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1
Shabeer, Saba, Shahzad Asad, Atif Jamal, and Akhtar Ali. "Aflatoxin Contamination, Its Impact and Management Strategies: An Updated Review." Toxins 14, no. 5 (April 27, 2022): 307. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050307.
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Aflatoxin, a type of mycotoxin, is mostly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. It is responsible for the loss of billions of dollars to the world economy, by contaminating different crops such as cotton, groundnut, maize, and chilies, and causing immense effects on the health of humans and animals. More than eighteen different types of aflatoxins have been reported to date, and among them, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 are the most prevalent and lethal. Early detection of fungal infection plays a key role in the control of aflatoxin contamination. Therefore, different methods, including culture, chromatographic techniques, and molecular assays, are used to determine aflatoxin contamination in crops and food products. Many countries have set a maximum limit of aflatoxin contamination (2–20 ppb) in their food and agriculture commodities for human or animal consumption, and the use of different methods to combat this menace is essential. Fungal infection mostly takes place during the pre- and post-harvest stage of crops, and most of the methods to control aflatoxin are employed for the latter phase. Studies have shown that if correct measures are adopted during the crop development phase, aflatoxin contamination can be reduced by a significant level. Currently, the use of bio-pesticides is the intervention employed in many countries, whereby atoxigenic strains competitively reduce the burden of toxigenic strains in the field, thereby helping to mitigate this problem. This updated review on aflatoxins sheds light on the sources of contamination, and the on occurrence, impact, detection techniques, and management strategies, with a special emphasis on bio-pesticides to control aflatoxins.
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Bhatnagar, D., K. Rajasekaran, M. Gilbert, J. W. Cary, and N. Magan. "Advances in molecular and genomic research to safeguard food and feed supply from aflatoxin contamination." World Mycotoxin Journal 11, no. 1 (February 23, 2018): 47–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2017.2283.
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Worldwide recognition that aflatoxin contamination of agricultural commodities by the fungus Aspergillus flavus is a global problem has significantly benefitted from global collaboration for understanding the contaminating fungus, as well as for developing and implementing solutions against the contamination. The effort to address this serious food and feed safety issue has led to a detailed understanding of the taxonomy, ecology, physiology, genomics and evolution of A. flavus, as well as strategies to reduce or control pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination, including (1) biological control, using atoxigenic aspergilli, (2) proteomic and genomic analyses for identifying resistance factors in maize as potential breeding markers to enable development of resistant maize lines, and (3) enhancing host-resistance by bioengineering of susceptible crops, such as cotton, maize, peanut and tree nuts. A post-harvest measure to prevent the occurrence of aflatoxin contamination in storage is also an important component for reducing exposure of populations worldwide to aflatoxins in food and feed supplies. The effect of environmental changes on aflatoxin contamination levels has recently become an important aspect for study to anticipate future contamination levels. The ability of A. flavus to produce dozens of secondary metabolites, in addition to aflatoxins, has created a new avenue of research for understanding the role these metabolites play in the survival and biodiversity of this fungus. The understanding of A. flavus, the aflatoxin contamination problem, and control measures to prevent the contamination has become a unique example for an integrated approach to safeguard global food and feed safety.
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Almaghrabi, Merfat Abdulrahman. "The Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Worldwide." Journal of Food Quality 2022 (March 7, 2022): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/1326861.
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Due to global warming, the risk of aflatoxins exposure through the consumption of contaminated food has increased. Aflatoxins pose serious health hazards to humans’ and animals’ health because of their carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic properties and their immunosuppressive effects. Aflatoxin contamination in various agricultural commodities has attracted much attention worldwide. Date palm fruits are among these important commodities that are vulnerable to fungal contamination and consequent aflatoxins production. Furthermore, dates are often consumed directly without any further processing, which may result in direct exposure to aflatoxins. Moreover, dates are the second dried fruits traded worldwide, which reflects the widespread consumption of dates due to their nutritive values in addition to religious and cultural values. Accordingly, this review summarizes and discusses the frequency and incidence of aflatoxin contamination in dates worldwide and outlines the analytical procedure for aflatoxin determination in dates for the first time. The susceptibility of date palm fruits to aflatoxins contamination has been documented at various levels in several regions. The findings urged the importance of conducting more comprehensive studies on aflatoxin occurrence and contamination levels in dates as a likely contributor to the dietary exposure to aflatoxins.
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Nazhand, Amirhossein, Alessandra Durazzo, Massimo Lucarini, Eliana B. Souto, and Antonello Santini. "Characteristics, Occurrence, Detection and Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds." Foods 9, no. 5 (May 18, 2020): 644. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9050644.
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Mycotoxin contamination continues to be a food safety concern globally, with the most toxic being aflatoxins. On-farm aflatoxins, during food transit or storage, directly or indirectly result in the contamination of foods, which affects the liver, immune system and reproduction after infiltration into human beings and animals. There are numerous reports on aflatoxins focusing on achieving appropriate methods for quantification, precise detection and control in order to ensure consumer safety. In 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 as group 1 carcinogenic substances, which are a global human health concern. Consequently, this review article addresses aflatoxin chemical properties and biosynthetic processes; aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds; health effects in human beings and animals due to aflatoxin exposure, as well as aflatoxin detection and detoxification methods.
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P. Tito, Goodluck, Jovin K. Mugula, and Richard Raphael Madege. "A REVIEW OF SELECTED PREHARVEST MANAGEMENT OPTIONS OF ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS AND AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION OF MAIZE IN TANZANIA." International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Bioresearch 07, no. 05 (2022): 65–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.35410/ijaeb.2022.5764.
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Maize (Zea mays L.) is a staple food in Tanzania, but it is often susceptible to aflatoxin contamination caused by the Aspergillus flavus fungi. Aflatoxin contamination in crops is influenced by insufficient knowledge of pre-harvest management practices. Due to the toxic nature of aflatoxins, their proportions and concentrations in various food ingredients are subject to strict regulations in developed countries. The contamination resulting from aflatoxins remains one of the critical mycotoxin challenges in Tanzania because it affects food safety, security, trade, and human health. Either, an integrated combination of intervention measures such as biocontrol is the perfect strategy for sustainable reduction of A. flavus and aflatoxin production in maize. This paper explores several agricultural approaches that potentially reduce aflatoxins production in maize. Selected bio-controls such as Trichoderma spp and Atoxigenic A.flavus are among these strategies. The anticipation of this appraisal is to stimulate improvement of the existing aflatoxin management methods and inventions to exploit their effectiveness in managing toxigenic A.flavus and Aflatoxin production at harvest.
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Holbrook, C. C., C. K. Kvien, K. S. Rucker, D. M. Wilson, J. E. Hook, and M. E. Matheron. "Preharvest Aflatoxin Contamination in Drought-Tolerant and Drought-Intolerant Peanut Genotypes1." Peanut Science 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2000): 45–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3146/i0095-3679-27-2-1.
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Abstract Peanuts become contaminated with aflatoxins when subjected to prolonged periods of heat and drought stress. The effect of drought tolerance on aflatoxin contamination is not known. The objectives of this research were to evaluate preharvest aflatoxin contamination in peanut genotypes known to have drought tolerance and to determine the correlation of drought tolerance characteristics with aflatoxin contamination. Twenty genotypes with different levels of drought tolerance were grown in Yuma, AZ (a desert environment) and under rain-protected shelters in Tifton, GA. Two drought-tolerant genotypes (PI 145681 and Tifton 8) and an intolerant genotype (PI 196754) were selected for further examination in a second experiment with two planting dates in 1997 at Tifton. Drought and heat stress conditions were imposed for the 40 d preceding harvest. The drought-intolerant genotype had greater preharvest aflatoxin contamination than Florunner (the check cultivar) in the tests conducted in 1997. Both drought-tolerant genotypes had less preharvest aflatoxin contamination than Florunner in these tests. Significant positive correlations were observed between aflatoxin contamination and leaf temperature and between aflatoxin contamination and visual stress ratings. Leaf temperature and visual stress ratings are less variable and less expensive to measure than aflatoxin contamination. Leaf temperature and visual stress ratings maybe useful in indirectly selecting for reduced aflatoxin contamination in breeding populations.
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Rajarajan, P. N., K. M. Rajasekaran, and N. K. Asha Devi. "Aflatoxin Contamination in Agricultural Commodities." Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research 1, no. 04 (December 31, 2013): 148–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.30750/ijpbr.1.4.25.
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Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found when certain grains are grown under stressful conditions such as draught. The mold occurs in soil, decaying vegetation, hay and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration and invades all types of organic substrates whenever and wherever the conditions are favourable for its growth. Favourable conditions include high moisture content and high temperature.The aflatoxin group is comprised of aflatoxin B1,B2,G1 and G2. In addition , aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a hydroxylated metabolite of AFB1, is excreted in the milk of dairy cows consuming an AFB1-contaminated ration. Aflatoxin B1 a prototype of the aflatoxins, is widely recognized as the most potent hepato carcinogenic compound and along with other certain members of the group, possess additional toxic properties including mutagenicity, tetrogenicity, acute cellular toxicity and it suppresses the immune system. Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed has gained global significance as a result of its deleterious effects on human as well as animal health. The marketability of food products is adversely affected by aflatoxin contamination.
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Ojiambo, Peter S., Paola Battilani, Jeffrey W. Cary, Burt H. Blum, and Ignazio Carbone. "Cultural and Genetic Approaches to Manage Aflatoxin Contamination: Recent Insights Provide Opportunities for Improved Control." Phytopathology® 108, no. 9 (September 2018): 1024–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto-04-18-0134-rvw.
