Journal articles on the topic 'Afrikaans language – Composition and exercises'

Complex attributive constructions have become a characteristic of modern German and appear regularly in all types of texts, even those meant for foreigners. This aspect of German syntax has no corresponding manifestation in Afrikaans or English, as can be seen when comparing parallel texts. A limited investigation showed that this phenomenon undeniably creates problems for Afrikaans-speaking students learning German. They find sentences containing lengthy attributive constructions difficult to understand and, when writing German, either misconstrue such phrases or, more often than not, try to avoid them by using adjectival clauses instead. Although the constant use of such clauses cannot strictly be regarded as incorrect, it reveals all too clearly the interference of Afrikaans and differs conspicuously from the modern German style of writing. Various exercises are recommended to overcome comprehension problems and to break away from the restricted sentence patterns which are due to interference of the mother tongue.

This research inspects the allocation of involvement load to the evaluation component of the involvement load hypothesis, examining how three typical approaches to evaluation (cloze-exercises, sentence-writing, and composition-writing) promote word learning. The results of this research were partially consistent with the predictions of the hypothesis: the two writing tasks with greater involvement load led to significantly better word learning than cloze-exercises with lower load, while composition-writing was significantly more effective than sentence-writing despite the same involvement load according to the matrix of the original model. Such results are explained from the perspectives of information organization and pre-task planning, based on which evaluation induced by cloze-exercises is suggested to be allocated with ‘moderate evaluation’ as it involves no use of chunking, hierarchical organization or pre-task planning, evaluation induced by sentence-writing with ‘strong evaluation’ as it involves chunking and pre-task planning at the sentence level, and evaluation induced by composition-writing with ‘very strong evaluation’ for it involves chunking, hierarchical organization and pre-task planning at the composition level.

Ancient Greek and Roman compositional instruction, as evidenced in Greek handbooks on the progymnasmata and Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria, included a strong moral component. The importance of moral pedagogy to ancient teachers and theorists is seen not only in the themes and contents of the exercises, but also in their sequencing and justification.

Historians of rhetoric continue to debate the relative degree of transmission and implementation of the progymnasmata during the Middle Ages. This essay intervenes in this debate by analyzing Matthew of Vendôme's Ars versificatoria (Art of the Versemaker), showing that the treatise emphasizes the construction of probable assertions within a system of rhetorically-informed poetic composition. While past scholarship has shown Matthew's indebtedness to Ciceronian and Horatian rhetoric and poetics, this essay argues that progymnasmata exercises focused on probability and verisimilitude may have also influenced Matthew, suggesting the continued influence of the exercises within rhetorical and grammatical education during the 12th century.

Mikro Primary School is an Afrikaans medium public school whose governing body refused to accede to an order of the Western Cape Department of Education to change the language policy of the school so as to convert it into a parallel medium Afrikaans/English school. The Supreme Court of Appeal held that section 29(2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, means that everyone has a right to be educated in an official language of his or her choice at a public educational institution to be provided by the State if reasonably practicable, but not the right to be so instructed at each and every public educational institution, subject only to it being reasonably practicable to do so. The court held that the language policy and admission policy of Mikro were not contrary to any provision of the Constitution, the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996, the Western Cape Provincial School Education Act 12 of 1997 or the Norms and Standards. The MEC and the department were prohibited and restrained from compelling or attempting to compel the school or its principal to admit learners for instruction otherwise than in compliance with its language policy and applicable provisions of the Schools Act and the Norms and Standards. The court declared the conduct of the department’s officials to be an unlawful interference with the government and professional management of the school in contravention of section 16 of the Schools Act and prohibited and restrained them from interfering unlawfully. The court rejected a previous interpretation of the term “organ of state” and relied on the Constitution which determines that any institution exercising a public power or performing a public function in terms of any legislation is an organ of state (section 239(b)(ii)). This means that the public school (acting through its governing body) is clearly an organ of state because as an institution it exercises a public-education power and performs public-education functions in terms of the Schools Act, for example.

In second language teaching a great deal of attention is paid to the learning of communicative skills. The computer program PRESTIGE (Productive and Receptive English, a Smart Tutor and Intelligent Generator of Exercises) subscribes to the views currently held in communicative language teaching. Among these are learning the meaning of a word through deduction of the word's meaning from contexts, and emphasizing the use of productive language. The computer program PRESTIGE, written in PROLOG, consists of several parts: A parser, which checks if syntax, spelling and inflection of pupils' input sentences, words, and verbs are correct. The parser is the heart of the program, and is capable of analysing most English sentence structures which are used in the first years of secondary education. A database of descriptions of words and context sentences in everyday English (taken from Collins COBUBLD English Language Dictionary). Both databases can be consulted by the pupil at any moment and thus constitute an extensive help facility. A database of texts. These texts are taken from a method called "Notting Hill Gate" (Malmberg). A generator of exercises. The program is able to generate exercises for both receptive and productive language use. Receptive: a story fragment is selected from the database. For every word, pupils can ask for a description (in English) or for a context sentence in which the word is used. Productive: several different exercises can be generated. They vary from cloze texts: the parser leaves out words that belong to a certain grammatical class (adjectives, prepostions, etc.), to free language productions: writing a composition. Furthermore, exercises can be generated in which interrogative or negative sentences have to be made. When the pupil is writing a composition, the parser checks whether the sentences are grammatically correct. Here as well, all help options from the databases are available. Pupil registration. For every pupil the program keeps track of the words that (s)he has studied, what kind of help (s)he has asked for, and what the results of the exercises are. The advantage of PRESTIGE over existing courseware for second language teaching is the open structure of the program, which makes free input of language possible. In the article the possibilities of the parser are shown and illustrated by examples. The article concludes with a discussion of the uses of PRESTIGE as an intelligent generator of exercises, and some plans for further research.

ABSTRACTThe pervasiveness of thoroughbass in eighteenth-century German musical pedagogy is illustrated by the way that it extends from continuo realization exercises and chorale harmonizations to complete fugues. This article seeks to demonstrate how partimento fugue can be construed as the missing link between thoroughbass exercises and fully fledged keyboard fugues, by expanding on ideas first advanced by William Renwick. Through an examination of partimento fugues from J. S. Bach’s Precepts and Principles, Handel’s Lessons for Princess Anne, the Langloz manuscript and Heinichen’s Der General-Bass in der Composition, this study outlines a progression from basic realization exercises, in which the emphasis lies on the recognition and execution of continuo figures, to advanced recomposition assignments in which the performer is expected to project a rich contrapuntal texture from a simple figured-bass line, a task which is crucially dependent on the ability to memorize and reuse thematic material. The pedagogical value of partimento fugues also hinges on the acquisition of commonplace patterns such as the scalar descent and the harmonization of a chromatic line in alternating thirds and sixths. Although these patterns are often merely implied, they are found repeatedly in specific musical contexts, suggesting that they may function as generative melodic lines from which the composer derived both the harmonic progression and the underlying bass line, in a striking reversal of the standard compositional paradigm proposed by eighteenth-century theorists such as Niedt. Finally, the occurrence of these formulas in thoroughbass exercises, as well as in masterpieces such as J. S. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, points to their ubiquitous character and demonstrates that they were part of a common language shared by many German composers of the period, thus emphasizing the need for an increased familiarity with the German partimento repertory and its conventions.

