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Relevant bibliographies by topics / African Americans – Education (Higher) – History

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Academic literature on the topic 'African Americans – Education (Higher) – History'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 10 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Johnson, Larry, Deirdre Cobb-Roberts, and Barbara Shircliffe. "African Americans and the Struggle for Opportunity in Florida Public Higher Education, 1947-1977." History of Education Quarterly 47, no. 3 (2007): 328–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2007.00103.x.

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In the decades following World War II, access to higher education became an important vehicle for expanding opportunity in the United States. The African American-led Civil Rights Movement challenged discrimination in higher education at a time when state and federal government leaders saw strengthening public higher education as necessary for future economic growth and development. Nationally, the 1947 President's Commission on Higher Education report Higher Education for American Democracy advocated dismantling racial, geographic, and economic barriers to college by radically expanding public higher education, to be accomplished in large part through the development of community colleges. Although these goals were widely embraced across the country, in the South, white leaders rejected the idea that racial segregation stood in the way of progress. During the decades following World War II, white southern educational and political leaders resisted attempts by civil rights organizations to include desegregation as part of the expansion of public higher education.

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Kaba, Amadu J. "Progress of African Americans in higher education attainment: The widening gender gap and its current and future implications." education policy analysis archives 13 (April 6, 2005): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v13n25.2005.

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This research argues that despite all of the obstacles that African Americans have confronted in the history of the United States, they have made substantial progress in higher education attainment from the 1970s to the beginning of the 21st century. It reveals that the rise in attainment of college and university degrees has resulted in a substantial increase in living standards and that African Americans are making important economic, social and political contributions to the United States. I present several reasons why black males are not performing as well as black females in higher education attainment. Analyses are also presented regarding the current and future implications of the growing gap between black males and black females.

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Moss, Hilary J. "Education's Inequity: Opposition to Black Higher Education in Antebellum Connecticut." History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 1 (2006): 16–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2006.tb00168.x.

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New Haven, thou hast rashly done a deed,Which shrouds thy glory in a black eclipse;Whereof in view the hearts of good men bleed,The friend, yet, strange to tell, the foe of light!Preceptor of the age, yet dost denyTo Brethren—countrymen—the common rightTheir empty minds with knowledge to supply!Encourager of learning-science-artsYet hostile to a race who fain would learn!When from the dust a sable brother starts,Suffering thy cheeks with angry fire to burn!Would I might give the honors of Old Yale,To blot from history's page this most disgraceful tale.—William Lloyd Garrison, October 8, 1831.In the late 1820s, African Americans’ access to primary and religious instruction expanded significantly throughout the urban Northeast, yet barriers to their higher education remained firm. Segregated in public “African” schools, blacks were also barred from most private academies. Collegiate education similarly remained out of reach. In response, an alliance of black and white abolitionists launched a campaign to build a separate “African” college in 1831. Two ministers, one black, Peter Williams from New York, the other white, Simeon Jocelyn from New Haven, led the endeavor. After much consideration, they selected New Haven, Connecticut to house the new institution, believing that in “no place in the Union” is the “situation [of blacks] more comfortable, or the prejudices of a community weaker against them.” On September 5, 1831, Williams and Jocelyn announced their intentions. Their timing could not have been worse.

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Gillette, Michael L., and Amilcar Shabazz. "Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas." Journal of Southern History 71, no. 2 (2005): 494. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27648799.

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Behnken, Brian D., and Amilcar Shabazz. "Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas." Arkansas Historical Quarterly 64, no. 1 (2005): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40018573.

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Ryan, Angela. "Counter College: Third World Students Reimagine Public Higher Education." History of Education Quarterly 55, no. 4 (2015): 413–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hoeq.12134.

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In 1969, the discipline of Ethnic Studies emerged and was implemented at a handful of colleges throughout the country, most notably at San Francisco State College where the first School of Ethnic Studies was established that year. The idea of devoting space within traditional educational institutions to the study of a particular race or ethnicity has existed since at least the 1920s when Carter G. Woodson proposed Negro History Week and encouraged the study of African American history. While Black Studies is thus the oldest of such fields within American education history, its establishment within higher education is tied to the establishment of the larger discipline of Ethnic Studies. Ethnic Studies encompasses the critical study of racial and ethnic histories and cultures and it incorporates a wide variety of methodologies. The course of the discipline throughout the past forty years has resulted in a variety of approaches to this study, thus generalizing about the field as it exists today is complicated. One thing that may be said about Ethnic Studies in its current iteration, however, is that it bears little resemblance to the proposals that ushered it into existence.