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Aspergillus flavus is a morphologically complex species that can produce the group of polyketide derived carcinogenic and mutagenic secondary metabolites, aflatoxins, as well as other secondary metabolites such as cyclopiazonic acid and aflatrem. Aflatoxin causes aflatoxicosis when aflatoxins are ingested through contaminated food and feed. In addition, aflatoxin contamination is a major problem, from both an economic and health aspect, in developing countries, especially Asia and Africa, where cereals and peanuts are important food crops. Earlier measures for control of A. flavus infection and consequent aflatoxin contamination centered on creating unfavorable environments for the pathogen and destroying contaminated products. While development of atoxigenic (nonaflatoxin producing) strains of A. flavus as viable commercial biocontrol agents has marked a unique advance for control of aflatoxin contamination, particularly in Africa, new insights into the biology and sexuality of A. flavus are now providing opportunities to design improved atoxigenic strains for sustainable biological control of aflatoxin. Further, progress in the use of molecular technologies such as incorporation of antifungal genes in the host and host-induced gene silencing, is providing knowledge that could be harnessed to develop germplasm that is resistant to infection by A. flavus and aflatoxin contamination. This review summarizes the substantial progress that has been made to understand the biology of A. flavus and mitigate aflatoxin contamination with emphasis on maize. Concepts developed to date can provide a basis for future research efforts on the sustainable management of aflatoxin contamination.
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Wang, C., F. Xu, R. C. Baker, A. Pinjari, L. Bruckers, Y. Zhao, A. Stevenson, and G. Zhang. "Fungi carried over in jute bags – a smoking gun for aflatoxin contamination in the food supply chain." World Mycotoxin Journal 14, no. 2 (April 12, 2021): 155–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2020.2619.
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India is the largest jute and fifth largest maize producing country in the world. In India maize is commonly stored and transported in jute bags which are used multiple times. Aflatoxin contamination of maize is a major issue in India. This study evaluated the potential impact of re-using jute bags on the risk of aflatoxin contamination of maize in the food supply chain. A total of 121 jute bags were collected in India; 95 had been used for maize and 26 bags were new. Significantly higher numbers of viable aflatoxigenic fungi were counted from re-used bags (27.8 times) (P<0.05), than the number from new bags. There was no significant difference between aflatoxin concentration found in the re-used jute bags and the new jute bags (P>0.05). Further analysis revealed that the aflatoxigenic fungal population (3.0 times) and aflatoxin concentration (1.2 times) were significantly higher in jute bags that had been used for maize with higher aflatoxin contamination (14-188.4 μg/kg total aflatoxins) than in those that had been used for maize with lower contamination (0.8-5.4 μg/kg total aflatoxins) (P<0.05). The significant positive correlation (P<0.05) between the aflatoxigenic fungal population of used jute bags and aflatoxin contamination of their packed maize indicated there is a risk of cross-contamination in the supply chain introduced by re-using jute bags. This is the first study to systematically reveal the potential impact of re-using jute bags on the fungal population and aflatoxin contamination risk. The application of readily applied treatments to re-used jute bags would help to minimise the aflatoxin contamination.
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Ayo, E. M., A. Matemu, G. H. Laswai, and M. E. Kimanya. "Socioeconomic Characteristics Influencing Level of Awareness of Aflatoxin Contamination of Feeds among Livestock Farmers in Meru District of Tanzania." Scientifica 2018 (2018): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3485967.
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Aflatoxins occurrence in feeds challenges human and animal health. Farmers’ awareness status of these toxins has an effect on their level of exposure. The study assessed the influence of socioeconomic characteristics of farmers on their awareness of aflatoxin contamination of feeds. Data were collected from 258 households and analysed by SPSS program for descriptive statistics and association between socioeconomic characteristics and awareness of aflatoxin contamination of feeds. Over seventy percent of the farmers had never heard about aflatoxins. Education level, specialization, and period of keeping animals had significant influence on aflatoxin awareness. Hearing about aflatoxins was six times higher among farmers who studied life or social sciences than those without specialization and those who studied other fields. Awareness that aflatoxins may occur in feeds was twice higher among farmers with higher education than those with lower education. Perception that aflatoxins in feeds are detoxifiable was threefold higher among young people (with ≤10-year period of keeping animals) than among older ones. Awareness of aflatoxins was particularly low among farmers with low education and those without exposure to life or social sciences and vice versa. Sensitization is recommended to raise farmers’ awareness on aflatoxin contamination of feeds and incorporating aflatoxin knowledge in school curricula.
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Kovács, Szilvia, Tünde Pusztahelyi, and Mária Borbélyné Varga. "Aflatoxin production on agricultural products." Acta Agraria Debreceniensis, no. 56 (March 11, 2014): 67–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.34101/actaagrar/56/1936.
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Aflatoxins due to their toxicity pose significant economic and human health threat; therefore, it is important to avoid this type of contamination in agricultural products. Until now significant aflatoxin contamination occurred mainly in foods of tropical and subtropical origin because the optimal growth of the producer Aspergillus species is between 32–38 ºC. Nowadays the aflatoxin contamination is becoming higher threat in Hungary, due to the imported products, the rising average temperature and the climatic changes. There is a significant knowledge on the genetic and environmental effectors of the aflatoxin production; however, it is remained a great problem to control mold contamination and toxin production in farming and stock-raising. Here we attempted to summarize the knowledge on aflatoxin production and attempts of the elimination.
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KACHAPULULA, PAUL W., JULIET AKELLO, RANAJIT BANDYOPADHYAY, and PETER J. COTTY. "Aflatoxin Contamination of Dried Insects and Fish in Zambia." Journal of Food Protection 81, no. 9 (August 17, 2018): 1508–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-527.
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ABSTRACT Dried insects and fish are important sources of income and dietary protein in Zambia. Some aflatoxin-producing fungi are entomopathogenic and also colonize insects and fish after harvest and processing. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, immune-suppressing mycotoxins that are frequent food contaminants worldwide. Several species within Aspergillus section Flavi have been implicated as causal agents of aflatoxin contamination of crops in Africa. However, aflatoxin producers associated with dried fish and edible insects in Zambia remain unknown, and aflatoxin concentrations in these foods have been inadequately evaluated. The current study sought to address these data gaps to assess potential human vulnerability through the dried fish and edible insect routes of aflatoxin exposure. Caterpillars (n = 97), termites (n = 4), and dried fish (n = 66) sampled in 2016 and 2017 were assayed for aflatoxin by using lateral flow immunochromatography. Average aflatoxin concentrations exceeded regulatory limits for Zambia (10 μg/kg) in the moth Gynanisa maja (11 μg/kg), the moth Gonimbrasia zambesina (Walker) (12 μg/kg), and the termite Macrotermes falciger (Gerstacker) (24 μg/kg). When samples were subjected to simulated poor storage, aflatoxins increased (P < 0.001) to unsafe levels in caterpillars (mean, 4,800 μg/kg) and fish (Oreochromis) (mean, 23 μg/kg). The L strain morphotype of A. flavus was the most common aflatoxin producer on dried fish (88% of Aspergillus section Flavi), termites (68%), and caterpillars (61%), with the exception of Gynanisa maja, for which A. parasiticus was the most common (44%). Dried fish and insects supported growth (mean, 1.3 × 109 CFU/g) and aflatoxin production (mean, 63,620 μg/kg) by previously characterized toxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi species, although the extent of growth and aflatoxigenicity depended on specific fungus-host combinations. The current study shows the need for proper storage and testing of dried insects and fish before consumption as measures to mitigate human exposure to aflatoxins through consumption in Zambia.
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Diao, Enjie, Haizhou Dong, Hanxue Hou, Zheng Zhang, Ning Ji, and Wenwen Ma. "Factors Influencing Aflatoxin Contamination in Before and After Harvest Peanuts: A Review." Journal of Food Research 4, no. 1 (December 29, 2014): 148. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v4n1p148.
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<p>Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts has been of worldwide concern since the 1960s. Aflatoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that have been associated with severe toxicological effects to human and animals, which can cause enormous economic loss to producers, handlers, processors and marketers of contaminated peanuts. Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts is unavoidable due to the varied factors in pre-harvest, harvesting, and post-harvest stages of peanuts. The review summarizes the factors influencing aflatoxin contamination in the whole supply chain of peanuts.</p>
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Dhavan, A. S., and M. R. Choudary. "Incidence of Aflatoxins in Animal Feedstuffs: A Decade’s Scenario in India." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 78, no. 3 (May 1, 1995): 693–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/78.3.693.
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Abstract During the period 1983–1993,4818 samples of agricultural commodities, comprising cereals, oilseed cakes, compound feeds, and other ingredients, were examined for aflatoxin contamination. High quantities of aflatoxins were found in groundnut cake, deoiled groundnut cake, maize, and mixed feeds. Highest incidence of aflatoxin contamination was observed in groundnut cake (96.35%) and deoiled groundnut cake (96.20%), and the highest level of aflatoxin B1, 8260 ppb, was observed in maize.
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Rodrigues, P., A. Venâncio, and N. Lima. "Aflatoxigenic Fungi and Aflatoxins in Portuguese Almonds." Scientific World Journal 2012 (2012): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/2012/471926.