Practice and research in the composition education that is using computer and network have been more and more active. Through online composition system, a large amount of written texts produced by students and teachers can be collected. This kind of information is called a learner corpus, which is important in second language education because the specific learning situations of learners can be analyzed. However, there is still little effective application on how to utilize the collected learner corpus in pedagogy. In this research, a web based composition/correction system has been constructed. It can not only support online composition submission and correction, but also supply a retrieval function for learner corpus. This function has been combined with another CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) drill system to create more effective exercises according to learners’ misuses. This research has proposed a unique mechanism to integrate both construction and application of learner corpus.

The use of poetic texts in heritage Polish composition classes offers a resourceful, motivating, and original way of learning the language and culture, primarily by mastering writing skills and understanding Poland’s rich and complex culture. Moreover, poetic texts give an aesthetical beauty and moral values, and the students discover universal truths during their readings and discussions. A chosen poem, such as Adam Mickiewicz’s “Lelije” (Lilies), Teofil Lenartowicz’s “Złoty kubek” (A Golden Cup), or Bolesław Leśmian’s “Urszula Kochanowska” (Ursula Kochanowska), is presented in class for listening exercises, reading, recitation, discussion, and especially creative writing. The students are introduced to the captivating genre of poetry and learn about the cultural and historical content of this work. Then, they write their poem or a composition on the introduced theme. The assessment consists of the student’s originality, the content of the paper, the organization of the paper, and the employment of correct grammatical sentence structure and vocabulary.Consequently, poetic texts immersed in Polish intertextual space are open and may be read in many ways, beyond their initial context, presenting many fascinating interpretations and offering many intellectual attractions. A poem is an excellent learning source for the creativity stage in the art of writing, transmuting elements of the past Polish culture and literature in modern language classes. Students write their own intriguing stories, focusing on their knowledge of the language, and using resourcefulness and creativity.

The majority of studies have found that aerobic exercise can reduce the increment of triglyceride postprandial in plasma. Therefore, the author is doing this research to know the difference of triglyceride concentration in plasma between-group who joint high impact exercise and group who joint body language exercise after given the same amount and dietary composition which had done high impact and body language exercise before. Twenty men (19-39 years old) did high impact or body language exercises for 1 hour. Two hours later, they were given dietary composition with carbohydrates 60% and fat 25%. Then the triglyceride postprandial concentrations were measured 3, 5, and 6 hours after the given dietary food. The result showed that the triglyceride concentration of high impact group was higher than body language group 3 hours after given dietary food (122.167 ± 17.11627 vs 111.67± 7.86554 mg/dL) and there was no difference between the high impact and body language group 5 hours (96.167 ± 7.25029 vs 94.0 ± 16.66133mg/dL) and 6 hours after given dietary food (77.5 ± 8.8261 vs 78.167 ± 14.27469 mg/dL).In conclusion, the triglyceride concentration of the high impact group was higher than the body language group 3 hours after given the same amount and dietary composition. But, there was no difference between triglycerides concentration of body language group and high impact group 5 and 6 hours after given the same amount and dietary composition which had done high impact and body language exercise before.

Abstract This essay aims at giving an account of some pedagogical and syntactical aspects of Francesco da buti’s (1324–1406) Regule grammaticales, a Latin grammar written in Central Italy in the second half of the 14th century. It occupies an important place in the history of positive grammar, providing an excellent example of Latin teaching in late medieval Italy. In fact, da Buti treatise deals not only with grammar, but also with rhetoric and Ars dictaminis, as was customary in the Italian tradition in the final centuries of the Middle Ages. This article analyzes the sections devoted to nouns and verbs, while also pointing out some pedagogical features, such as the exercises of the thèmata and the use of the vernacular as a tool for learning Latin composition.

Статья посвящена особенностям подготовки к экзамену A Level по русскому языку. Основываясь на опыте педагогической деятельности, автор выделяет типичные неречевые и речевые ошибки, встречающиеся при написании экзаменационного эссе, а также приводит пример сочинения, в котором допущены некоторые из указанных ошибок. В статье подчеркивается важность подготовительной работы по снятию лексико-грамматических трудностей, объяснению структуры сочинения, составлению словаря текстов и разъяснению исторических и культурных реалий произведения. Автор предлагает ряд упражнений, позволяющих ученикам избежать морфологических, лексических и синтаксических ошибок на экзамене по русскому языку. The article is devoted to the peculiarities of preparing students for the Russian A Level language exam. Based on the experience of teaching, the author identifies typical non-speech and speech errors that occur when writing an exam essay and also gives an example of a composition in which some of these errors are made. The article emphasizes the importance of preparatory work to remove lexical and grammatical difficulties, explain the structure of the composition, compile a dictionary of texts, and explain the historical and cultural realities of the work. The author offers a number of exercises that allow students to avoid morphological, lexical, and syntactic errors in the Russian language exam.

In this article, we first present a theoretical study on the status and origin of the conceptions.Then, based on this study, we make a quantitative and, at the same time, a qualitative analysis of the responses of 148 students to a questionnaire on the notion of convergence of numerical sequences. The results of the experiment show that the errors of the students come mostly from previous incorrect conceptions. We think that the traditional teaching method favors the emergence of these conceptions and that the introduction of new teaching methods is needed. Besides the difficulties noted in the resolution of exercises, the composition of answers reveals to us severe language problems related to French expressions, which, in turn, require a reflection on a more adequate content of the teaching of the French language in the first years of university science tracks.

The Postmodern wave of democratization and the emphasis on democratic values and right to expression make it imperative that the political discourse be studied with more and full attention. In this regard, one genre that is almost totally ignored in Pakistani context and little attention has been paid to it even at the global level, is autobiography. Autobiography is a special kind of composition in which the author gives a picture of the evolution of the self and its relation with the external world throughout this evolutionary process. The famous political autobiography Long Walk to Freedom by Nelson Mandela is, therefore, selected as the basic unit of analysis. Through content analysis different topics are separated from the original text. These topics are then grouped under different categories of van Dijk’s theory of Political Discourse Analysis (PDA). The exploration and analysis of linguistic devices are also carried out. Besides Van Dijk’s PDA, Huckin’s approach to text and Corpus Linguistics’ quantitative methodology aided the systematic in-depth analysis. Methods of both qualitative and quantitative research have been utilized for this study as the researchers believe that quantification of data along with qualitative description produce reliable results. Findings revealed various linguistic devices are used in abundance. Amongst the most prominent ones are the unique and effective use of the year-statistics, language of the minority regime, Afrikaans, Trilingual combination, dramatic language and listing or cluster of three to stress certain themes like racial discrimination, inequality, poverty, parties, law, justice, separation and history.

