Academic literature on the topic 'African wildlife species'

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária<br>Due to constant changes in restraint techniques, equipment and even immobilization drugs, wildlife veterinary practices have improved over the past decades. This broad progress coupled with the experience of practitioners contributes towards a safer practice for both the animals and people involved in the procedures. Anesthetic protocols used for chemical immobilizations performed during an internship in South Africa (184 of 245 restrained individuals) were analyzed for the various species approached, taking into account the darting equipment involved, the surrounding environment and some of the main purposes of each intervention. The different chemical immobilizations performed were classified as successful (176) or unsuccessful (8), and the most common complications that affected the procedures were documented. The reasons for the failings that in cases led to a second darting (13 cases) or to the death of animals (3 cases) are also addressed and preventive measures to avoid them were put forward. It is important to analyze the information logged after every immobilization procedure, including personal experiences from each clinical case, and present and disseminate the conclusions, to help wildlife practitioners worldwide avoid future complications.<br>RESUMO - A medicina veterinária associada à vida selvagem têm vindo a evoluir nas últimas décadas graças às constantes mudanças nas técnicas de imobilização, equipamentos e até fármacos utilizados. Estes progressos, aliados à experiência dos veterinários, têm vindo a contribuir para uma prática médica mais segura tanto para os animais como para as equipas envolvidas nos procedimentos. Durante o estágio na África do Sul, os protocolos anestésicos usados nas imobilizações químicas (184 dos 245 indivíduos imobilizados) foram analisados para as diferentes espécies manipuladas, tendo em conta o equipamento de disparo utilizado, o ambiente envolvente e o propósito das intervenções praticadas. As diferentes imobilizações químicas foram classificadas como bem-sucedidas (176) ou não (8), tendo sido referidas as principais complicações que afectaram os procedimentos. Nos casos sem o sucesso anestésico esperado, recorrendo a um segundo dardo (13 casos) ou culminando na morte dos individuos (3 casos), as razões para o insucesso foram discutidas e algumas medidas preventivas para o futuro foram propostas. É importante que este tipo de informação seja sempre analisado após a execução de uma imobilização, divulgando as conclusões dessa análise e respectivas experiências pessoais dos casos, de modo a poderem ser exploradas pelos médicos-veterinários de vida selvagem para evitar complicações futuras.

Growing evidence suggests many widely distributed low-density tropical species are declining, but whether protected areas and the increasingly promoted multi-use community-managed wildlife areas mitigate causal threats is poorly studied. Lack of monitoring data and poorly understood species ecology limit knowledge of patterns, causal mechanisms and degree of abundance or range declines. Working in an African savanna, where bushmeat hunting and cattle-grazing are considered the greatest threats to wildlife, this thesis combined three approaches to study the conservation ecology of widely distributed wildlife at three spatial scales (continent-wide; landscape; home range). The continent-wide conservation status of Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori was assessed by reviewing occurrence records (1863–2009) across its range (14 countries). Range contraction was quantified by examining the proportion of historical records (pre-1970) falling within the area delineated by recent records (1970–2009), finding 8% (southern) and 21% (East Africa) declines in 146 years. In contrast, qualitative evidence from historical published accounts and contemporary expert assessments suggested widespread declines in abundance; thus numbers have declined considerably but without commensurate range contraction. Examination of seasonal home range use using satellite telemetry showed that female Kori are sedentary in central Botswana,with strong site-fidelity to dry-season home ranges associated with resource-rich pan habitats; the species appears sensitive to localised habitat conditions and resource availability. However, an assessment of the differential response of Kori and 20 other large-bodied vertebrates to protected areas, wildlife management areas and unprotected areas showed most species’ abundance was driven by proximity to human settlement,interpreted as sensitivity to unregulated hunting, with no effect of differential cattle stocking densities. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that cattle can affect habitat structure, but their effects on Kalahari wildlife were not perceptible, suggesting that conservationists’ preoccupation in African savannas with cattle and their perceived impacts rather than unregulated hunting may be misplaced.