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Sawyer, Thomas F. "Francis Cecil Sumner: His views and influence on African American higher education." History of Psychology 3, no. 2 (2000): 122–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.3.2.122.

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Nettles, Michael T. "History of Testing in the United States: Higher Education." ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 683, no. 1 (2019): 38–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716219847139.

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Since the founding of Harvard College, colleges and universities have used many types of examinations to serve multiple purposes. In the early days of student assessment, the process was straightforward. Each institution developed and administered its own unique examination to its own students to monitor their progress and to prospective students who applied for admission. Large-scale standardized tests emerged in the twentieth century in part to relieve the burden placed upon high schools of having to prepare students to meet the examination requirements of each institution to which a student applied. Up to that point, local communities of tutors and teachers were attempting to prepare students to succeed on each higher education institution’s unique examination. Large-scale standardized tests have enjoyed more than a century of popularity and growth, and they have helped higher education institutions to solve problems in admissions and placement, and to measure learning outcomes. Over time, they have also become controversial, especially pertaining to race and class. This article is a historical view of educational testing in U.S. higher education, linking its development with past and present societal challenges related to civil rights laws, prominent higher education policies, and the long struggle of African American people in the United States.

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Freeman, Tyrone McKinley. "Beyond hegemony: Reappraising the history of philanthropy and African-American higher education in the nineteenth century." International Journal of Educational Advancement 10, no. 3 (2010): 148–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ijea.2010.15.

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Ray, Amrita, Christopher Spankovich, Charles E. Bishop, Dan Su, Yuan-I. Min, and John M. Schweinfurth. "Association Between Cardiometabolic Factors and Dizziness in African Americans: The Jackson Heart Study." Journal of the American Academy of Audiology 32, no. 03 (2021): 186–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1722949.

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Abstract Background Balance dysfunction is a complex, disabling health condition that can present with multiple phenotypes and etiologies. Data regarding prevalence, characterization of dizziness, or associated factors is limited, especially in an African American population. Purpose The aim of the study is to characterize balance dysfunction presentation and prevalence in an African American cohort, and balance dysfunction relationship to cardiometabolic factors. Research Design The study design is descriptive, cross sectional analysis. Study Sample The study sample consist of N = 1,314, participants in the Jackson Heart Study (JHS). Data Collection and Analysis JHS participants were presented an initial Hearing health screening questionnaire (N = 1,314). Of these, 317 participants reported dizziness and completed a follow-up Dizziness History Questionnaire. Descriptive analysis was used to compare differences in the cohorts' social-demographic characteristics and cardiometabolic variables to the 997 participants who did not report dizziness on the initial screening questionnaire. Based on questionnaire responses, participants were grouped into dizziness profiles (orthostatic, migraine, and vestibular) to further examine differences in cardiometabolic markers as related to different profiles of dizziness. Logistical regression models were adjusted for age, sex, education, reported noise exposure, and hearing sensitivity. Results Participants that reported any dizziness were slightly older and predominantly women. Other significant complaints in the dizzy versus nondizzy cohort included hearing loss, tinnitus, and a history of noise exposure (p < 0.001). Participants that reported any dizziness had significantly higher prevalence of hypertension, blood pressure medication use, and higher body mass index (BMI). Individuals with symptoms alluding to an orthostatic or migraine etiology had significant differences in prevalence of hypertension, blood pressure medication use, and BMI (p < 0.001). Alternatively, cardiometabolic variables were not significantly related to the report of dizziness symptoms consistent with vestibular profiles. Conclusion Dizziness among African Americans is comparable to the general population with regards to age and sex distribution, accordingly to previously published estimates. Participants with dizziness symptoms appear to have significant differences in BMI and blood pressure regulation, especially with associated orthostatic or migraine type profiles; this relationship does not appear to be conserved in participants who present with vestibular etiology symptoms.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Allen, William L. "The Demise of Industrial Education for African Americans: ||Revisiting the Industrial Curriculum in Higher Education." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1189474472.