As an action research in nature, the research aimed to test the progress of the students’ ESP writing skills when guided writing technique is implemented in writing class and to know the ESP students’ attitude towards guided writing technique. This action research is conducted in two cycles. In collecting the data, the researcher uses qualitative and quantitave technique. The qualitative data are obtained from observation, interview, and test analysis. The qualitative data are supported by quantitative data that are the mean score of students’ pre-test and post-test on ESP writing. The procedure of guided writing which is implemented in ESP writing class are model paragraph, comprehension questions, language based exercises, oral composition, and written composition. After the analysis of data collected through test items, it was seen improvement in students’ ESP writing skills in post-test than in pre-test. The students have shown their improvement such as they are able to construct sentences correctly. They could use appropriate language use when created the pattern of tenses, article, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and part of speech and also they used better mechanical aspects in writing like capitalization, punctuation, and spelling in post-test than in pretest. Moreover, they can use correct ESP diction on their writing after implemented this technique. The ESP students’ attitudes also were enthusiastic and more active involved in ESP writing class.

English has been widely spoken in the world and seen as the language of education, communication, economics and etc., for a long time and it can be accepted as lingua franca. Knowledge of a language includes four basic language skills, these are listening, reading, speaking, and writing. In this study writing was investigated in detail and it was mentioned why writing was difficult and importance of writing was explained. This study was produced from the author’s doctoral dissertation. It was seen that students’ ability to write in a well- organized manner was insufficient. So, in the study, the main components for a well-organized composition that is outlining, coherence, unity were explained. In addition remedial exercises for developing writing skills were indicated in order to develop students’ writing skills. In the research, controlled pre, post-test Experimental Design was used. During the pedagogical experiment the teacher- experimentator himself carried out all the studies in control and experimental groups during the process of the experiment. Furthermore it was stressed that materials and teachers skills were important for the development of the students in the related topic.

In Indonesia English is a foreign language, not a second language. As a result, it is very difficult for the students to write a paragraph in English because writing is a complex process that allow writers to explore thoughts and ideas, and make them visible and concrete. The indonesian students’ achievement in writing descriptive paragraph is very low due to several reasons. Firstly, the Indonesian community does not support the existence of the English situation Based on the fact, the researcher focuses this thesis on the problem of improving descriptive writing ability of the first year students of SMA Toha Praktika Giligenting Sumenep by using pictures. The research problem is How can the use of pictures improve the students’ability in writing a descriptive paragraph at SMA Toha Praktika?. The researcher thought that if the students can develop their imagination by the pictures, they will be able to create descriptive paragraphs that are meaningful. To answer the research problem, this research use the classroom action research at SMA Toha Praktika on the first year students academic year 2010/2011 who have difficulties in writing descriptive paragraph. Exercises was done to know how high the students’ ability in writing descriptive paragraph. the data collection involved instruments, namely writing observation, composition test and questionnaires. The composition test was to measure the students’ ability in writing descriptive and questionnaires was to know the students’ opinion about the implementation of pictures. All of the data were analyzed and compared with the criteria of success that the minimun score of the students was 60 and there was 60% or 17 students mastered the material and can made descriptive paragraph.

Objective: To design Canadian guidelines advising obstetric care providers of the maternal, fetal, and neonatal implications of aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises in pregnancy. Outcomes: Knowledge of the impact of exercise on maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidity, and of the maternal measures of fitness. Evidence: MEDLINE search from 1966 to 2002 for English-language articles related to studies of maternal aerobic and strength conditioning in a previously sedentary population, maternal aerobic and strength conditioning in a previously active population, impact of aerobic and strength conditioning on early and late pregnancy outcomes, impact of aerobic and strength conditioning on neonatal outcomes, as well as for review articles and meta-analyses related to exercise in pregnancy. Values: The evidence collected was reviewed by the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC Clinical Practice Obstetrics Committee) with representation from the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, and quantified using the evaluation of evidence guidelines developed by the Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Exam.Recommendations:1. All women without contraindications should be encouraged to participate in aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises as part of a healthy lifestyle during their pregnancy. (II-1,2B)2. Reasonable goals of aerobic conditioning in pregnancy should be to maintain a good fitness level throughout pregnancy without trying to reach peak fitness or train for an athletic competition. (II-1,2C)3. Women should choose activities that will minimize the risk of loss of balance and fetal trauma. (III-C)4. Women should be advised that adverse pregnancy or neonatal outcomes are not increased for exercising women. (II-1,2B)5. Initiation of pelvic floor exercises in the immediate postpartum period may reduce the risk of future urinary incontinence. (II-1C)6. Women should be advised that moderate exercise during lactation does not affect the quantity or composition of breast milk or impact infant growth. (I-A)Validation: This guideline has been approved by the SOGC Clinical Practice Obstetrics Committee, the Executive and Council of SOGC, and the Board of Directors of the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology. Sponsors: This guideline has been jointly sponsored by the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada and the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology. Key words: fetus, neonate, outcomes, aerobic, strength

Current trends in higher education suggest a gradual transition from a monolingual education system to a multilingual one. Nowadays, there is a need for professionals who speak English as well as other foreign languages and are able to cooperate with representatives of other cultures to find better solutions to industrial tasks. The research aims at elaborating a didactic model for the development of plurilingual competence among students of a multidisciplinary university. Research methods: literature analysis in the field of psychological studies and didactics, modeling, observation, pedagogical experiment. The configuration of the plurilingual competence structure is determined by introducing two sub-competences (professionally-oriented linguistic competence in English and common linguistic competence in the second foreign language – Spanish). The model structure with detailed characteristics of the component composition is described in detail. Methodological component contains the following approaches (competence, cognitive, interdisciplinary and activity theory based approaches) and didactic principles (of integration, basic learning strategies, flexible skills content organization, situational afferentation and reverse afferentation principles, homogeneous skills reduced interference principle, iteration and language structure based organization principle). Content component represented with a further description of the procedural and content aspects. An iteration and language structure based system of exercises has been developed. A general diagnostic framework for competence assessment and measurement has been introduced. The relationships between the components of the model are indicated. Conclusions are made about the applicability of the model in the environment of a multidisciplinary university.

Abstract. The article deals with the peculiarities of the introduction of the method of learning English songs in the process of teaching “English for Specific Purposes” for students of “Music” specialty at higher education institutions. The author considers the essence and features of this innovative method, analyzes its main principles and priorities. In particular, the stages of work with a song composition and examples of exercises on the acquisition of language material are considered. The article substantiates the methodical expediency of using the method of learning English songs in the process of teaching English in artistic specialties. Recently, the higher educational institutions intensify the process of learning foreign languages through the introduction of the variety of teaching technologies. The method of learning English songs by students of “Music” specialty in English classes is efficient and productive, because of enriching the vocabulary, improving the pronunciation and grammar. It increases the efficiency of students’ professional training. Poetic and song material encourages creativity, performing verse translations, composing poetry and songs in native and English languages, promotes the memorization of new words due to the rhymed forms as a great way of phonetic training.