Sarcoid-like tumours have been reported in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) in two South African game parks recently. These tumours caused severe distress to the animals and also made them unsightly for tourists visiting the parks. The aim of this investigation was to identify and characterize the infectious agent considered to be involved in the aetiology of sarcoid in the Cape mountain zebra. Bovine papillomaviruses (BPV) -1 and -2 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) were detected by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in sarcoid tumour tissue, but not from blood specimens or unaffected skin. Differentiation between BPV-1 and -2 was made by using the restriction endonuclease BstXI on PCR products of the E5 open reading frame (ORF). A hybridization probe real-time assay was developed for the specific and sensitive detection and differentiation of BPV-1 and -2 DNA in blood, skin and sarcoid tumour samples. For the specific detection of BPV-1, an increase in fluorescence was detected at 640 nm and of BPV-2 at 705 nm. The test is extremely sensitive and able to detect 1.5 genome copies/reaction. The presence of BPV-1 and -2 DNA could be demonstrated in the blood of sarcoid-affected and -unaffected zebras even in the blood of zebras from parks where sarcoids have never been observed. The phylogenetic relationships of the papillomaviruses detected in tumours in the Cape mountain zebra in comparison with a broad selection of papillomavirus sequences available in GenBank were compiled. The papillomavirus sequences retrieved from the zebras were identified as variants of either BPV-1 or BPV-2. The age of the most recent common ancestor for BPV-1 variants is estimated to be 1.40 million years (Mya) and for BPV-2 variants, 0.55 Mya. The age of the most recent common ancestor of BPV-1 and BPV-2 is estimated to be 5.34 Mya. Certain major histocompatibility (MHC) haplotypes are associated with increased risk of sarcoid tumours in horses. The zebras in these parks may have become inbred for the MHC region with increased prevalence for a haplotype, conferring increased risk for sarcoid tumours. Therefore typing system was developed to determine whether or not a high prevalence of sarcoids among zebras is associated with a MHC haplotype. Single strand conformational polymorphism was used to assess the genetic variation in MHC class II genes. The use of DQB and DRB genes demonstrated that genetic variation and sarcoids in the zebras could not be attributed to a specific haplotype. The developed real-time PCR technique was also applied in the detection of cutaneous papillomavirus in two giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) which were manifesting cutaneous papillomatosis, in the Kruger National Park and in a fibropapilloma in a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), on a game farm in the Kimberley district, South Africa. In conclusion, this was the first study to confirm the presence of BPV-1 and -2 DNA in the sarcoid tumours, healthy skin and blood of sarcoid-affected and healthy free-roaming zebras from sarcoidaffected parks. The presence of BPV-1 and -2 DNA in the blood of zebras from parks where sarcoids have not been previously observed was a significant finding.<br>Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010.<br>Veterinary Tropical Diseases<br>unrestricted

Rainforest biodiversity is particularly vulnerable to loss, since the distribution of forests is limited and the vertebrate species that live within these forests have a limited potential to re-colonize deforested areas, especially when their abundance declines to critical levels. Guinea-Bissau (West Africa) is experiencing significant loss of habitats and species diversity; as such, the establishment of an effective conservation programme is urgent in its remaining forested areas. Despite six legislated protected areas, Guinean forests and their wildlife are not safe in reality. This lack of on-the-ground protection is the case for Cantanhez National Park (Tombali region), where this research took place. The park was established in 2007 to protect remnant forests containing unique and endemic Guinean biodiversity, such as the endangered West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). Local inhabitant’s attitudes towards protected areas and associated externallydriven conservation programmes are seldom examined in depth in relation to understanding the drivers (livelihood, socio-cultural, and local) of perceptions, which makes conservation problematic. Understanding attitudes to animals, habitats and livelihood risks were the focus of this project, specifically in order to assess perceptions of chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are currently suffering catastrophic declines due to human actions across Africa. Thus a focus on understanding, managing and enhancing people’s perceptions and attitudes towards this species could be vital to its long-term survival. The theoretical approach is based upon (i) examining the construct of sociozoologic scales in this specific socio-cultural context, (ii) elucidating issues in humanwildlife interaction (e.g. conflict such as crop-raiding and positive such as ecotourism potential), (iii) local economies (i.e. level of dependency on forest resources), and (iv) understanding people’s expectations about the future of the National Park as a potential constraint or opportunity for their welfare and livelihoods. Quantitative and qualitative methods were combined to approach these questions. 17 The Guinean sociozoologic scale of Cantanhez clearly divides vertebrate species into (i) “tame”, considered good (e.g. gazelles) and (ii) “hazardous”, considered bad (e.g. hyaenas). Chimpanzees lay exactly in the midpoint. They are considered humans’ close relatives; however, they “misbehave” as astute crop thieves sufficiently to be perceived as a competitor for resources. Since chimpanzees are also seen as very similar to humans, their meat consumption is taboo, which adds the potential for protection. Gender and religion both influence the way locals perceive of and relate to chimpanzees. Women and Muslims tend to be more negative towards this species and the protected area than are men and non-Muslims. Women never exhibited positive attitudes in relation to the protected area, while men appeared to be more engaged with “capitalized” principles, with some awareness about the importance chimpanzees might have in catalyzing the National Park and local economy. This study highlights the need for a management plan to mitigate crop-raiding and the development of sustainable strategies that provide livelihood benefits for both men and women, addressing their distinct needs, outside the protected area.