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Deel, Anthony Blaine. "Virginia's minimal resistance : the desegregation of public graduate and professional education, 1935-1955 /." Thesis, This resource online, 1990. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05022009-040731/.

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Hogan, Christopher James. "EXAMINING THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MALE UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF BARRIERS AND FACTORS FOR SUCCESS." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1310390628.

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Ferguson, Janice Y. "Anna Julia Cooper: A Quintessential Leader." Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1420567813.

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Hinton, Armenta. "Applying a Leadership Framework to Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) Post Fordice." Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1382358660.

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Ellis, Rex Marshall. "Presenting the past: Education, interpretation and the teaching of black history at Colonial Williamsburg." W&M ScholarWorks, 1989. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd/1539618660.

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The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation began in 1926. Within four years after its initial construction, the need to begin some means of presenting information to a growing population of visitors became apparent. In this study, an attempt will be made to answer the question, "How has the history of interpretation at Colonial Williamsburg influenced its teaching of black history?".;The major research question and the subsidiary questions were prompted by the recent inclusion of a black history program at the foundation. In this study, primary focus will be given to the history of interpretation at Colonial Williamsburg. An attempt will be made to assess the extent to which social, economic, political and cultural norms, within American society, affected the Foundation's decision to exclude the interpretation of black history until the late 1970's.;The major method of analysis will be done by comparing and contrasting the various decisions that were made regarding the teaching of history in Williamsburg and national trends. Focusing on ten-year increments, each period will be contrasted with the development of Colonial Williamsburg so that conclusions can be made concerning the extent to which the Foundation was affected by societal norms of the period.;Evidence for the proposed study will be primary sources found in three major areas: the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Archives, the Rockefeller Family Archives, and interviews of current and former employees of the Foundation.

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Foote, Ruth Anita. ""Just as Brutal?But without All the Fanfare"| African American Students, Racism, and Defiance during the Desegregation of Southwestern Louisiana Institute, 1954-1964." Thesis, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2019. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10826803.

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<p> In 1954, Southwestern Louisiana Institute (now the University of Louisiana at Lafayette) became the first undergraduate school in the Deep South to desegregate. Its acclaim as the first, however, was promoted only because it lost as a defendant in <i>Clara Dell Constantine et al. v. Southwestern Louisiana Institute et al.</i> What occurred then, and the indignities experienced by African American students during that first decade has never been fully documented. The black experience was figuratively and literally blacked out. </p><p> African American students found themselves receiving lower grades in class than their white counterparts. Social events banned them, and school services denied access. To cope with racism, they drew strength by supporting one another, developing a grapevine, establishing their own social network, and most of all, keeping focused on their education. But not everyone was against them. Some whites risked their reputation, and became their brother’s keeper. </p><p> The four Pillars of Progress, commemorating the fiftieth anniversaries of SLI’s desegregation and <i>Brown</i> in 2004, stand today as a campus testament to that era. But what remains at odds is whether the desegregation of SLI was “without incident.” That still remains a matter of interpretation and depends on whom is being asked and who answers.</p><p>

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Boykin, Keyna Kirklen Cobb. "Black Degrees Matter| A Phenomenological Study of Southern Californians with HBCU Bachelors' and Mainstream Institutional Graduate Degrees in California." Thesis, Pepperdine University, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10283861.

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<p> Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were established with the main objective of identifying and empowering people of African descent. Over the years, these institutions have grown, enrolling 16% of Black high school graduates and during graduation, almost 20% of African-American graduates. Using a qualitative study design, the main goal of this study was to identify the effectiveness of HBCUs’ ability to serve the interests and needs of African-American students who chose to attend and graduate from HBCUs as undergraduate students then attend and graduate from graduate schools at predominantly White institutions (PWIs.) This study inquired about focusing on the factors influencing how undergraduate students make decisions on which college to attend, what factors influence their career selection, and the impact the university experience has on future careers and overall college experience. Data was gathered from African-American HBCU graduates who then attended and graduated from PWIs in California. Interviews and online surveys were conducted with participants to collect in-depth responses regarding their experiences, views, beliefs, and motivations. The sample comprised 100 respondents out of an original 200 who were selected. The study showed that many participants attended their chosen colleges because they preferred to associate with people who shared origins like their own. Family and friends were found to be influential in college selection and educational background influenced the types of careers study participants pursued after graduation from college. Implications for future research are discussed.</p><p>

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Darnell, Carl. "Sharecropping in Higher Education| Case Study of the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University - Florida State University Joint College of Engineering." Thesis, Indiana University, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10680544.