The objective of the study was to describe appropriateness of modal auxiliary verbs in class six written English. The study focused on the use of English modal auxiliary verbs by class six pupils from diverse language backgrounds in Kenyan primary schools. Modal auxiliary verbs are difficult as their use entails syntactic and semantic appropriateness. As such, most pupils often find themselves unable to use this complex linguistic feature in written English. In spite of this, there is no known documentation that focuses on modal auxiliary verbs among children. It is this gap that the current study sought to fill. Forty pupils were randomly selected from four primary schools in Nakuru County. Data was elicited by means of written composition and grammar exercises. Further, it was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively and presented in the form of graphs and tables. The Representational Theory of The Mind was used to explain the research findings. The findings revealed that modal auxiliary verbs are indeed difficult and their appropriate use present difficulties in pupils' written work. It was therefore recommended that learning of English should be meaningful. In order to enrich pupil's mental representations pupils should be exposed to a linguistically rich environment to enhance acquisition and learning. It is hoped that these findings will be of benefit to school stakeholders in ensuring that appropriate learning environment is created for pupils. Additionally, it could be a reference for researchers interested in language use at the school level.

The objective of the study was to describe appropriateness of modal auxiliary verbs in class six written English. The study focused on the use of English modal auxiliary verbs by class six pupils from diverse language backgrounds in Kenyan primary schools. Modal auxiliary verbs are difficult as their use entails syntactic and semantic appropriateness. As such, most pupils often find themselves unable to use this complex linguistic feature in written English. In spite of this, there is no known documentation that focuses on modal auxiliary verbs among children. It is this gap that the current study sought to fill. Forty pupils were randomly selected from four primary schools in Nakuru County. Data was elicited by means of written composition and grammar exercises. Further, it was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively and presented in the form of graphs and tables. The Representational Theory of The Mind was used to explain the research findings. The findings revealed that modal auxiliary verbs are indeed difficult and their appropriate use present difficulties in pupils' written work. It was therefore recommended that learning of English should be meaningful. In order to enrich pupil's mental representations pupils should be exposed to a linguistically rich environment to enhance acquisition and learning. It is hoped that these findings will be of benefit to school stakeholders in ensuring that appropriate learning environment is created for pupils. Additionally, it could be a reference for researchers interested in language use at the school level.

This article explores the relationship between Roman school texts and the socialization of the student into an elite man. I argue that composition and declamation communicated social values; in fact, the rhetorical education of the late republic and the empire was a process of socialization that produced a definite subjectivity in its elite participants. I treat two genres of Roman school texts: the expansions on a set theme known as declamation and the bilingual, Greek and Latin, writing exercises known as the colloquia amid the collections of hermeneumata. This article is more broadly concerned with the attitudes toward language use that are learned along with specific literacy skills. Habits of reading and writing and speaking are learned in scenes and contexts that contribute to concepts of the self and more widely of gender and social roles. The encounters and verbal interactions recurrently plot a deviation from violence or a return to civil and familial order through the proper verbal display of the elite speaker. The student speaker's assumption of roles, his training in fictio personae, is a strong training in memory and imagination-pretending to be someone else, pretending to talk like someone else, or pretending to talk on behalf of someone else. That someone else is most important as the schoolboy becomes the voice of or for prostitutes, the raped, slaves, freedmen, women. His was not a neutral ventriloquism in the styles of Latin but a training in the master's mode toward the ready conviction that the speaker can and must speak for others, his subordinates. Roman rhetorical education was a process of persona building, shaping the schoolboy in his future role while excluding others from the very right to become speaking subjects.

Background. The article is devoted to the piano work of the outstanding composer, pianist and teacher Mao-Shuen Chen (born 1936), his contribution to the art of music and education in Taiwan. Music education received in Taiwan, and then – in European countries, allowed Mao-Shuen Chen to significantly develop and modernize his native national art. His methodical works, textbooks and collections of exercises for piano became the basis of his own method of teaching, which the musician has long successfully used in public and private music schools in Taiwan. An important role in Mao-Shuen Chen’s unique pedagogical system is also played by his piano works, especially sonatinas. The sonatinas of Mao-Shuen Chen act as a kind of link between school-level compositions and opuses of the highest pianistic complexity. They are collected in three notebooks, each of the next of which represents a higher degree of pianistic complexity. Sonatina makes it possible, in a simpler and more compact-scale presentation, to prepare students for mastering a more complex genre – the sonata. Mastering the sonata form for members of the Taiwanese musical tradition is a particularly difficult task, due to differences in European musical thinking, within which the sonata originated, and the peculiarities of national music, which is usually the focus of composers. However, the genre of sonatina in the works of Mao-Shuen Chen and its role in the development of sonata thinking of Taiwanese students have not been studied to date. Objectives and methodology. The purpose of this research is to reveal the peculiarities of the interpretation of the genre of sonatina in the piano work of Mao-Shuen Chen, its role in the pedagogical system of the Taiwanese musician and its artistic and pedagogical value. In this connection the characteristic of the pianistic level of complexity of the works under consideration is given, their technical and artistic difficulties are revealed. For this, various methods of research were applied: genre-style, intonational analyses, systematization, musical-aesthetic and interpretological approaches. Results. Thanks to a well-organized educational system of methodological works, books, musical anthologies and audio recordings, Mao-Shuen Chen was able to build his own pedagogical approagh and introduce his teaching methods to many young musicians striving to acquire a high professional level as a performer and a teacher. In this system of mastering piano professionalism, thirty-five sonatinas by Mao-Shuen Chen, created from 1980 to 2015, occupy an important place. Sonatinas are very useful in preparing piano students to study more complex compositions written in sonata form. All sonatinas are dominated by the flavor of Taiwanese folk music. So, at the heart of Sonatinas Nos. 1–5, 7, 11, 17, 21 is the pentatonic scale of the mode “shan”, which can be expanded with additional steps. The exceptions are Sonatina No. 6, written using the atonal writing technique, and Sonatina No. 8, which is based on the Western European tonal system. Considering the rhythmic organization as the basis of music, the composer demonstrates in his sonatinas various versions of the musical meter and rhythm – complex and variable metering, syncope, polyrhythm, etc. He arranges these elements in his sonatinas from simple to complex. Mao-Shuen Chen pays great attention to polyrhythmic combinations 3: 2, 4: 3, 4: 6 and, considering them important for mastering the educational didactic. They can be considered the same instructive material as rhythmic exercises or etudes. For example, Sonatinas Nos. 3–6 are based on polyrhythm 3: 2, 2: 3, Sonatinas Nos. 7–8 – on combinations 3: 4 and 4: 3. It is no coincidence, that they also published in the composer’s educational methodological manual – the collection “Piano School and Piano Exercises 3: 4, 4: 3” (1990). The final Sonatinas (Nos. 32–34) by Mao-Shuen Chen require a high degree of pianistic mastership from the performer. They present works that combine complex elements of the Taiwanese national musical language and contemporary Western composer writing. The intonational and dynamic richness, variety of rhythmic patterns, irregular meters, extraordinary line drawing indicate that these works can rightfully be considered one of the brightest examples of the modern repertoire and can be widely represented on the concert stage. Conclusions. Mao-Shuen Chen made significant contributions to Taiwanese musical culture, especially in the areas of composition and music education. Among the many genres of his work, piano music occupies the most significant place. Having devoted many years to teaching in the higher musical institutions of Taiwan, Mao-Shuen Chen has developed a coherent system of teaching materials from the level of musical elementary school to higher education, with a focus on the practice of solfeggio and fundamental professional disciplines. The composer devoted a significant part of his attention to works of the sonata form – sonatinas and sonatas. In this regard, he can be compared with the Western European classic, the “patriarch of the piano” M. Clementi, who created a harmonious system of progressive mastery of pianistic skill. In all of his works, Mao-Shuen Chen represents his aspiration for the model of Western musical education, carefully preserving the Taiwanese national cultural tradition. He creates compositions with a typical Western structure, which should be performed on a Western musical instrument, but they clearly reflect the ChineseTaiwanese national flavor. Since the piano sonatas of Mao-Shuen Chen present high demands on performers due to their large volume, considerable virtuosity and the complexity of the rhythmic organization of texture, their mastering is possible only after passing through the simpler opuses of the Taiwanese composer.