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Aflatoxin contamination of nuts is an increasing concern to the consumer’s health. Portugal is a big producer of almonds, but there is no scientific knowledge on the safety of those nuts, in terms of mycotoxins. The aim of this paper was to study the incidence of aflatoxigenic fungi and aflatoxin contamination of 21 samples of Portuguese almonds, and its evolution throughout the various stages of production. All fungi belonging toAspergillussectionFlaviwere identified and tested for their aflatoxigenic ability. Almond samples were tested for aflatoxin contamination by HPLC-fluorescence. In total, 352 fungi belonging toAspergillussectionFlaviwere isolated from Portuguese almonds: 127 were identified asA. flavus(of which 28% produced aflatoxins B), 196 as typical or atypicalA. parasiticus(all producing aflatoxins B and G), and 29 asA. tamarii(all nonaflatoxigenic). Aflatoxins were detected in only one sample at 4.97 μg/kg.
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Deshmukh, Manasi Shailesh, and Varsha Mahesh Vaidya. "Prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts in Pune city." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 6, no. 8 (July 26, 2019): 3310. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20193446.
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Background: Aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts is caused by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. In this study, the prevalence of aflatoxin B1 in groundnuts has been assessed. Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic. They are known to cause hepatocellular toxicity. The aim of the study is to estimate prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts sold in the city of Pune and to assess the awareness about aflatoxin contamination amongst shopkeepers of selected shops/vendors.Methods: Sampling of groundnuts was conducted in 17 out of 144 administrative wards of Pune city. Hundred samples weighing 250g each were purchased from the randomly selected stores and transported in black polythene bags to The State Public Health Laboratory, Pune. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used by the laboratory to determine levels of aflatoxin B1. A pre-structured questionnaire was used for assessment of knowledge of aflatoxin contamination amongst vendors.Results: Out of 100 samples, four samples were contaminated with aflatoxin. However the maximum contamination was 0.6 parts per billion, which is well within the permissible limit of 30 parts per billion. Awareness of aflatoxin contamination amongst vendors was six percent. Ninety four percent of vendors were unaware of the concept of aflatoxin contamination.Conclusions: It is necessary to educate vendors, suppliers and handlers about the health hazards caused by this toxic fungus for the benefit of the average consumer.
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Sailaja, O., M. Manoranjani, and G. Krishnaveni. "Simultaneous Estimation of Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) by Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) in Corn Samples." Asian Journal of Chemistry 33, no. 3 (2021): 521–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2021.23031.
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Aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus flavins and Aspergillus pasasiticus have been investigated in the corn (maize) collected in different locations in Andhra Pradesh state, India. In the present study, 24 corn samples collected from different harvest, storage and dumping areas were analyzed for detection of aflatoxin contamination by liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Mixed aflatoxin working standard solutions with a concentration of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 ng/mL were prepared and followed by instrumental analysis and the retention times of the sample chromatograms were compared with the standard aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 retention times in order to determine the contamination. The findings revealed that among 24 collected samples, only 10 samples have been found positive for aflatoxins contamination when subjected to LC-MS analysis. Co-occurrence of aflatoxin was identified in the most of the samples. Even though 10 samples were tested positive total aflatoxin content in the most positive are found within the acceptable limits (30 μg/kg) and samples collected at dumping areas (S4, S8 and S10) show the presence of exceeding quantity than the limits described by FSSAI. Total aflatoxin content in the most positive were found within the acceptable limits (30 μg/kg) and the samples collected at dumping areas S4 (40.9 μg/kg), S8 (53.2 μg/kg) and S10 (71.86 μg/kg) had shown exceeding limits. The sample S7 collected from the storage was also found positive of presence of aflatoxin G2- 13.49 μg/kg and B2-21.14 μg/kg with total aflatoxin of 34.65 μg/kg. High contamination of these dumping areas may lead to contamination of storage points nearer to these areas. Present results showed that the corn samples at dumping areas were found to be contaminated with the Aspergillus flavins and Aspergillus pasasiticus.
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Kumar, Vishal, Ashutosh Bahuguna, Srinivasan Ramalingam, Jong Suk Lee, Sung Soo Han, Hyang Sook Chun, and Myunghee Kim. "Aflatoxin Reduction and Retardation of Aflatoxin Production by Microorganisms in Doenjang during a One-Year Fermentation." Journal of Fungi 8, no. 2 (February 15, 2022): 190. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof8020190.
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Meju, a raw material for doenjang preparation, is highly vulnerable to aflatoxin-producing fungi. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a one-year fermentation on aflatoxins and aflatoxin-producing fungi in doenjang spiked with aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, and G2 and inoculated with toxigenic Aspergillus flavus. A significant reduction in aflatoxins was observed after a year of fermentation, measuring 92.58%, 100%, 98.69%, and 100% of B1, G1, B2, and G2, respectively. After a year of fermentation, 6.95 ± 3.64 µg/kg of total aflatoxin was detected, which represents a 97.88% reduction in the total aflatoxin compared with the initial value (328.83 ± 36.60 µg/kg). Several aflatoxin-degrading fungi (Aspergillus versicolor, Cladosporium subcinereum, Aspergillus ochraceus) and bacteria (Bacillus albus, Bacillus velezensis) isolated from doenjang were identified as the major contributors to the reduction of aflatoxin. Furthermore, it was observed that most of the aflatoxin contamination in doenjang occurred during the meju stage, and this stage was found to be most susceptible to A. flavus contamination and growth. These findings reveal that native microorganisms mediate aflatoxin clean-up in doenjang during fermentation and support the use of such microorganisms as a starter culture for the preparation of aflatoxin-free doenjang.
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Jiang, Yun, Ibukun M. Ogunade, Diwakar Vyas, and Adegbola T. Adesogan. "Aflatoxin in Dairy Cows: Toxicity, Occurrence in Feedstuffs and Milk and Dietary Mitigation Strategies." Toxins 13, no. 4 (April 17, 2021): 283. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040283.
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Aflatoxins are poisonous carcinogens produced by fungi, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins can contaminate a variety of livestock feeds and cause enormous economic losses, estimated at between US$52.1 and US$1.68 billion annually for the U.S. corn industry alone. In addition, aflatoxin can be transferred from the diet to the milk of cows as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), posing a significant human health hazard. In dairy cows, sheep and goats, chronic exposure to dietary aflatoxin can reduce milk production, impair reproduction and liver function, compromise immune function, and increase susceptibility to diseases; hence, strategies to lower aflatoxin contamination of feeds and to prevent or reduce the transfer of the toxin to milk are required for safeguarding animal and human health and improving the safety of dairy products and profitability of the dairy industry. This article provides an overview of the toxicity of aflatoxin to ruminant livestock, its occurrence in livestock feeds, and the effectiveness of different strategies for preventing and mitigating aflatoxin contamination of feeds.
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Ayeni, Kolawole I., Oluwatosin M. Akinyemi, Tihomir Kovač, and Chibundu N. Ezekiel. "Aflatoxin contamination of maize vended in Ondo state, Nigeria, and health risk assessments." Croatian journal of food science and technology 12, no. 1 (May 29, 2020): 123–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.17508/cjfst.2020.12.1.16.
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Aflatoxin contamination of maize is a serious food safety problem worldwide. Despite the widespread consumption of maize in Nigeria, there is limited data on aflatoxin contents of maize vended in open markets in Ondo state, Nigeria. A total of 140 maize samples randomly purchased from major markets in four locations in Ondo state, were screened for total aflatoxins using an ELISA method. Exposure and health risk assessments were performed for the maize consumers by the deterministic and Margin of exposure (MOE) approaches, respectively. About 99% of the maize were contaminated with total aflatoxins (range: 0.65–265 µg/kg; mean: 125.9 µg/kg). Aflatoxin levels exceeding the 4 µg/kg set by the European Union for total aflatoxins were found in 88% of the maize whilst more than one half contained at least 100 µg/kg aflatoxins. The average probable daily intake values were 830, 332 and 138 ng/kg bw/day for the average children, adolescent and adult populations, respectively. Consequently, MOEs for the respective populations were 0.20, 0.51 and 1.23, suggesting a high level of health risk for consumers of maize vended in open markets in Ondo state due to high aflatoxin levels. Maize farmers and households in Ondo state need urgent aflatoxin mitigation interventions.
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Mugure Kamano, Hannah, Michael Wandayi Okoth, Wambui-Kogi Makau, Patrick Kuloba, and Nduhiu Gitahi. "Storage conditions and postharvest practices lead to aflatoxin contamination in maize in two counties (Makueni and Baringo) in Kenya." Open Agriculture 7, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 910–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opag-2021-0054.
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Abstract Aflatoxins are known to cause devastating acute and chronic effects in humans and animals. The objective of the study was to determine the influence of postharvest practices and storage conditions on aflatoxin contamination in maize in two counties. Aflatoxin levels in 144 maize samples from different maize storage conditions were determined. While sampling, a structured questionnaire was also administered to evaluate farmer’s postharvest practices. Makueni County had the highest percentage of aflatoxin positive samples with up to 174 ppb attributed to the long storage under unfavourable conditions. On the other hand, Baringo County had lower positivity associated with the harvesting season at the time of sample collection. The type of storage condition had a significant effect on the extent of contamination and accounted for 11% of the variation (R 2 = 0.11). Gunny bags were the most common type of storage condition and had the highest level of contamination in both the counties. Metallic bins had the lowest level of contamination. Aflatoxin G1 and G2 were predominant in samples from Baringo County, while aflatoxin B1 and B2 were predominant in samples from Makueni County. The study concluded that the type of storage condition significantly contributes to the aflatoxin contamination in the stored maize. Proper drying of maize to the recommended moisture content and subsequent storage in hermetic structures will reduce the cases of aflatoxin contamination.