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<p> Historically Black Colleges and Universities have historically been given less funding than White institutions, a known discrepancy partially rectified by the Civil Rights era desegregation lawsuits. The court-ordered funding, however, came with race-based restrictions for public HBCUs, and many lost academic programs to traditionally White institutions. In numerous situations, Black colleges were closed outright or merged with White institutions. The following study explores the unique case of an HBCU coerced into merging an academic unit with a neighboring historically White university. Using archival data and interviews from the HBCU administrators, the case study presents a narrative of how the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University – Florida State University partnership was formed, explores the partnership’s development over time, and examines differences between the mission and practices of the joint venture from FAMU’s perspective.</p><p>

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Simmons, Elijah. "WHERE IS MA MIGO? : CRITICAL REFLECTIONS ON BLACK EMBODIMENT IN WRITING CENTERS." Miami University / OhioLINK, 2017. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=miami1501284948474072.

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Books on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Higher education for African Americans before the Civil Rights era, 1900-1964. Transaction Publishers, 2012.

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White money/Black power: The surprising history of African American studies and the crisis of race in higher education. Beacon Press, 2005.

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The Black campus movement: Black students and the racial reconstitution of higher education, 1965-1972. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

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Walther, Erskine S. Some readings on historically black colleges and universities. Management Information and Research, 1994.

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Hill, Susan. The traditionally black institutions of higher education, 1860 to 1982. U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Imporvement, National Center for Education Statistics, 1985.

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Black higher education in Kentucky, 1879-1930: The history of Simmons University. E. Mellen Press, 1987.

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Sagini, Meshack M. The African and the African American university: A historical and sociological analysis. University Press of America, 1996.

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Shabazz, Amilcar. Advancing democracy: African Americans and the struggle for access and equity in higher education in Texas. University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

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Murphy, E. Louise. The history of Winston-Salem State University, 1892-1995. Donning Co., 1999.

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Jahannes, Ja A. An unfailing legacy: Lincoln University, PA. Turner Mayfield Publishing, 2012.

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Book chapters on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Perkins, Linda M. "African American Women, Femininity and Their History in Physical Education and Sports in American Higher Education: From World War I Through the Mid-century." In ‘Femininity’ and the History of Women's Education. Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54233-7_3.

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Page, TaNeisha R. "African Americans in Higher Education." In Black Americans in Higher Education. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429266560-6.

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Bright, Dara, and Willie Pearson. "Race, Social Justice, and Higher Education Financial Aid in the United States: The Case of African Americans." In Social Justice and Education in the 21st Century. Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65417-7_9.

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Spears, Jr., Joseph Cornelius, and Sean T. Coleman. "The Social Impact of Sport." In The Black Experience and Navigating Higher Education Through a Virtual World. IGI Global, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7537-6.ch006.

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The COVID-19 pandemic assumed an international health threat, and in turn, spotlighted the distinct disparities in civil rights, opportunity, and inclusion witnessed by lived experiences of African Americans. Although these harsh disparities have existed through the United States of America's history, the age of technology and mass media in the 21st century allows for a deeper and broader look into the violation of African Americans civil liberties in virtual real time. Also, historically, the sports world has been instrumental in fighting for the civil rights of African Americans; athletes such as Jesse Owens and Muhammed Ali led by example. This chapter will showcase how the sports world continues to support social justice overall and specifically during this international pandemic. The authors will examine contemporary events like the transition in support for Colin Kaepernick's protest against police brutality and the NBA play-off (Bubble) protest in 2020.

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Baker, Parris J. "Afrocentric Thought in Adult Education." In Handbook of Research on Adult Learning in Higher Education. IGI Global, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-1306-4.ch007.