Thesis (MTech (Nature Conservation))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.<br>Largely due to anthropogenic causes, biodiversity and particularly species diversity is changing at an extraordinary rate, with declines in species abundance, community composition and extinction risk being of crucial concern. Monitoring of state variables of biodiversity such as species richness and occupancy are of significant importance in determining the severity of threats placed on species, populations and communities. As a non-invasive monitoring method camera traps are noted as being an effective, accurate and rapid means of compiling species richness estimates of medium to large terrestrial mammals. However, crucial elements of camera trap survey design are rarely empirically addressed, which has questioned the need for a standardised camera trapping protocol. Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) is a protected area that is under serious anthropogenic pressure through urban and peri-urban development. Although it is the last refuge for a number of large mammal species on the Cape Peninsula, current mammalian species richness knowledge within the TMNP are limited. Accurate and current species richness estimates are therefore needed within TMNP and more specifically the Cape of Good Hope (CoGH), which exclusively hosts a number of medium and large mammal species. The aims of this study were to optimise a camera survey protocol for the Peninsula region, with a focus on camera density, placement and survey duration that will enable accurate estimations of medium to large mammal species richness and occupancy.

Mycobaterium bovis is the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and it is a member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). This bacterium has a wide host range of which, cattle is considered as the maintenance host. Humans, goats, wildlife, cats, dogs and lions are also susceptible to the bacterium and are considered putative spillover hosts as infection is not confined in these hosts. Mycobacterium bovis is prevalent in developing countries especially in farmed animals. This presents a problem since BTB is a zoonosis. People living in close contact with infected cattle or those who drink unpasteurized milk are at risk of infection. About 10% of cases of human tuberculosis are thought to be caused by M. bovis. In some instances, wildlife provides a reservoir for the pathogen and transmits it to cattle in farms and poses further risk to humans at the wildlife/livestock/human interface. Certain countries like the United Kingdom where BTB was previously eradicated are experiencing substantial increase in BTB infection. This is thought to be a result of wildlife reservoirs that infect farmed animals, especially cattle. Such reservoirs make eradication of the disease extremely difficult and require programmes to be put in place to control spread of the disease. This makes M. bovis a pathogen of economic importance since the programmes may be costly. In addition, wildlife that is infected cannot be exported and this further affects the economy negatively. In order to control the spread of the pathogen, it is essential to determine the source of infection. However, it is difficult to determine the source or to track the spread of BTB especially in wildlife where animals have unrestricted movement. The inability to conduct epidemiological studies of BTB may be a result of the lack of molecular typing methods that allow bacteria to be identified to strain level rapidly and fairly simpler than culture, thus providing much needed information about the pathogen. In recent years, typing of M. bovis isolates to strain level has been made possible by the development of PCR-based technologies such as IS6110 typing and spoligotyping. These technologies were however, found to be unsuitable for differentiating certain species in the MTBC. Newer technologies based on the variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) in organisms have been developed and allow for the differentiation of members in the MTBC, which have a high level of genome homology. These technologies include multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit (MIRU)-VNTR analysis. It was also discovered that mycobacteria have genomic regions of difference (RD) that could be used to identify the different species of bacteria in the MTBC. Retrospective studies may play a key role in tracing the source of diseases and following the pattern of transmission. However, in most instances, no fresh samples are available for such studies. For this reason, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue from wildlife in the Kruger National Park (KNP) was used for conducting a retrospective study aimed at determining the epidemiology of M. bovis in the KNP. However, amplification of DNA derived from FFPE tissue for PCR based techniques has been found to be a difficult exercise and not many standard protocols have been developed and validated for the use of such DNA. In this study, different methods of extraction were used to obtain DNA from FFPE tissue since it is difficult to obtain high quality DNA from such tissue, which is degraded. Formaldehyde, the main component of formalin which is used to fix tissue samples, causes degradation and cross-linking of DNA. In addition, previous studies are inconsistent with regards to the best method to use when extracting DNA from FFPE tissue. Three PCR-based techniques were used to type or identify the isolates in order to standardize a protocol for use in typing isolates from FFPE tissue. These techniques included analysis of the RDs, VNTR based methods i.e. MLVA and MIRU-VNTR and spoligotyping. Since there are many factors that influence the quality of FFPE tissue, samples confirmed BTB positive by VNTR analysis, spoligotyping and IS6110 analysis were used in order to optimize a PCR for FFPE tissue. Furthermore, in order to serve as control samples for spoligotyping and analysis of the RDs, DNA obtained from fresh tissue was also used in the study. Despite the various methods used to extract and to type DNA, the DNA from FFPE tissue provided unspecific results that did not allow for an informative retrospective study of M. bovis. This may be due to the fact that the DNA used had a high degree of degradation from prolonged fixation in formalin. Although M. bovis could not be typed in FFPE tissues, it could be identified by analysis of the regions of difference, more specifically the RD9 region. Amplification of RD9 is thus recommended for use in retrospective studies for diagnostic purposes, especially in cases where highly degraded DNA is used. This region (RD9) should however, only be used as a presumptive diagnosis since RD9 also identifies M. africanum, M. microti, M. pinnipedii, M. caprrae and M. bovis BCG. However, RD9 specifically excludes M. tuberculosis. In the SA context, particularly in the KNP, this allows for some sound inferences since the animals are likely to be infected with M. bovis as opposed to M. tuberculosis. This study highlighted statements in previous studies where it was stated that fixation of tissue in formalin should be done in such a way to reduce degradation of DNA in FFPE tissue in order to allow for its use in retrospective molecular studies which may be very insightful in determining the epidemiology of diseases that are difficult to track and/or control. Copyright<br>Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012.<br>Veterinary Tropical Diseases<br>unrestricted