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MUPUNGA, I., S. L. LEBELO, P. MNGQAWA, J. P. RHEEDER, and D. R. KATERERE. "Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Peanuts and Peanut Butter from Bulawayo, Zimbabwe." Journal of Food Protection 77, no. 10 (October 1, 2014): 1814–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-129.
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Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that may contaminate food and pose a health risk, especially in developing countries, where there is a lack of food security and quality is subsumed by food insufficiency. Aflatoxins are the most toxic known mycotoxins and are a significant risk factor for liver and kidney cancer, teratogenicity, undernutrition, and micronutrient malabsorption in both humans and animals. The main aim of the study was to determine the extent of fungal and aflatoxin contamination in peanuts and peanut butter being sold in both the formal and informal markets in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Eighteen peanut samples and 11 peanut butter samples were purchased from retail shops and the informal market. Fungal contamination was determined using standard mycology culture methods, while aflatoxin contamination was determined using high-performance liquid chromatography–fluorescence detection. Four of the six peanut samples tested for fungal contamination were infected with Aspergillus flavus/parasiticus, ranging from 3 to 20% of the kernels examined, while 27% (3 of 11) of the peanut butter samples were infected with A. flavus/parasiticus. Ninety-one percent (10 of 11) of the peanut butter samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (mean, 75.66 ng/g, and range, 6.1 to 247 ng/g), and aflatoxin B1 was the most prevalent (mean, 51.0 ng/g, and range, 3.7 to 191 ng/g). Three of the 18 peanut samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (range, 6.6 to 622 ng/g). The commercial peanut butter samples had very high aflatoxin levels, and manufacturers should be sensitized to the detrimental effects of aflatoxins and measures to reduce contamination.
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Savić, Zagorka, Tatjana Dudaš, Marta Loc, Mila Grahovac, Dragana Budakov, Igor Jajić, Saša Krstović, et al. "Biological Control of Aflatoxin in Maize Grown in Serbia." Toxins 12, no. 3 (March 5, 2020): 162. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12030162.
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Aspergillus flavus is the main producer of aflatoxin B1, one of the most toxic contaminants of food and feed. With global warming, climate conditions have become favourable for aflatoxin contamination of agricultural products in several European countries, including Serbia. The infection of maize with A. flavus, and aflatoxin synthesis can be controlled and reduced by application of a biocontrol product based on non-toxigenic strains of A. flavus. Biological control relies on competition between atoxigenic and toxigenic strains. This is the most commonly used biological control mechanism of aflatoxin contamination in maize in countries where aflatoxins pose a significant threat. Mytoolbox Af01, a native atoxigenic A. flavus strain, was obtained from maize grown in Serbia and used to produce a biocontrol product that was applied in irrigated and non-irrigated Serbian fields during 2016 and 2017. The application of this biocontrol product reduced aflatoxin levels in maize kernels (51–83%). The biocontrol treatment had a highly significant effect of reducing total aflatoxin contamination by 73%. This study showed that aflatoxin contamination control in Serbian maize can be achieved through biological control methods using atoxigenic A. flavus strains.
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Wokorach, Godfrey, Sofie Landschoot, Amerida Lakot, Sidney Arihona Karyeija, Kris Audenaert, Richard Echodu, and Geert Haesaert. "Characterization of Ugandan Endemic Aspergillus Species and Identification of Non-Aflatoxigenic Isolates for Potential Biocontrol of Aflatoxins." Toxins 14, no. 5 (April 26, 2022): 304. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050304.
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Acute stunting in children, liver cancer, and death often occur due to human exposure to aflatoxins in food. The severity of aflatoxin contamination depends on the type of Aspergillus fungus infecting the crops. In this study, Aspergillus species were isolated from households’ staple foods and were characterized for different aflatoxin chemotypes. The non-aflatoxigenic chemotypes were evaluated for their ability to reduce aflatoxin levels produced by aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains on maize grains. Aspergillus flavus (63%), A. tamarii (14%), and A. niger (23%) were the main species present. The A. flavus species included isolates that predominantly produced aflatoxins B1 and B2, with most isolates producing a high amount (>20 ug/µL) of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and a marginal proportion of them also producing G aflatoxins with a higher level of aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) than AFB1. Some non-aflatoxigenic A. tamarii demonstrated a strong ability to reduce the level of AFB1 by more than 95% when co-inoculated with aflatoxigenic A. flavus. Therefore, field evaluation of both non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus and A. tamarii would be an important step toward developing biocontrol agents for mitigating field contamination of crops with aflatoxins in Uganda.
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Jaime-Garcia, Ramon, and Peter J. Cotty. "Aflatoxin Contamination of Commercial Cottonseed in South Texas." Phytopathology® 93, no. 9 (September 2003): 1190–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2003.93.9.1190.
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Aflatoxins are toxic fungal metabolites produced by several members of Aspergillus section Flavi. U.S. federal regulations limit the use of aflatoxin-contaminated cottonseed. Cottonseed with aflatoxin content of 20 ng/g or higher may not enter the profitable dairy market. Between 4,472 and 9,949 truckloads of cottonseed from 31 to 35 gins in South Texas were analyzed for aflatoxin content each year from 1997 to 2001 upon receipt at the Valley Co-op Oil Mill in Harlingen, TX. The highest levels of contamination occurred in 1999, with an average aflatoxin content of 112 ng/g and 66% of the cottonseed truckloads exceeding 20 ng/g. Years 1997 and 2000 had the lowest aflatoxin levels, averaging 24 ng/g, with the lowest incidence (16%) of the truckloads exceeding 20 ng/g in 1997. In general, aflatoxin contamination increased as the ginning season progressed. Rainfall after boll opening correlated highly with aflatoxin content, with rainfall in July explaining over 50% of the observed variability in aflatoxin content. South Texas was divided into four regions: Rio Grande Valley, Coastal Bend, Upper Coast, and Winter Garden. Geostatistical analyses revealed recurrent patterns of high and low contamination. The greatest contamination occurred from the central Coastal Bend region through the southern Upper Coast region. The Rio Grande Valley region experienced the least contamination during the study period.
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Obade, MI, P. Andang’o, C. Obonyo, and F. Lusweti. "Exposure of children 4 to 6 months of age to aflatoxin in Kisumu County, Kenya." African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 15, no. 69 (March 30, 2015): 9949–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.69.14020.
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Contamination of foods by aflatoxins is a global health problem in both developed and developing countries. Exposure to the toxin s is associated with a range of effects on health including stunting in children. Commodities at high risk of aflatoxin contamination include cereals, legumes, milk, fish and meats. Children are more vulnerable to effects of aflatoxin exposure compared to adults. Being genotoxic , levels of aflatoxins in foods should be kept as low as possible, given that there is no known threshold at which they may pose a health risk . This study investigated the potential exposure of young children to aflatoxin contamination in Kisumu County, Kenya. Kisumu County may have the potential for low to high levels of aflatoxin contamination due to prevailing weather conditions as well as reliance on maize, sorghum, cassava and rice as the main staple foods, groundnuts as snack and omena ( Rastrienobola argentea ) and milk as cheap source s of protein. These foods are also used as weaning foods in the County. Samples of omena , rice, groundnuts, cassava, maize, and sorghum were collected from Kibuye wholesale market , Kibuye open air market , Ahero market , Oile market and Mamboleo market in Kisumu County using a combination of cluster and systematic sampling. Processed cow’s milk samples were collected from supermarkets and raw cow’s milk samples from 3 market milk bazaars in the County . Analysis of solid foods was done using HELICA Total Aflatoxin Assay, intended for quantitative detection of aflatoxin B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G 2 . Milk sampling was done using the European model outlined in the Codex Alimentarius. Aflatoxin M 1 levels in milk were analyzed using HELICA Aflatoxin M 1 Assay. Aflatoxin levels in the foods ranged from 0 to 34.5 ppb aflatoxin B 1 , 0.012 to 0.127 ppb aflatoxin M 1 in processed milk and 0.0002 to 0.013 ppb aflatoxin M 1 in raw milk . All the food products , except cassava, had samples with detectable aflatoxin levels. Daily aflatoxin consumption ranged from 35 ng (4.43/kgBw/day) to as high as 872 ng (110.4 ng/kgBW ). These findings indicate that weaning children in Kisumu County are potentially exposed to levels of aflatoxins above the permissible amounts , given that the food stuffs that were analyzed are the commonly used weaning food items. Its effects on their health should be assessed and efforts taken to reduce potential exposure both from the commonly suspected sources as well as from milk.
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Christina Zakayo Wuiya, Valerian CK Silayo, Frida Nyamete, and Ramadhani Omari Majubwa. "The effect of harvest, sorting and drying practices on aflatoxin contamination of maize." International Journal of Scientific Research Updates 4, no. 2 (October 30, 2022): 063–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.53430/ijsru.2022.4.2.0150.