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The failure of the American education system to teach African American students has been well chronicled. This chapter draws attention to the history of Eurocentric pedagogy and its ineffectiveness to educate African American students. The principles of Afrocentricity are presented as a plausible way to counter ineffective, hegemonic, and ethnocentric curriculum planning for all students, with particular emphasis on students of color. Differentiated instruction offers adult educators a way to vary instruction and integrate an Afrocentric paradigm and content into student-centered curricula. This chapter concludes with two Afrocentric application activities.

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Hill, Kimberly D. "Introduction." In A Higher Mission. University Press of Kentucky, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5810/kentucky/9780813179810.003.0001.

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The introduction explains how analysis of the mission work performed by Althea Brown and Alonzo Edmiston contributes to studies of historically black education, American Protestant church history, southern history, colonialism, and the African diaspora. It states how the activities of these two ministers added nuance to two major controversies in their lifetimes: the development of race-specific pedagogy and the expansion of segregation among many American Protestant denominations. The source material used to analyze the Edmistons and the American Presbyterian Congo Mission is introduced in comparison with scholarly perspectives on how African villagers and students also shaped mission policies.

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Leslie, Annie Ruth, Kim Brittingham Barnett, Matasha L. Harris, and Charles Adams. "Advancing the Demarginalization of African American Students." In The Black Experience and Navigating Higher Education Through a Virtual World. IGI Global, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7537-6.ch005.

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This chapter presents theoretical discussions about advancing the demarginalization of African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) by bringing in insights from Afrocentric and symbolic-interaction perspectives. Here, the authors discuss demarginalization related to certain intra-racial and intersecting class, gender, and mental health issues emerging since COVID-19 and online learning. The ideas presented here are equally viable in student face-to-face and virtual learning environments. It begins with discussing marginalization and Afrocentric and symbolic-interaction theories. It reviews relevant literature about the history of African American education since the American Civil War, including 19th and 20th century reconstructions, Jim Crow, the rise of Historically Black Colleges and Universities, the Black student campus union and Black power movements, and other relevant happenings in Black American education.

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Gleason, Philip. "The End of an Era." In Contending with Modernity. Oxford University Press, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195098280.003.0021.

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The coming together of the racial crisis, bitter internal divisions over the Vietnam War, campus upheavals, political radicalism associated with the New Left, the growth of the counterculture, and the emergence of new forms of feminism made the 1960s an epoch of revolutionary change for all Americans. But for American Catholics the profound religious reorientation associated with the Second Vatican Council multiplied the disruptive effect of all the other forces of change. This clashing of the tectonic plates of culture produced nothing less than a spiritual earthquake in the American church. Although the dust has still not fully settled, it was clear from an early date that the old ideological structure of Catholic higher education, which was already under severe strain, had been swept away entirely. As institutions, most Catholic colleges and universities weathered the storm. But institutional survival in the midst of ideological collapse left them uncertain of their identity. That situation still prevails. To explore it fully would require another book. Our task now is to review the emergence of the problem, sketch its general outlines, and point out why it marks the end of an era in the history of Catholic higher education. For a number of reasons, freedom became the central theme in American Catholic higher education in the early 1960s. As the most basic of American values, it was, of course, immensely attractive to the socially assimilated generation of younger Catholics for whom John F. Kennedy’s election and Pope John XXIII’s aggiornamento vindicated the hopes of the earlier Americanists, whose travails Catholic historians had so recently explored. Moreover, the contemporaneous demand by African Americans for “Freedom Now” linked freedom to the religious idealism of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr.’s non-violent crusade for civil rights. Freedom was, in addition, the polar opposite of the rigidity, formalism, and authoritarianism that had become so distasteful to American Catholic intellectuals; by contrast, it meshed beautifully with their growing insistence on the importance of individual subjectivity.

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Jin Jez, Su. "Analyzing the Female Advantage in College Access Among African Americans." In Diversity in Higher Education. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/s1479-3644(2012)0000012005.

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"Beyond Stock Stories and Folktales: African Americans’ Paths to STEM Fields." In Diversity in Higher Education. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/s1479-3644(2011)0000011021.

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Conference papers on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Ignjatijević, Svetlana, and Jelena Vapa Tankosić. "ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN PERSONAL AND BUSINESS TRAVEL SERVICES." In The Sixth International Scientific Conference - TOURISM CHALLENGES AMID COVID-19, Thematic Proceedings. FACULTY OF HOTEL MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM IN VRNJAČKA BANJA UNIVERSITY OF KRAGUJEVAC, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.52370/tisc21517si.

