementation of aerial photography procedures, the steps of the aerial photograph anchorage procedure are considered. Agisoft Photoscan, which allows to get clouds of points, surfaces, 3D models and orthophotomaps using digital raster images are presented. The map of heights (DEM) of the terrain and the orthophotomap was made on the basis of a dense points cloud. According to the results of the research, a conclusion was made on the possibility of using aerial photography materials obtained using unmanned flying vehicles to get orthophotomaps of the required accuracy.

The article discusses the results of remote and geophysical studies, as well as selective excavations in the upper reaches of one of the largest and deepest lakes of Crimea — Donuzlav, which separate Tarhankut from the rest of the peninsula. Due to the unique landscape features, this region had important economic and communicative significance in all historical periods, especially in the early Iron Age: nomadic paths from the steppes to winter pastures and natural shelters of the Tarkhankut Peninsula extended to the sea and Chersonessian trade and military routes resembled here. To study the cultural landscape of Lake Donuzlav and its branched ravines system, a comprehensive technique was developed combining the methods of cartography, remote sensing, GIS, geophysics, ground-based automobile-foot archaeological explorations and selective excavations. With the help of detailed historical maps, the main routes and crossings of the autochthonous population of the early Iron Age and ancient Greek colonists were revealed. The presence of natural shelters (deep ravines and balkas, capes and cliffs) and the richness of natural resources of Donuzlav (the abundance of fresh water, fertile soil, building materials (stone, clay, wood, reeds), food (fish, shellfish, wildfowl), led to dense population in the early Iron Age. The use of archival aerial photographs of 1943 and 1971, as well as satellite photographs of 1966 in combination with modern high-resolution satellite imagery revealed at least two dozen of settlements of the Early Iron Age along the shores and in the ravine system of the upper reaches of Lake Donuzlav. Terrestrial archaeological explorations were accompanied by geophysical surveys (magnetic, electromagnetic surveys) of the most promising objects. Using magnetic maps of the identified settlements, locations for archaeological spotting were determined. Excavations at the sites selected based on the results of remote and geophysical studies have revealed typical structural features of houses and outbuildings of the local population of the early Iron Age. These features were determined by the presence of local natural building materials: dense building limestone of the Sarmatian geological layer, clay and reeds growing in the lower reaches of the ravines that flow into Donuzlav Lake. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the unique natural-historical landscape of the upper reaches of Lake Donuzlav is the key to adaptation methods, survival strategies, and economic models of the Early Iron Age population in Northwest Taurica.

Abstract The study dealt with detecting the impact of geographical factors on the spatial variation of soil characteristics by conducting a survey and classification of soils in the study area and determining the varieties of land viability with modern technology through aerial photographs taken by drones with an area of 43,428 hectares, 9 soil pedons were selected distributed on the soil of Sheikh Saad district in Wasit Governorate based on the satellite visual of the study area of the Landsat8 satellite for comparison with images, as the satellite visual taken by sensor (OLI) for the year 2021 was classified, Where it was classified according to directed classification by employing the Erdas 10.2 program and collecting geographically defined images taken with a camera mounted on a drone, where the engineering correction process of the images was carried out by Arc GIS and the GLOBAL Mapper program To be adopted as a base map in the interpretation processes to produce the final map, which is the map of the soil survey at the level of series Soil pedons of the study area were classified based on soil temperature and moisture regimes under the US system the study area within two orders: (Entisols and Aridisols), as the soils of the study area were classified to a level below the great totals and included three categories:(Typic Torrifluvents, Typic Haplosalids, Typic Calcigypsids).

The aim of the work is to investigate the accuracy of the DEM of nearshore areas using UAV material. One of the important issues in hydrological flood modelling is the high accuracy of the DEM. In the case of a complex relief type, which is associated with meandering riverbeds, it is proposed to use UAV surveys to create a DEM. Hydrological modelling involves the following main steps: creation of high precision DEMs, determination of Manning coefficients to account for the influence of the underlying surface and determination of water level changes based on the water level graph derived from observations at hydrometeorological stations. This research presents the construction of a high-precision DEM, based on a UAV survey. For high-precision modeling, the fundamental issue is the consideration of vegetation in the nearshore areas and the choice of the optimal time period for the survey. The aim of the study is to develop a methodology for the construction of a high-precision DEM from UAV data, investigate the possibilities of eliminating the influence of vegetation on point marks using software methods, determine planned channel shifts and compare the accuracy of DEM construction for surveys conducted in June 2017 and in November 2021. The section at the transition from the mountainous to marshy-hilly part of the Dniester River near the town of Stary Sambir, with complex morphometric and hydrological characteristics of the channel and banks at the site of the complex meandering of the river in a rugged ravine area was the study object of this work. Results. It was found that for 4 years between two surveys, the planned displacements of some points are up to 25-31 meters. A priori estimation of coordinates determination by points from the GNSS-receiver was carried out, the accuracy of point coordinates determination is 2-3 cm. The a priori estimate of the accuracy of determining the coordinates of points from the input survey data is: for plan coordinates - 4-6 cm for two survey periods, the error in determining the marks of points for different values of the baseline - 21-31 cm. It has been established, that the program methods of accounting of influence of high vegetation do not give the possibility of its full accounting, the average square error, in places of such vegetation makes 0,64 m. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out UAV survey in the leafless period of the year, early spring or late autumn. Scientific novelty consists in the study of the possibility of constructing a high-precision DEM for different types of vegetation from materials obtained from UAVs. The results can be used for hydrological modeling of river channels with complex hydromorphological characteristics.

Landslides impact on human activities and socio-economic development, especially in mountainous areas. This study focuses on the comparison of the prediction capability of advanced machine learning techniques for the rainfall-induced shallow landslide susceptibility of Deokjeokri catchment and Karisanri catchment in South Korea. The influencing factors for landslides, i.e., topographic, hydrologic, soil, forest, and geologic factors, are prepared from various sources based on availability, and a multicollinearity test is also performed to select relevant causative factors. The landslide inventory maps of both catchments are obtained from historical information, aerial photographs and performed field surveys. In this study, Deokjeokri catchment is considered as a training area and Karisanri catchment as a testing area. The landslide inventories contain 748 landslide points in training and 219 points in testing areas. Three landslide susceptibility maps using machine learning models, i.e., Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Deep Neural Network (DNN), are prepared and compared. The outcomes of the analyses are validated using the landslide inventory data. A receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) method is used to verify the results of the models. The results of this study show that the training accuracy of RF is 0.756 and the testing accuracy is 0.703. Similarly, the training accuracy of XGBoost is 0.757 and testing accuracy is 0.74. The prediction of DNN revealed acceptable agreement between the susceptibility map and the existing landslides, with a training accuracy of 0.855 and testing accuracy of 0.802. The results showed that the DNN model achieved lower prediction error and higher accuracy results than other models for shallow landslide modeling in the study area.