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Aflatoxins are the result of fungal metabolites that contaminate agricultural produce and can cause death to both humans and animals. The risks of using contaminated food and feed with aflatoxins have increased due to environmental factors, pre-harvest, post-harvest and socio-economic factors. This study revealed on harvesting, drying, and sorting practices that can reduce aflatoxin contamination. Experiments were designed in three districts; Kilosa, Gairo, and Mvomero with five (5) treatments replicated nine (9) times under farmers’ conditions. Samples were collected during harvesting, drying, and sorting; and analyzed for aflatoxin B1 using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) at Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) laboratory. Analysis of variance and comparison of means for moisture content, mold levels, grain damage, and aflatoxin levels were performed using GenStat® Executable release 16 Statistical Analysis Software. Results indicated that aflatoxin contamination levels were lower at maize grain harvested into bags (456.9μg/kg) compared to maize harvesting onto the ground (889.1μg/kg). It was also observed that maize dried on tarpaulin and raised platform had significantly (p<0.05) low aflatoxin levels (65.5 μg/kg, 67.1μg/kg respectively) while maize dried on the ground had higher aflatoxin infestation (179 μg/kg). Again, sorting maize by color significantly (p<0.05) reduces aflatoxin contamination. These results indicate that proper postharvest management of maize, such as harvesting maize on bags, drying maize on tarpaulin, raised platform and sorting maize by color gives the lowest aflatoxin contamination levels. Hence, proper education to farmers on harvesting maize using container/bags and drying maize on raised platform to be established in farmer level.
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Magoke, Krockenberger, Bryden, Alders, Mramba, and Maulaga. "Aflatoxin Contamination of Village Grains in Central Tanzania: Dietary and Agricultural Practices in Relation to Contamination and Exposure Risk." Proceedings 36, no. 1 (December 30, 2019): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2019036020.
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A study was conducted in the semi-arid Manyoni District of Central Tanzania, involving eight village communities to: (1) assess aflatoxin contamination of village grains; and (2) gain knowledge on grain food practices and habits associated with aflatoxin risk. To address the respective objectives, random immediate post-harvest (n = 134) and following 6 month or more after storage grain samples (n = 157) were screened (AFLACHECKTM -VICAM), followed by quantitative HPLC determination of samples containing ≥10 µg/kg total aflatoxins. Responses were sought from 76 randomly selected adults by a questionnaire covering pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest practices, food preparation and knowledge on food toxins. Aflatoxin contamination was particularly more significant in maize and groundnut samples ranging up to 198 µg/kg (mean = 25.46 µg/kg) in post-harvest grains and up to 351 µg/kg (mean = 50.83 µg/kg) in stored grains, well above the maximum limit of 10 µg/kg tolerated in foods for human consumption in Tanzania. Respondent questionnaires revealed farmers: had no knowledge of food toxins; received limited extension services; did not generally use irrigation, fertilisers or pesticides; relied on inadequate harvesting, drying and storage technologies; and frequently consumed unpolished grains. Village grains in Central Tanzania may contain high concentration of aflatoxins of potential significance to community health. Existing practices and lack of aflatoxin knowledge may facilitate contamination and exposure. Therefore, village farmers in Central Tanzania may benefit from better extension services, using livestock manure as fertilizer, access to drought tolerant seeds and better grain drying and storage technologies to reduce aflatoxin risk.
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Ketney, Otto. "Food Safety Legislation Regarding Of Aflatoxins Contamination." ACTA Universitatis Cibiniensis 67, no. 1 (September 1, 2015): 149–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aucts-2015-0081.
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Abstract The main objective of the European Union (EU) is to reduce certain contaminants in foodstuffs to acceptable levels. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in food was considered to be one of the most important issues of global food security to protect the health of humans and animals, over 100 nations have established maximum tolerable levels for aflatoxin in food. Although EU legislation covers many aspects of food safety was not legally establish an integrated framework that could effectively combat and cover all sectors of the food chain. Monitoring and reporting levels of aflatoxins after controls are essential actions that assist to identify potential risks to human health. The review process for aflatoxin regulations is a complex activity involving many factors and stakeholders.
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Tabata, Setsuko, Hisashi Kamimura, Akihiro Ibe, Hideki Hashimoto, Mami Iida, Yukihiro Tamura, and Taichtro Nishima. "Aflatoxin Contamination in Foods and Foodstuffs in Tokyo: 1986-1990." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 76, no. 1 (January 1, 1993): 32–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/76.1.32.
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Abstract Aflatoxins were determined in 3054 samples of foods or foodstuffs, including cereals, nuts, beans, spices, dairy products, dry fruits, and edible oil. Samples were collected in Tokyo from 1986 to 1990. Aflatoxins were found in rice products, adlay, corn, crude sugar, peanut products, pistachio nuts, brazil nuts, sesame products, butter beans, white pepper, red pepper, paprika, nutmeg, and mixed spices. The highest incidence of aflatoxin contamination was observed in nutmeg (80%), and the highest level of aflatoxin B1 was observed in pistachio nuts (1382 ppb).
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SANCHIS, V., N. SALA, A. PALOMES, P. SANTAMARINA, and P. A. BURDASPAL. "Occurrence of Aflatoxin and Aflatoxigenic Molds in Foods and Feed in Spain." Journal of Food Protection 49, no. 6 (June 1, 1986): 445–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-49.6.445.
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A survey was carried out to obtain data on the occurrence of aflatoxin and aflatoxigenic mold contamination of foods in Spain. A variety of commodities amounting to 338 samples were analyzed, comprising cereal grains, mixed feeds, edible nuts, wheat flour for bread-making, biscuits, sliced bread, soya beans and breakfast cereals. The results reveal a rather low incidence of aflatoxin contamination in samples tested. Aflatoxins were detected in 4 of 27 samples of mixed feeds at levels below 5 μg/kg; one sample of peanuts was contaminated with 120 μg aflatoxin B1/kg and 22 μg aflatoxin B2/kg. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were also detected in a lot of whole maize flour, averaging 8 μg/kg and 3 μg/kg, respectively. Of a total of 288 samples tested, 100% showed variable incidences of fungal contamination. Maize samples were the ones most frequently contaminated with Aspergillus flavus (54.5%). Strains of A. flavus isolated from maize samples also showed the highest proportion of aflatoxigenic molds (17.2%) compared with those isolated from other sources.
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Chauhan, Y. S., G. C. Wright, and N. C. Rachaputi. "Modelling climatic risks of aflatoxin contamination in maize." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, no. 3 (2008): 358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea06101.
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Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic mycotoxins produced by two fungi, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, under specific moisture and temperature conditions before harvest and/or during storage of a wide range of crops including maize. Modelling of interactions between host plant and environment during the season can enable quantification of preharvest aflatoxin risk and its potential management. A model was developed to quantify climatic risks of aflatoxin contamination in maize using principles previously used for peanuts. The model outputs an aflatoxin risk index in response to seasonal temperature and soil moisture during the maize grain filling period using the APSIM’s maize module. The model performed well in simulating climatic risk of aflatoxin contamination in maize as indicated by a significant R2 (P ≤ 0.01) between aflatoxin risk index and the measured aflatoxin B1 in crop samples, which was 0.69 for a range of rainfed Australian locations and 0.62 when irrigated locations were also included in the analysis. The model was further applied to determine probabilities of exceeding a given aflatoxin risk in four non-irrigated maize growing locations of Queensland using 106 years of historical climatic data. Locations with both dry and hot climates had a much higher probability of higher aflatoxin risk compared with locations having either dry or hot conditions alone. Scenario analysis suggested that under non-irrigated conditions the risk of aflatoxin contamination could be minimised by adjusting sowing time or selecting an appropriate hybrid to better match the grain filling period to coincide with lower temperature and water stress conditions.
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MAHONEY, NOREEN E., LUISA W. CHENG, and JEFFREY D. PALUMBO. "Effect of Blanching on Aflatoxin Contamination and Cross-Contamination of Almonds." Journal of Food Protection 83, no. 12 (July 21, 2020): 2187–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/jfp-20-218.
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ABSTRACT Blanching of almonds was examined for reducing the aflatoxin content of contaminated nuts. Almonds with intact pellicles were spiked with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and blanched at 85°C. Following blanching, almond kernels and pellicles contained 20 and 19% of the spiked AFB1, respectively. The blanching water contained an additional 41% of the spiked AFB1. In a separate study, postblanching water was spiked with AFB1 and used for subsequent blanching of uncontaminated almonds. The resulting blanched kernels acquired 3.3% of the AFB1 from the spiked water, demonstrating a low level of cross-contamination from reused contaminated blanching water. The effect of the blanching temperature on partitioning of AFB1 from almonds to blanching water was significant at a 20-ppb spiking level, but not at 100 ppb. AFB1 levels that were unaccounted for in the mass balance of blanching components were presumed to be lost due to binding to water-solubilized almond components and were independent of pH and blanching time. Blanching reduced total aflatoxins in naturally contaminated almonds by 13 to 76%, depending on almond quality, as well as blanching time and temperature. These results indicate that the association between almond components and aflatoxin generated through mold contamination is more complex than in spiking experiments. HIGHLIGHTS
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Mukhtar, Fatima. "Implication of aflatoxins as potent carcinogens." Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 12, no. 1 (April 14, 2020): 39–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v12i1.7s.