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The world today is facing one of the worst pandemics in modern history. Around the world, financial markets are in serious difficulties, the consequences of which have begun to spill over into the tourism sector. Covid-19 has caused sharp contractions in economic development, reduced mobility and has contacted tourism flows as the international tourist arrivals in most world sub-regions recorded declines from -60% to -70%. The aim of this paper is to analyze the international travel in the field of personal and business travel in the period of 2010-2019 exported to and imported from the Republic of Serbia. The findings show that the international travel for personal purposes has achieved the greatest value over the years, the second place is taken by travel for business purposes, whereas education-related travel achieved the third place. Exported and imported values of the category Travel, Personal and Travel, Business has the highest value of exports and imports from Serbia to European Union (EU 28), with Germany, Greece, Austria and Italy having the highest flows of exported and imported values. In 2020 Asia and the Pacific, was the region to suffer the hardest impact of Covid-19. On the second place there is Europe, followed by the Americas, Africa and the Middle East.

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Reports on the topic "African Americans – Education (Higher) – History"

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Lazonick, William, Philip Moss, and Joshua Weitz. The Unmaking of the Black Blue-Collar Middle Class. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp159.

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In the decade after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans made historic gains in accessing employment opportunities in racially integrated workplaces in U.S. business firms and government agencies. In the previous working papers in this series, we have shown that in the 1960s and 1970s, Blacks without college degrees were gaining access to the American middle class by moving into well-paid unionized jobs in capital-intensive mass production industries. At that time, major U.S. companies paid these blue-collar workers middle-class wages, offered stable employment, and provided employees with health and retirement benefits. Of particular importance to Blacks was the opening up to them of unionized semiskilled operative and skilled craft jobs, for which in a number of industries, and particularly those in the automobile and electronic manufacturing sectors, there was strong demand. In addition, by the end of the 1970s, buoyed by affirmative action and the growth of public-service employment, Blacks were experiencing upward mobility through employment in government agencies at local, state, and federal levels as well as in civil-society organizations, largely funded by government, to operate social and community development programs aimed at urban areas where Blacks lived. By the end of the 1970s, there was an emergent blue-collar Black middle class in the United States. Most of these workers had no more than high-school educations but had sufficient earnings and benefits to provide their families with economic security, including realistic expectations that their children would have the opportunity to move up the economic ladder to join the ranks of the college-educated white-collar middle class. That is what had happened for whites in the post-World War II decades, and given the momentum provided by the dominant position of the United States in global manufacturing and the nation’s equal employment opportunity legislation, there was every reason to believe that Blacks would experience intergenerational upward mobility along a similar education-and-employment career path. That did not happen. Overall, the 1980s and 1990s were decades of economic growth in the United States. For the emerging blue-collar Black middle class, however, the experience was of job loss, economic insecurity, and downward mobility. As the twentieth century ended and the twenty-first century began, moreover, it became apparent that this downward spiral was not confined to Blacks. Whites with only high-school educations also saw their blue-collar employment opportunities disappear, accompanied by lower wages, fewer benefits, and less security for those who continued to find employment in these jobs. The distress experienced by white Americans with the decline of the blue-collar middle class follows the downward trajectory that has adversely affected the socioeconomic positions of the much more vulnerable blue-collar Black middle class from the early 1980s. In this paper, we document when, how, and why the unmaking of the blue-collar Black middle class occurred and intergenerational upward mobility of Blacks to the college-educated middle class was stifled. We focus on blue-collar layoffs and manufacturing-plant closings in an important sector for Black employment, the automobile industry from the early 1980s. We then document the adverse impact on Blacks that has occurred in government-sector employment in a financialized economy in which the dominant ideology is that concentration of income among the richest households promotes productive investment, with government spending only impeding that objective. Reduction of taxes primarily on the wealthy and the corporate sector, the ascendancy of political and economic beliefs that celebrate the efficiency and dynamism of “free market” business enterprise, and the denigration of the idea that government can solve social problems all combined to shrink government budgets, diminish regulatory enforcement, and scuttle initiatives that previously provided greater opportunity for African Americans in the government and civil-society sectors.

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