Bacillus anthracis is the causal agent of anthrax which primarily affects ungulates, occasionally carnivores and less frequently humans. The endospores of this soil-borne bacterium are highly resistant to extreme conditions, and under ideal conditions, anthrax spores can survive for many years in the soil. The bacterium is generally found in soil at sites where infected animals have died. When these spores are exposed, they have the potential to be ingested by a mammalian species which could lead to an anthrax outbreak. Anthrax is almost never transmitted directly from host to host, but is rather ingested by herbivores while drinking, grazing or browsing in a contaminated environment, with the exception of scavengers and carnivores consuming infected prey. Anthrax is known to be endemic in the northern part of Kruger National Park (KNP) in South Africa (SA), with occasional epidemics spreading southward into the non-endemic areas. The aim of this study is to identify and map areas that are ecologically suitable for the harbouring of B. anthracis spores within the KNP. Anthrax surveillance data and selected environmental variables were used as inputs to the maximum entropy (Maxent) species distribution modelling method. Five-hundred and ninety-seven anthrax occurrence records, dating from the year 1988 to 2011, were extracted from the Skukuza State Veterinary Office’s database. A total of 40 environmental variables were used and their relative contribution to predicting suitability for anthrax occurrence was evaluated using Maxent software (version 3.3.3k). Variables showing the highest gain were then used for subsequent, refined model iterations until the final model parameters were established. The environmental variables that contributed the most to the occurrence of anthrax were soil type, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), land type and precipitation. A map was created using a geographic information system (GIS) that illustrates the sites where anthrax spores are most likely to occur throughout the Park. This included the known endemic Pafuri region as well as the low lying soils along the Shingwedzi-Phugwane-Bubube rivers and the Letaba-Olifants river drainage area. The outputs of this study could guide future targeted surveillance efforts to focus on areas predicted to be highly suitable for anthrax, especially since the KNP uses passive surveillance to detect anthrax outbreaks. Knowing where to look can improve sampling efficiency and lead to increased understanding of the ecology of anthrax within the KNP.<br>Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2013.<br>Production Animal Studies<br>unrestricted