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Aspergillus species influence human and animal health directly and indirectly with a significant economic impact on the society. A. flavus and A. parasiticus are the two major species that produce aflatoxins. Several mycotoxins are reported from several other mycotoxigenic fungi of which the aflatoxins are the most toxic and damaging polyketides. Economically important crops such as maize, rice, cotton seed, peanuts, and spices are all susceptible to contamination of aflatoxin. The aim of this review is to make an extensive review and come up with ways to curtail this global challenge on how to manage aflatoxin contamination in crops and other food products since the toxins have been classified as potent carcinogens and about 25% of food is being lost due to aflatoxin contamination annually. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) conducted evaluation of several chemicals of their carcinogenic potential and classified aflatoxins as most potent natural, known human carcinogens. The methodology was by selecting the most recent researches conducted on new techniques to be employed in overcoming the issue of aflatoxin contamination both during the pre and post-harvest strategies. The Data gathered was subjected to appropriate statistical tool so as to come up with more improved techniques. It was found that both chemical and physical methods have certain drawbacks which may lead to drop in human and animal health, cause a significant decline in the quality of food products, losses of nutritional value, high cost and cause undesirable health effects, but biological methods using microorganisms seems more promising, they provide an attractive alternative tool for removing toxins and safeguarding the value of food and feed in an eco-friendly way.
Key words: Aflatoxin, Contamination, Crops, Pre and Post-harvest.
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IQBAL, QUMER, MUHAMMAD AMJAD, MUHAMMAD RAFIQUE ASI, and AGUSTIN ARIÑO. "Assessment of Hot Peppers for Aflatoxin and Mold Proliferation during Storage." Journal of Food Protection 74, no. 5 (May 1, 2011): 830–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-10-449.
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Aflatoxin contamination and mold proliferation in three hot pepper hybrids (Sky Red, Maha, and Wonder King) were studied during 5 months of storage at three temperatures (20, 25, and 30°C) and under different packaging conditions (low-density polyethylene bags and jute bags). The presence of aflatoxins in hot pepper samples was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a UV-Vis detector. Sampling for analysis of aflatoxins, total mold counts, and Aspergillus counts was carried out at 0, 50, 100, and 150 days of storage. Hot peppers packed in jute bags were more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination than those packed in polyethylene bags; aflatoxin concentrations were 75% higher in peppers stored in jute bags. The effect of storage temperature resulted in aflatoxin concentrations that were 61% higher in hot peppers stored at 25 and 30°C than in those stored at 20°C. Of the three pepper hybrids, Wonder King was more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, with a maximum of 1.50 μg/kg when packed in jute bags and stored at 25°C for 150 days. However, no sample exceeded the maximum permitted level for total aflatoxins in spices established by European Union regulations (10 μg/kg). Total mold counts and Aspergillus counts increased with storage duration, but all counts were significantly lower in peppers stored in polyethylene bags. A gradual increase in temperature during prolonged storage of hot peppers in combination with aeration may be the main reasons for increases in fungal biomass and Aspergillus proliferation with the subsequent aflatoxin production.
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Montalbano, Serena, Francesca Degola, Jennifer Bartoli, Franco Bisceglie, Annamaria Buschini, Mauro Carcelli, Donatella Feretti, et al. "The AFLATOX® Project: Approaching the Development of New Generation, Natural-Based Compounds for the Containment of the Mycotoxigenic Phytopathogen Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxin Contamination." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 9 (April 26, 2021): 4520. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094520.
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The control of the fungal contamination on crops is considered a priority by the sanitary authorities of an increasing number of countries, and this is also due to the fact that the geographic areas interested in mycotoxin outbreaks are widening. Among the different pre- and post-harvest strategies that may be applied to prevent fungal and/or aflatoxin contamination, fungicides still play a prominent role; however, despite of countless efforts, to date the problem of food and feed contamination remains unsolved, since the essential factors that affect aflatoxins production are various and hardly to handle as a whole. In this scenario, the exploitation of bioactive natural sources to obtain new agents presenting novel mechanisms of action may represent a successful strategy to minimize, at the same time, aflatoxin contamination and the use of toxic pesticides. The Aflatox® Project was aimed at the development of new-generation inhibitors of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. proliferation and toxin production, through the modification of naturally occurring molecules: a panel of 177 compounds, belonging to the thiosemicarbazones class, have been synthesized and screened for their antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic potential. The most effective compounds, selected as the best candidates as aflatoxin containment agents, were also evaluated in terms of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and epi-genotoxicity to exclude potential harmful effect on the human health, the plants on which fungi grow and the whole ecosystem.
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Porto, Yuri Duarte, Felipe Machado Trombete, Otniel Freitas-Silva, Izabela Miranda de Castro, Gloria Maria Direito, and José Luis Ramirez Ascheri. "Gaseous Ozonation to Reduce Aflatoxins Levels and Microbial Contamination in Corn Grits." Microorganisms 7, no. 8 (July 28, 2019): 220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080220.
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Corn is one of the most cultivated cereals in Brazil. However, its grains are constantly exposed to contamination by mycotoxins. Corn grits are used by the food industry to produce a large variety of corn products such as canjiquinha, a cultural food easily purchased by the Brazilian consumer at low prices. Some studies have demonstrated high contamination of this product by aflatoxins (AFs), representing a potential risk of exposure due to such a contamination. In this study, the efficacy of gaseous ozonation was evaluated on the levels of aflatoxins and on the microbial contamination of corn grits. The application of gaseous ozone was tested in different combinations of exposure time, ozone concentration, and canjiquinha mass. After the ozonation treatment, samples were collected for aflatoxin and microbiological analyses. Aflatoxins were evaluated using a high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD) system using pre-column derivatization, and the microbiological analyses were carried out for toxin-producer fungi and mesophilic bacteria. After ozone detoxification, results showed reductions up to 57% in aflatoxin levels. Total fungal count was reduced around 3.0 cycles log CFU g−1 and total mesophilic counts were reduced to non-detectable levels. These results demonstrated that ozonation is an effective alternative for reducing aflatoxin and microbial contamination in products like canjiquinha, thereby improving food safety.
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Siruguri, Vasanthi, Srinivasu Kurella, and Nupur Bharadwaj. "Assessment of Aflatoxin Contamination from Discoloured Kernels in Ready-To-Eat Processed Groundnut Products." Indian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics 55, no. 4 (October 9, 2018): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.21048/ijnd.2018.55.4.21510.
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The present study was attempted to assess the extent of aflatoxin contamination from presence of discoloured kernels (DKs) in ready-to-eat (RTE) processed whole groundnut products sold in Hyderabad city in southern India. A total of 34/56 fried (FG) and roasted and salted groundnut (RSG) samples were examined for the presence of DKs. DKs were segregated from the samples and subjected to aflatoxin analysis either as single DK or pooled DKs using HPLC methods. The aflatoxin content in the RTE samples was computed from the aflatoxin levels determined in the segregated DKs as well as in the non-discoloured kernels (NDKs) and ingredients used for coating such as flour and spices. Analysis of 77 single DKs indicated presence of aflatoxins in 31% of the DKs at levels ranging from 0.007 to 1383.4 μg/g. Analysis of 17 pooled DK samples indicated presence of aflatoxins in 13 pooled DKs at levels ranging from 0.142-357.3 μg/ pooled DKs. The total aflatoxin content in the RTE samples calculated from aggregate of aflatoxin levels in DKs, NDKs and other components ranged from 0.001 to 2.779 μg/g sample respectively and was contributed mostly by DKs (90%). Aflatoxin was not detected in 22 samples that did not contain DKs. Presence of DKs in RTE groundnut products for direct human consumption can become potential sources of aflatoxin exposure to the consumer and methods to prevent their entry into processed foods containing whole kernels at post processing is urgently required.
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Xu, Jia, Peng Wang, Zehua Zhou, Peter John Cotty, and Qing Kong. "Selection of Atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus for Potential Use in Aflatoxin Prevention in Shandong Province, China." Journal of Fungi 7, no. 9 (September 18, 2021): 773. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7090773.
Full textAbstract:
Aspergillus flavus is a common filamentous fungus widely present in the soil, air, and in crops. This facultative pathogen of both animals and plants produces aflatoxins, a group of mycotoxins with strong teratogenic and carcinogenic properties. Peanuts are highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination and consumption of contaminated peanuts poses serious threats to the health of humans and domestic animals. Currently, the competitive displacement of aflatoxin-producers from agricultural environments by atoxigenic A. flavus is the most effective method of preventing crop aflatoxin contamination. In the current study, 47 isolates of A. flavus collected from peanut samples originating in Shandong Province were characterized with molecular methods and for aflatoxin-producing ability in laboratory studies. Isolates PA04 and PA10 were found to be atoxigenic members of the L strains morphotype. When co-inoculated with A. flavus NRRL3357 at ratios of 1:10, 1:1, and 10:1 (PA04/PA10: NRRL3357), both atoxigenic strains were able to reduce aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels, on both culture media and peanut kernels, by up to 90%. The extent to which atoxigenic strains reduced contamination was correlated with the inoculation ratio. Abilities to compete of PA04 and PA10 were also independently verified against local aflatoxin-producer PA37. The results suggest that the two identified atoxigenic strains are good candidates for active ingredients of biocontrol products for the prevention of aflatoxin contamination of peanuts in Shandong Province.
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Rajarajan, Pethannan, Katherin Sylvia, Malaiyarasa Pandian Periasamy, and Maheswari Subramanian. "Detection of aflatoxin producing Aspergillus flavus from animal feed in Karnataka, India." Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology 36, no. 3 (July 27, 2021): e2021017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2021017.