Formulation of the problem. The modern choral art as never requires a theoretical understanding of the artistic experience accumulated over the years of its existence and enriched with the latest advances in this field. The bloom of the high professional choral performance in Ukraine shows, first of all, the active development of choral culture in practical terms, but unfortunately, in many theoretical aspects of the choral art there are significant gaps. Since in Ukraine a galaxy of dedicated experts in the field of the choral work function fruitfully, among whom the territory of the Slobozhanshchina region can boast the well-known name of Prokopov Sergiy Mykolayevych – the Honoured Art Worker of Ukraine, Professor, Head of the Choral Conducting Department of Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky, the coverage of the concept of the creative universalism of the famous Ukrainian conductor-choirmaster seems to be of a high relevance. The purpose of the article is to study a wide range of artistic activities of S. Prokopov in the aspect of identifying various vectors of creativity of this talented artist: his performances, scientific works and pedagogical guides, musical and public activities. Analysis of the recent research and publications. The study of each of the directions of the creative activities of the artist is not possible in isolation from the consideration of the main trends in the modern choral art. Ukrainian musicology is on the way of rethinking the classical methodological recommendations and finding new theoretical and practical approaches to the study of many aspects of the choral activity. The recent publications by such scholars as L. Parkhomenko, A. Lashchenko, L. Kiyanovska, A. Martyniuk, L. Yarosevich, O. Batovska, Y. Voskoboinikova and many others confirm the relevance of issues related to the genesis and the further development of the choral art. Research methods. The system analysis of the universe of the creative personality of the artist is the methodological basis of the study. Presenting the main material. Sergiy Prokopov is a well-known conductor-choirmaster, prominent teacher and musical-public figure in Ukraine and abroad. After many years of study, under the influence of the outstanding masters of the conducting-choral art A. A. Miroshnikova, E. P. Kudryavtseva, V. O. Chernushenko and A. V. Mikhailov the main methodological principles of teaching professional disciplines finally formed, and they found their embodiment in the further professional pedagogical activity of S. M. Prokopov. The research of the performing-pedagogical vector of the master’s work made it possible to analyse one of the most important spheres of activity of S. M. Prokopov – the work with children’s choir collectives. We should note that the sound of the choir called “The Spring Voices” is distinguished by the high quality of ensemble work, the most charming features of the children’s voice – ease, charm, and flying. The repertoire of the choir is extremely wide and diverse from the Renaissance to contemporary domestic and foreign compositions, different in genres and subjects, which is quite difficult for the amateur team. That is why the professional recognition of the children’s choir under the guidance of S. M. Prokopov is confirmed by many honorary awards of national and international competitions and choral festivals. Following the traditions of Kharkiv choral school, Prokopov S. M., while heading the choir of the students of the Choral Conducting Department of KhNUA named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky, greatly changed not only the repertoire policy of the choir, but also revised the correlation of teaching-educational and concert-performing tasks. The choral class is not only a solid base platform for the professional education of future choirmasters-specialists. The choir of students, under the guidance of S. M. Prokopov, is a full-fledged performing collective, whose power makes it possible to perform compositions of great forms. Working on the sound of the choir, at the stage of a warm-up, he relies on the artistic principles of the sound production, which represent a peculiar emotional and psychological setting for the further professional communication between the choirmaster and the singers. Such accentuation of attention on the complex of psychological tasks during the performance of vocal-choral exercises helps to combine and correlate the emotional and psychological state and technical capabilities of the singers with subsequent performing intentions. The key to the work of the master is a special relation to the interaction of the language and musical intonation. Expressiveness as a conscious singing is impossible without the right intonation, a clear pronunciation, an emotional exaltation in the process of performing a choral composition. The pedagogical activity of S. M. Prokopov continues in the class on conducting and relies on both the methodical foundations, theoretical positions, the generalizations of outstanding teachers, choirmasters, symphony conductors and many years of the own experience of the teacher, the conductor, and the conductor-choirmaster. Actually, his pedagogical style is characterized by a high level of culture, sophisticated taste, and deep knowledge of the specialty and in the related fields of both the humanities and social sciences. The sphere of interests of scientific activity of S. М. Prokopov covers various areas of the choral art. The scientific and methodical works by S. M. Prokopov outlines a range of issues related to the problems of the choral performance, the choral pedagogy and the educational process of formation of conductors-choirmasters at different stages of development. Professor S. M. Prokopov’s active and responsible life position prompts him for the public-education activities. Holding the post of the Head of the Kharkiv branch of the Association called “The Choir Society named after M. Leontovych”, on his initiative the significant competitions and festivals of the choral art take place, and they are known not only within Ukraine but also abroad. Sergiy Mykolayevych presents reports on the relevant issues of the choral art at international and all-Ukrainian conferences, conducts numerous master classes, lectures and concerts. Conclusions and the perspectives of the further research. Sergiy Prokopov is an example of a universal musician. To highlight one, the main of the directions of his activities is impossible. The teacher, choral conductor, scientist, talented organizer and musical-public figure, his work is a vivid example of creative and personal enthusiasm. The prospect of the further development of the topic is related to the in-depth study of the various spectra of S. M. Prokopov’s creative activities, his personal contribution to the development of Ukrainian culture.