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Aflatoxins are toxic carcinogenic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus and are responsible for contamination in animal feed. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in animal feed in Karnataka state, India. The screening was performed by desiccated coconut agar and quantification of aflatoxin by liquid ammonia vapor test, TLC and ELISA. A total of 29 samples received from different places of Karnataka were analysed for aflatoxin B1. Out of 29 animal feed sample aflatoxin B1 detected in 12 samples representing 41.38% at average concentration of 288.50 μg/kg. Out of 42 isolates screened in animal feed, Aspergillus flavus was found to be in 86.2% and Aspergillus niger was 24.1%. It was observed that out of 42 isolates analyzed from animal feed, aflatoxin B1 was detected in 12 samples. Aflatoxin B1 is the most common contaminant and the method is more sensitive in screening and detection of aflatoxin B1 in the animal feed.
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Abdullahi, N., and M. A. Dandago. "AFLATOXINS IN FOOD GRAINS: CONTAMINATION, DANGERS AND CONTROL." FUDMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCES 5, no. 4 (January 17, 2022): 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2021-0504-776.
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The most concern postharvest safety issue in food grains is aflatoxins production in contaminated stored grains. Consumption of aflatoxins contaminated grains can lead to complicated health issues that can lead to death. Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites commonly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. They were reported to disturb foetus development, causes changes in living cells, suppresses the immune system and causes many forms of cancers. Aflatoxin B1 was classified under group I carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Aflatoxins contamination affects food security and can hinder international trade due to the strict ban enforce by many nations. Contaminations were reported in raw and processed grains (including ready-to-eat), milk and meat of farm animals and human breastmilk and blood. Major causes of grains aflatoxins contamination are wrong harvesting time and method, improper drying, poor storage and processing and higher moisture in the grains. Literature was gathered through an online search on Google Scholar, attention was given to the articles published in the last 5 years. Causes of fungal contamination, aflatoxins production and their control measures were deliberated, possible means of mitigating aflatoxins contamination through consumption of food grains were also recommended
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Wood, Garnett E. "Aflatoxins in Domestic and Imported Foods and Feeds." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 72, no. 4 (July 1, 1989): 543–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/72.4.543.
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Abstract Aflatoxins, metabolic products of the molds Aspergillus flams and A. parasiticus, may occur in foods and feeds. These toxins cannot be entirely avoided or eliminated from foods or feeds by current agronomic and manufacturing processes and are considered unavoidable contaminants. To limit aflatoxin exposure, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set action levels for these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. FDA continually monitors food and feed industries through compliance programs. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal year 1986. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, corn and corn products, tree nuts, cottonseed, milk, spices, manufactured products, and miscellaneous foods and feeds. Correlations were highest between aflatoxin contamination and geographical areas for corn/corn products and cottonseed/cottonseed meal. Higher incidences of aflatoxin contamination in corn and corn products designated for human consumption were observed in samples collected in the southeastern states (32 and 28%, respectively). A higher incidence of contamination was observed in corn designated for animal feed from Arkansas-Texas (74%) than from the southeastern states (47%). Only 3% of feed corn from corn belt states contained detectable aflatoxins. All aflatoxin-contaminated cottonseed was collected in the Arizona-California area; 80% of cottonseed meal analyzed from this area also contained detectable levels of aflatoxins. No aflatoxin Mi was detected in any of the 182 samples of fluid milk and milk products examined. The percentage of samples that contain measurable levels of aflatoxins is expected to vary with commodities from year to year; thus, the 1986 information can be used as a baseline for comparison to determine the effectiveness of control efforts exerted by the food and feed industries.
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Singh, Pummi, Hillary L. Mehl, Marc J. Orbach, Kenneth A. Callicott, and Peter J. Cotty. "Phenotypic Differentiation of Two Morphologically Similar Aflatoxin-Producing Fungi from West Africa." Toxins 12, no. 10 (October 13, 2020): 656. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12100656.
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Aflatoxins (AF) are hepatocarcinogenic metabolites produced by several Aspergillus species. Crop infection by these species results in aflatoxin contamination of cereals, nuts, and spices. Etiology of aflatoxin contamination is complicated by mixed infections of multiple species with similar morphology and aflatoxin profiles. The current study investigates variation in aflatoxin production between two morphologically similar species that co-exist in West Africa, A. aflatoxiformans and A. minisclerotigenes. Consistent distinctions in aflatoxin production during liquid fermentation were discovered between these species. The two species produced similar concentrations of AFB1 in defined media with either urea or ammonium as the sole nitrogen source. However, production of both AFB1 and AFG1 were inhibited (p < 0.001) for A. aflatoxiformans in a yeast extract medium with sucrose. Although production of AFG1 by both species was similar in urea, A. minisclerotigenes produced greater concentrations of AFG1 in ammonium (p = 0.039). Based on these differences, a reliable and convenient assay for differentiating the two species was designed. This assay will be useful for identifying specific etiologic agents of aflatoxin contamination episodes in West Africa and other regions where the two species are sympatric, especially when phylogenetic analyses based on multiple gene segments are not practical.
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Macri, Adrian Maximilian, Ioana Pop, Daniel Simeanu, Diana Toma, Ion Sandu, Liliana Lacramioara Pavel, and Olimpia Smaranda Mintas. "The Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Nuts and Dry Nuts Packed in Four Different Plastic Packaging from the Romanian Market." Microorganisms 9, no. 1 (December 28, 2020): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010061.
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Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungi. A very important category of mycotoxins are aflatoxins, considered to be the most dangerous in humans. Aflatoxin B1, well known as a favorable factor in the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma in humans, is the most controversial of all mycotoxins. Aflatoxins, found in naturally contaminated food, are resistant to degradation by heat. Current food processing practices and conventional storage conditions do not completely eliminate aflatoxin contamination from the food supply chain. Long storage food products—such as peanuts, pistachio, nuts in general, and dried fruits—are susceptible to aflatoxins contamination. The type of plastic material can influence the concentration of aflatoxins during storage due to the permeability to gas and moisture exchange with the external milieu. Nuts in general and dried fruits are consumed in large quantities worldwide. Therefore, herein we investigated the effect of plastic material on the total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 content in 64 samples of nuts and dried fruits packed and stored in low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The method consisted in a cleanup procedure using immunoaffinity columns coupled with RIDASCREEN FAST immunoenzymatic competitive assays based on the ELISA technique. Collected data were subjected to statistical analysis and multiple comparisons tests were applied. From the total analyzed samples, 14.06% exceeded the maximum admitted European levels for total aflatoxins. The highest concentrations of total aflatoxins were obtained from samples packed in LDPE, followed by PP, PE, and PET. Aflatoxin B1 was detected in all samples packed in LDPE, PP, and PE. Most of the samples packed in PET had concentrations <1 µg/kg. These results indicate that nuts in general packed and stored in LDPE are more prone to contamination with aflatoxins, while PET is more suitable for maintaining the quality and safety of these products.
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Shitu, S., M. Attahiru, and H. Umar. "Determination of Aflatoxin Concentrations in Cereals and Legumes Marketed in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria." UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research (UJMR) 6, no. 1 (June 30, 2021): 208–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2161.028.
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Aflatoxins are group of secondary fungal metabolites produced by Aspergillus species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The aflatoxin producing moulds can grow on cereals and legumes in the field, poorly dried harvested crops in storage, processed food, and feed products. The study was carried out with the aim to determine the level of aflatoxin contamination of cereals grain and legumes in Zaria metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Ninety (90) samples were collected, which comprises of 18 samples each of millet, sorghum, maize, beans, and groundnuts respectively. The samples were subjected to proximate analysis. The grains were further subjected to cultural isolation and microscopic identification. The isolates were then screened for aflatoxin production ability with neutral red desiccated coconut agar and viewed under UV light (365nm). The remaining portions of the samples was grounded and extracted with 80% (v/v) methanol. The enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique was used in quantifying the total aflatoxin content of the samples. The results revealed that all the cereals and legumes analysed contain organic and inorganic nutrients that can support the growth of aflatoxigenic moulds and production of aflatoxins. Some major parameters such as carbohydrate content, crude protein, crude lipid, and ash contents were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Thirty-one (31) isolates from the 90 samples were confirmed to be A. flavus and seventeen (17) were A. Parasiticus, with percentage occurrence of 34.4% and 18.9% respectively. All the isolates were screened and demonstrated ability for aflatoxin production under UltraViolent light (390nm). The results also revealed a high concentration of aflatoxin (11.04 µg/kg) in millet and a low concentration in sorghum (1.07 µg/kg). The contamination levels within the grains were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05). Aflatoxin contaminations also occurred in 48 samples out of the 90 samples analysed. The grains samples analysed were found to be contaminated with varying amounts of aflatoxins, which is harmful to humans and animals. Therefore, steps should be taken to ensure that grains are properly dried prior to storage. Keywords: aflatoxin, A. flavus, A. parasiticus, cereals, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay, legumes
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Dinkissa, Abera Fekata, and Yonas Hailu. "Effect of Aflatoxin Contamination in Dairy Products and its Toxicity on Public Health: The Case of Ethiopian Dairy Sector: A review." Diyala Agricultural Sciences Journal 14, no. 2 (December 30, 2022): 73–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.52951/dasj.22140208.