Abstract How Evagrius Ponticus (d. 399) composed his highly influential treatises of short and succinct chapters (kepahalaia) is bewildering and has been discussed by many scholars. In this essay the literary composition of Evagrius’ To monks in monasteries and communities, or Ad monachos, a typical text of short chapters, is examined from a literary perspective by relating the text to literary conventions, common in late antique literature and in rhetorical handbooks and exercises (progymnasmata). It is demonstrated how the teaching develops gradually in accordance with a pattern for a so-called amplified argument (epicheireme) codified in Pseudo-Hermogenes Progymnasmata. By this arrangement of the teaching, the reader is offered, not just a random taste of various aspects of the monastic life, but a set of specific conclusions to implement or to be aware of practically in the life as monk; conclusions that are perceptible not at just a cursory glance, but at a careful and repeated reading.

ABSTRACT Although Ps 23 can be called a psalm of trust, its purpose is to impart comfort in concrete life. In times of sorrow and crisis, this psalm has struck home. The article starts by reading Ps 23 as composition, then turns to the reception history, and finally shows the resonance of this psalm in two contemporary poems. A network of metaphors is built around the shepherd motif. The motif of the shepherd is a central metaphor in this psalm. This motif is also found elsewhere in the OT. The shepherd takes care of his flock. This shepherd is identified as Yahweh. In the structure of Ps 23, v. 4b is the axis, as it is demonstrated by its occurrence precisely in the middle of the psalm. "You are with me." This confession is the heartbeat of the psalm. The second part of v. 4b indicates that the presence of Yahweh is a protective presence. Yahweh is not only the shepherd, but also the host who prepares a table before his guest. Yahweh also anoints the poet's head with oil before the commencement of the meal. The poet's cup overflows. Goodness and love will follow him. All the days of his life, he will experience the presence and protection of Yahweh. In the following part, the reception history of Psalm 23 is elucidated. The echoes of Ps 23 can be heard in two of my poems that were written in Afrikaans and superbly translated into English by the renowned translator, poet and novelist, Leon de Kock. Keywords: Psalm 23, Orientation, Interpretation, Structure, Reception history, Resonance in poetry

Construction grammar, recently described as “the fastest growing linguistic and interdisciplinary approach to language” (Goldberg 2013, 30) has its foundations in the psychology of human categorization and other general cognitive abilities. So does schema theory in music. In the first extended comparison of these research programs, we present six central principles of construction grammar and demonstrate their relevance and applicability to schema-theoretic studies of music: 1) grammatical constructions, 2) surface structure, 3) a network of constructions, 4) cross-linguistic variability and generalization, 5) usage-based knowledge, and 6) exemplar models. Because studies in child development have played such an important role in changing how scholars view language acquisition and grammar formation (Tomasello 2003) we have chosen to illustrate many of the arguments with musical examples drawn from eighteenth- and nineteenth-century conservatories. An orphan at one of the eighteenth-century conservatories in Naples, the prodigy Henri Fissot at the Paris Conservatory in the 1850s, and the young Rachmaninoff at the Moscow Conservatory in the 1890s all learned the art of composition through the age-old practice of child apprenticeship. From the musical utterances made by these apprentices in response to exercises and contests one can infer much about the grammar being acquired. Extensive musical examples suggest that construction grammar can provide a model for how a large repertory of learned patterns of varying dimensions can collectively function as a flexible and adaptive music grammar.

Globalization demands dynamism in English as a Second Language (ESL) pedagogy to address the needs of students from diverse cultural, educational and linguistic backgrounds. Students hailing from different countries with varied levels of English proficiency present a serious challenge to instructors. The challenge to meet the needs of diverse students from Afghanistan and Pakistan, for instance, within the same teaching faculty, prompted this study. It attempts to explore Afghan and Pakistani students’ expectations of the first module of English introduced at undergraduate level, i.e., English Comprehension and Composition (ECC) at a Pakistani university, by applying the Expectancy Disconfirmation Model of Satisfaction (Oliver 2015,120). Students’ expectations have been a neglected area of research despite being a significant factor in behavior and performance. This study aims to find out how far the Pakistani and Afghan students’ expectations have been met with Negative Disconfirmation (non-fulfillment), Zero Disconfirmation (fulfillment) or Positive Disconfirmation (enhanced fulfillment). The findings reveal that the Afghan students were enrolled in the Pakistani university as a result of a mutual agreement between the Pakistani and Afghan governments under the Higher Education Commission (HEC)scholarship “Award of 3000 Scholarships to Students from Afghanistan under the Prime Minister’s Directive” had concerns with the advanced level grammar and reading exercises, while Pakistani students complained about insufficient class time, consecutive lectures and lack of adequate practice provided in the classroom. The study suggests a pedagogical framework for the students focusing on Contextualized Task Based Language Teaching (CTBLT) method in combination with Input-oriented approach for the desired academic outputmentioned in the objectives of the course/module.

The problem of organizing, implementing, and describing the results of linguodidactic and methodological qualification research by foreign students-philologists is an urgent issue that requires coverage of its theoretical and practical aspects, as evidenced by the analysis of theses of foreign students-philologists and their recognition of difficulties that arise in the process of performing qualification research, including those met during the application of the method of ascertaining experiment and its description. The purpose of the article is to describe the essence of the ascertaining experiment and the features of the speech genre in which it is reproduced in the text of linguodidactic and methodological research. In the course of the study, the following methods were used: analysis of theoretical sources, synthesis, and generalization of the obtained information; observation of the educational process and analysis of qualification studies of graduates-philologists; questionnaires of students and conversations with teachers to identify difficulties that arise during the application of the ascertaining experiment. The main results of the study are as follows: description of the goals, objectives, and content essence of the ascertaining experiment in linguodidactic and methodological research; clarification of the terminology used; description of the speech genre of the ascertaining experiment; selection of language markers for teaching foreign philologists to describe the ascertaining experiment. It is proved that the ascertaining experiment is carried out to obtain more detailed information for orientation in the initial level of the studied linguodidactic or methodological problem and provides the basis for theoretical modeling of a more effective educational process. New knowledge about the subject of research was acquired in the course of the ascertaining experiment, which gives reason to call the method an experiment. The description of the ascertaining experiment is a secondary speech genre, standardized in composition and language tools. Since each component of the text of this genre is designed using standardized language tools, it is advisable to train foreign graduates-philologists to use these tools. The prospects of the research consist in the theoretical substantiation and development of a system of exercises for the effective formation of skills to carry out and describe an ascertaining experiment by foreign philologists.