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The objective of this review paper was to assess the effect of aflatoxin contamination in dairy products and its toxicity on public health in the Ethiopian dairy sector. Feed contamination by mycotoxins causes serious issues with the economy, food security, and safety. The economic impact can take different forms, direct market costs of missed trade or lower profits resulting from the rejection of contaminated animal products, reduced productivity, animal death, particularly in more sensitive calves, and increased treatment. Nougcake, which is often used as feed for dairy animals, is a significant source of aflatoxin contamination in the peri-urban dairy value chain in Addis Ababa. Aflatoxin AFM is the primary hydroxylated AFB metabolite in milk from cows that were discharged after consuming a meal contaminated with AFB for 12 hours. Prolonged or chronic exposure to aflatoxins has a number of harmful effects on health, including potent carcinogens and may affect all organ systems, especially the liver and kidneys; that cause liver cancer, mutagenic, hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects on cattle. According to Brazilian law, the maximum permitted levels for liquid milk, milk powder, and cheese are 0.5mg/kg,5.0mg/kg and 2.5mg/kg, respectively. As a result, there is increased aflatoxin contamination in both humans and animals. In conclusion, as compared to other countries, the effect of aflatoxin contamination and its toxicity was higher in Ethiopian dairy sector. In order to regulate aflatoxin contamination all coordinated efforts from all relevant groups should work together and further intervention should be implemented via policymakers, dairy sectors, Government and non-Governmental organizations.
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Adepoju, Abimbola, Uchenna Obi, and Elijah Jerumeh. "Are small-scale poultry farmers aware of aflatoxin contaminants in feed in Oyo State, Nigeria?" Western Balkan Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development 4, no. 2 (2022): 183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/wbjae2202183a.
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Aflatoxins, feed contaminants formed by certain moulds occur naturally as feed and food impurities and have toxic consequences on both animals and humans. Earlier studies on aflatoxins in Nigeria did not consider small-scale poultry farmers' awareness of feed contamination. Thus, this study examined the level of awareness of aflatoxins in poultry feed and its determinants. Descriptive Statistics and the Logistic Regression Model were the analytical tools employed to analyse data collected from field survey in 2019. One-third of the farmers were aware of aflatoxins in feed which depicts that the level of awareness of aflatoxin in feed by the poultry farmers in the study area is low. Years of education, primary occupation, farm-scale, years of farming experience, access to information from research institutions, and membership in cooperative societies were among the key determinants of the awareness of aflatoxin in feed by the farmers. Efforts should be geared towards increasing the level of awareness of the farmers on the highly toxic contaminant even when fed to poultry at non-fatal levels. Agricultural information highlighting the detrimental consequences of aflatoxin on the health and productivity of poultry and how to minimize aflatoxin contamination in feed should be made more accessible to all farmers.
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Rosim, Roice Eliana, Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira, and Carlos Humberto Corassin. "Aflatoxina M1 e Aflatoxina B1-lisina como Biomarcadores de Avaliação da Eficiência de Adsorventes para Aflatoxinas: Artigo de Revisão." Ensaios e Ciência: C. Biológicas, Agrárias e da Saúde 22, no. 3 (December 30, 2018): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.17921/1415-6938.2018v22n3p171-178.
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A contaminação de alimentos por aflatoxinas, principalmente, a aflatoxina B1 (AFB1) representa um problema mundial para a saúde humana e animal. Uma forma de avaliar a exposição a estes contaminantes é analisando a dieta para verificar a ocorrência destes compostos. Esta metodologia, no entanto, tem limitações devido à variabilidade das aflatoxinas encontradas nos alimentos e às diferenças individuais na toxicocinética dos compostos. Por outro lado, o biomonitoramento de aflatoxinas em fluidos biológicos se utilizando de biomarcadores gera informações mais confiáveis sobre a exposição a estas toxinas nos indivíduos. O uso de adsorventes químicos na ração animal possibilita a detoxificação de aflatoxinas sem produzir efeitos tóxicos nem alterar as propriedades nutricionais. Este trabalho teve por objetivo revisar os dados publicados sobre a eficiência in vitro e in vivo de adsorventes para aflatoxinas, bem como estudos referentes ao uso da aflatoxina M1 (AFM1) e da AFB1-lisina como biomarcadores para avaliar a redução da biodisponibilidade da AFB1 por adsorventes em rações. Trabalhos relevantes publicados nos últimos dez anos (2009-presente) foram selecionados nas bases de dados PubMed, Science Direct e Google Scholar. A determinação de AFM1 no leite e/ou na urina, bem como de AFB1-lisina no soro, indica a biodisponibilidade individual da AFB1 em ensaios para avaliar a eficiência de adsorventes em animais. Deste modo, a utilização destes biomarcadores permite reduzir os custos dos ensaios in vivo, além de proporcionar maior padronização dos experimentos e possibilitar a avaliação da eficiência dos adsorventes em condições de campo. Palavras chave: AFB1. - Adsorventes Minerais. Biomarcadores de Exposição - AFB1-lisina - AFM1 AbstractFood contamination by aflatoxins, mainly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), is a worldwide concern for human and animal health. A possible way to assess the exposure to these contaminants is through the diet analyses to verify the occurrence of mycotoxins. However, this methodology has important limitations due to the variability of mycotoxins found in the food and the individual differences in the toxicokinetics of the compounds. On the other hand, biomonitoring of aflatoxins in biological fluids using biomarkers generates more reliable information on the exposure to these toxins in individuals. The use of chemical adsorbents in animal feed makes it possible to detoxify mycotoxins without producing toxic effects or altering the nutritional properties. The aim of this study was to revise the available published data on the in vitro and in vivo efficacy of adsorbents for aflatoxins, as well as studies on the use of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and AFB1-lysine as biomarkers to evaluate the reduction in the bioavailability of AFB1 by adsorbents in feed. Relevant articles published in the last 10 years (2009-present) were selected in PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar. Determination of AFM1 in milk and/or urine, and AFB1-lysine in serum, indicate the individual bioavailability of AFB1 in trials conducted for evaluation of adsorbent’s efficiency in animals. Thus, the use of these biomarkers may reduce the costs of in vivo trials, increase the standardization of experiments, and evaluate the adsorbents’ efficiency under field conditions. Keywords: Aflatoxin B1 – Clays - Exposure Biomarkers - Aflatoxin B1-lysine Aflatoxin M1.
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Álvarez-Días, Fernanda, Barenca Torres-Parga, Arturo Gerardo Valdivia-Flores, Teódulo Quezada-Tristán, José Isidro Alejos-De La Fuente, Joaquín Sosa-Ramírez, and Erika Janet Rangel-Muñoz. "Aspergillus flavus and Total Aflatoxins Occurrence in Dairy Feed and Aflatoxin M1 in Bovine Milk in Aguascalientes, Mexico." Toxins 14, no. 5 (April 20, 2022): 292. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050292.
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Contamination of food chains by toxigenic fungi and aflatoxins is a global problem that causes damage to human health, as well as to crop and livestock production. The objective is to evaluate Aspergillus flavus and total aflatoxins (AFs) occurrence in totally mixed rations (TMRs) for dairy cows and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk for human consumption. Ninety-nine dairy production units located in Aguascalientes, Mexico, were randomly selected, and samples were collected from TMRs, raw milk, and milk marketed in the city in two consecutive agricultural cycles. AFs were quantified in TMRs and milk by indirect enzyme immunoassay and HPLC; aflatoxigenic and molecular (PCR) capacity of monosporic A. flavus isolates in the feed was characterized. All feed, raw, and pasteurized milk samples showed aflatoxin contamination (26.0 ± 0.4 µg/kg, 32.0 ± 1.0, and 31.3 ± 0.7 ng/L, respectively), and a significant proportion (90.4, 11.3, and 10.3%) exceeded the locally applied maximum permissible limits for feed and milk (20.0 µg/kg and 50 ng/L). Aflatoxin contamination in both TMRs and milk indicated a seasonal influence, with a higher concentration in the autumn–winter cycle when conditions of higher humidity prevail. The results obtained suggest the existence of contamination by aflatoxigenic A. flavus and aflatoxins in the diet formulated for feeding dairy cows and, consequently, in the dairy food chain of this region of the Mexican Highland Plateau.
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BROWN, ROBERT L., ZHI-YUAN CHEN, ABEBE MENKIR, THOMAS E. CLEVELAND, KITTY CARDWELL, JENNIFER KLING, and DONALD G. WHITE. "Resistance to Aflatoxin Accumulation in Kernels of Maize Inbreds Selected for Ear Rot Resistance in West and Central Africa." Journal of Food Protection 64, no. 3 (March 1, 2001): 396–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-64.3.396.
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Thirty-six inbred lines selected in West and Central Africa for moderate to high resistance to maize ear rot under conditions of severe natural infection were screened for resistance to aflatoxin contamination using the previously established kernel screening assay. Results showed that more than half the inbreds accumulated aflatoxins at levels as low as or lower than the resistant U.S. lines GT-MAS:gk or MI82. In 10 selected aflatoxin-resistant or aflatoxin-susceptible inbreds, Aspergillus flavus growth, which was quantified using an A. flavus transformant containing a GUS-β-tubulin reporter gene construct, was, in general, positively related to aflatoxin accumulation. However, one aflatoxin-resistant inbred supported a relatively high level of fungal infection, whereas two susceptibles supported relatively low fungal infection. When kernels of the 10 tested lines were profiled for proteins using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, significant variations from protein profiles of U.S. lines were observed. Confirmation of resistance in promising African lines in field trials may significantly broaden the resistant germplasm base available for managing aflatoxin contamination through breeding approaches. Biochemical resistance markers different from those being identified and characterized in U.S. genotypes, such as ones inhibitory to aflatoxin biosynthesis rather than to fungal infection, may also be identified in African lines. These discoveries could significantly enhance the host resistance strategy of pyramiding different traits into agronomically useful maize germplasm to control aflatoxin contamination.