Could we also imagine a language in which a person could write down or give vocal expression to his inner experiences -- his feelings, moods, and the rest -- for his private use? Well, can't we do so in our ordinary language? -- But that is not what I mean. The individual words of this language are to refer to what can only be known to the person speaking; to his immediate private sensations. So another person cannot understand the language. -- Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations par. 243 I will be using 'audience' in two ways in the following essay: as a phenomenon that produces and is produced by media technologies (readers, hearers, viewers, Internet-users), and as something, audiens, that is essential to language itself, something without which language cannot be. I shall do so in specific references to invented languages. Who, then, are the 'consumers' of invented languages? In referring to invented languages, I am not talking about speakers of Esperanto or Occidental; I am not concerned with the invention of international auxiliary languages. These projects, already well-debated, have roots that go back at least as far as the 17th-century language philosophers who were at pains to undo the damage of Babel and restore a common language to the world. While Esperanto never became what it intended to be, it at least has readers and speakers. I am also not even talking about speakers of Klingon or Quenya. These privately invented languages have had the good fortune to be attached to popular invented cultures, and to media with enough money and publicity to generate a multitude of fans. Rather, I am talking about a phenomenon on the Internet and in a well- populated listserv whereby a number of people from all over the globe have discovered each other on-line. They all have a passion for what Jeffrey Schnapp calls uglossia ('no-language', after utopia, 'no-place'). Umberto Eco calls it 'technical insanity' or glottomania. Linguist Marina Yaguello calls language inventors fous du langage ('language lunatics') in her book of the same title. Jeffrey Henning prefers the term 'model language' in his on-line newsletter: 'miniaturized versions that provide the essence of something'. On CONLANG, people call themselves conlangers (from 'constructed language') and what they do conlanging. By forming this list, they have created a media audience for themselves, in the first sense of the term, and also literally in the second sense, as a number of them are setting up soundbytes on their elaborately illustrated and explicated Webpages. Originally devoted to advocates for international auxiliary languages, CONLANG started out about eight years ago, and as members joined who were less interested in the politics than in the hobby of language invention, the list has become almost solely the domain of the latter, whereas the 'auxlangers', as they are called, have moved to another list. An important distinguishing feature of 'conlangers' is that, unlike the 'auxlangers', there is no sustained hope that their languages will have a wide-body of hearers or users. They may wish it, but they do not advocate for it, and as a consequence their languages are free to be a lot weirder, whereas the auxlangs tend to strive for regularity and useability. CONLANG is populated by highschool, college, and graduate students; linguists; computer programmers; housewives; librarians; professors; and other users worldwide. The old debate about whether the Internet has become the 'global village' that Marshall McLuhan predicted, or whether it threatens to atomise communication 'into ever smaller worlds where enthusiasms mutate into obsessions', as Jeff Salamon warns, seems especially relevant to a study of CONLANG whose members indulge in an invention that by its very nature excludes the casual listener-in. And yet the audio-visual capacities of the Internet, along with its speed and efficiency of communication, have made it the ideal forum for conlangers. Prior to the Web, how were fellow inventors to know that others were doing -- in secret? J.R.R. Tolkien has been lauded as a rare exception in the world of invention, but would his elaborate linguistic creations have become so famous had he not published The Lord of the Rings and its Appendix? Poignantly, he tells in "A Secret Vice" about accidentally overhearing another army recruit say aloud: 'Yes! I think I shall express the accusative by a prefix!'. Obviously, silent others besides Tolkien were inventing languages, but they did not have the means provided by the Internet to discover one another except by chance. Tolkien speaks of the 'shyness' and 'shame' attached to this pursuit, where 'higher developments are locked in secret places'. It can win no prizes, he says, nor make birthday presents for aunts. His choice of title ("A Secret Vice") echoes a Victorian phrase for the closet, and conlangers have frequently compared conlanging to homosexuality, both being what conservative opinion expects one to grow out of after puberty. The number of gay men on the list has been wondered at as more than coincidental. In a survey I conducted in October 1998, many of the contributors to CONLANG felt that the list put them in touch with an audience that provided them with intellectual and emotional feedback. Their interests were misunderstood by parents, spouses, lovers, and employers alike, and had to be kept under wraps. Most of those I surveyed said that they had been inventing a language well before they had heard of the list; that they had conceived of what they were doing as unique or peculiar, until discovery of CONLANG; and that other people's Websites astounded them with the pervasive fascination of this pursuit. There are two ways to look at it: conlanging, as Henning writes, may be as common and as humanly creative as any kind of model-making, i.e., dollhouses, model trains, role-playing, or even the constructed cultures with city plans and maps in fantasy novels such as Terry Pratchett's Discworld. The Web is merely a means to bring enthusiasts together. Or it may provide a site that, with the impetus of competition and showmanship, encourages inutile and obsessive activity. Take your pick. From Hildegard von Bingen's Lingua Ignota to Dante's Inferno and the babbling Nimrod to John Dee's Enochian and on, invented languages have smacked of religious ecstacy, necromancy, pathology, and the demonic. Twin speech, or 'pathological idioglossia', was dramatised by Jodie Foster in Nell. Hannah Green's 'Language of Yr' was the invention of her schizophrenic protagonist in I Never Promised You a Rose Garden. Language itself is the centre of furious theoretical debate. Despite the inventive 'deformities' it is put to in poetry, punning, jest, singing, and lying, human language, our most 'natural' of technologies, is a social machine, used by multitudes and expected to get things done. It is expected of language that it be understood and that it have not only hearers but also answerers. All human production is founded on this assumption. A language without an audience of other speakers is no language. 'Why aren't you concentrating on real languages?' continues to be the most stinging criticism. Audience is essential to Wittgenstein's remark quoted at the beginning of this essay. Wittgenstein posits his 'private languages theory' as a kind of impossibility: all natural languages, because they exist by consensus, can only refer to private experience externally. Hence, a truly private language, devoted to naming 'feelings and moods' which the subject has never heard about or shared with others, is impossible among socialised speakers who are called upon to define subjective experience in public terms. His is a critique of solipsism, a charge often directed at language inventors. But very few conlangers that I have encountered are making private languages in Wittgenstein's sense, because most of them are interested in investing their private words with public meaning, even when they are doing it privately. For them, it is audience, deeply desireable, that has been impossible until now. Writing well before the development of CONLANG, Yaguello takes the stance that inventing a language is an act of madness. 'Just look at the lunatic in love with language', she writes: sitting in his book-lined study, he collects great piles of information, he collates and classifies it, he makes lists and fills card indexes. He is in the clutches of a denominatory delirium, of a taxonomic madness. He has to name everything, but before being able to name, he has to recognize and classify concepts, to enclose the whole Universe in a system of notation: produce enumerations, hierarchies, and paradigms. She is of course describing John Wilkins, whose Real Character and Universal Language in 1668 was an attempt to make each syllable of his every invented word denote its placement in a logical scheme of classification. 'A lunatic ambition', Yaguello pronounces, because it missed the essential quality of language: that its signs are arbitrary, practical, and changeable, so as to admit neologism and cultural difference. But Yaguello denounces auxiliary language makers in general as amateurs 'in love with language and with languages, and ignorant of the science of language'. Her example of 'feminine' invention comes from Helene Smith, the medium who claimed to be channeling Martian (badly disguised French). One conlanger noted that Yaguello's chapter entitled 'In Defence of Natural Languages' reminded him of the US Federal 'Defense of Marriage Act', whereby the institution of heterosexual marriage is 'defended' from homosexual marriage. Let homosexuals marry or lunatics invent language, and both marriage and English (or French) will come crashing to the ground. Schnapp praises Yaguello's work for being the most comprehensive examination of the phenomenon to date, but neither he nor she addresses linguist Suzette Haden Elgin's creative work on Láadan, a language designed for women, or even Quenya or Klingon -- languages that have acquired at least an audience of readers. Schnapp is less condemnatory than Yaguello, and interested in seeing language inventors as the 'philologists of imaginary worlds', 'nos semblables, nos frères, nos soeurs' -- after all. Like Yaguello, he is given to some generalities: imaginary languages are 'infantile': 'the result is always [my emphasis] an "impoverishment" of the natural languages in question: reduced to a limited set of open vowels [he means "open syllables"], prone to syllabic reduplication and to excessive syntactical parallelisms and symmetries'. To be sure, conlangs will never replicate the detail and history of a real language, but to call them 'impoverishments of the natural languages' seems as strange as calling dollhouses 'impoverishments of actual houses'. Why this perception of threat or diminishment? The critical, academic "audience" for language invention has come largely from non-language inventors and it is woefully uninformed. It is this audience that conlangers dislike the most: the outsiders who cannot understand what they are doing and who belittle it. The field, then, is open to re-examination, and the recent phenomenon of conlanging is evidence that the art of inventing languages is neither lunatic nor infantile. But if one is not Tolkien or a linguist supported by the fans of Star Trek, how does one justify the worthwhile nature of one's art? Is it even art if it has an audience of one ... its artist? Conlanging remains a highly specialised and technical pursuit that is, in the end, deeply subjective. Model builders and map-makers can expect their consumers to enjoy their products without having to participate in the minutia of their building. Not so the conlanger, whose consumer must internalise it, and who must understand and absorb complex linguistic concepts. It is different in the world of music. The Cocteau Twins, Bobby McFerrin in his Circle Songs, Lisa Gerrard in Duality, and the new group Ekova in Heaven's Dust all use 'nonsense' words set to music -- either to make songs that sound like exotic languages or to convey a kind of melodic glossolalia. Knowing the words is not important to their hearers, but few conlangers yet have that outlet, and must rely on text and graphs to give a sense of their language's structure. To this end, then, these are unheard, unaudienced languages, existing mostly on screen. A few conlangers have set their languages to music and recorded them. What they are doing, however, is decidedly different from the extempore of McFerrin. Their words mean something, and are carefully worked out lexically and grammatically. So What Are These Conlangs Like? On CONLANG and their links to Websites you will find information on almost every kind of no-language imaginable. Some sites are text only; some are lavishly illustrated, like the pages for Denden, or they feature a huge inventory of RealAudio and MP3 files, like The Kolagian Languages, or the songs of Teonaht. Some have elaborate scripts that the newest developments in fontography have been able to showcase. Some, like Tokana and Amman-Iar, are the result of decades of work and are immensely sophisticated. Valdyan has a Website with almost as much information about the 'conculture' as the conlang. Many are a posteriori languages, that is, variations on natural languages, like Brithenig (a mixture of the features of Brythonic and Romance languages); others are a priori -- starting from scratch -- like Elet Anta. Many conlangers strive to make their languages as different from European paradigms as possible. If imaginary languages are bricolages, as Schnapp writes, then conlangers are now looking to Tagalog, Basque, Georgian, Malagasay, and Aztec for ideas, instead of to Welsh, Finnish, and Hebrew, languages Tolkien drew upon for his Elvish. "Ergative" and "trigger" languages are often preferred to the "nominative" languages of Europe. Some people invent for sheer intellectual challenge; others for the beauty and sensuality of combining new and privately meaningful sounds. There are many calls for translation exercises, one of the most popular being 'The Tower of Babel' (Genesis 10: 1-9). The most recent innovation, and one that not only showcases these languages in all their variety but provides an incentive to learn another conlanger's conlang, is the Translation Relay Game: someone writes a short poem or composition in his or her language and sends it with linguistic information to someone else, who sends a translation with directions to the next in line all the way around again, like playing 'telephone'. The permutations that the Valdyan Starling Song went through give good evidence that these languages are not just relexes, or codes, of natural languages, but have their own linguistic, cultural, and poetic parameters of expression. They differ from real languages in one important respect that has bearing on my remarks about audience: very few conlangers have mastered their languages in the way one masters a native tongue. These creations are more like artefacts (several have compared it to poetry) than they are like languages. One does not live in a dollhouse. One does not normally think or speak in one's conlang, much less speak to another, except through a laborious process of translation. It remains to a longer cultural and sociolinguistic study (underway) to tease out the possibilities and problems of conlanging: why it is done, what does it satisfy, why so few women do it, what are its demographics, or whether it can be turned to pedagogical use in a 'hands-on', high- participation study of language. In this respect, CONLANG is one of the 'coolest' of on-line media. Only time will show what direction conlanging and attitudes towards it will take as the Internet becomes more powerful and widely used. Will the Internet democratise, and eventually make banal, a pursuit that has until now been painted with the romantic brush of lunacy and secrecy? (You can currently download LangMaker, invented by Jeff Henning, to help you construct your own language.) Or will it do the opposite and make language and linguistics -- so often avoided by students or reduced in university programs -- inventive and cutting edge? (The inventor of Tokana has used in-class language invention as a means to study language typology.) Now that we have it, the Internet at least provides conlangers with a place to hang their logodaedalic tapestries, and the technology for some of them to be heard. References Von Bingen, Hildegard. Lingua Ignota, or Wörterbuch der unbekannten Sprache. Eds. Marie-Louise Portmann and Alois Odermatt. Basel: Verlag Basler Hildegard-Gesellschaft, 1986. Eco, Umberto. The Search for the Perfect Language. Trans. James Fentress. Oxford, England, and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1995, 1997. Elgin, Suzette Haden. A First Dictionary and Grammar of Láadan. Madison, WI: Society for the Furtherance and Study of Fantasy and Science- Fiction, 1985. Henning, Jeffrey. Model Languages: The Newsletter Discussing Newly Imagined Words for Newly Imagined Worlds. <http://www.Langmaker.com/ml00.htm>. Kennaway, Richard. Some Internet Resources Relating to Constructed Languages. <http://www.sys.uea.ac.uk/jrk/conlang.php>. (The most comprehensive list (with links) of invented languages on the Internet.) Laycock, Donald C. The Complete Enochian Dictionary: A Dictionary of the Angelic Language as Revealed to Dr. John Dee and Edward Kelley. York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser, 1994. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media. Reprinted. Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1994. Salamon, Jeff. "Revenge of the Fanboys." Village Voice 13 Sep., 1994. Schnapp, Jeffrey. "Virgin Words: Hildegard of Bingen's Lingua Ignota and the Development of Imaginary Languages Ancient and Modern." Exemplaria 3.2 (1991): 267-98. Tolkien, J.R.R. "A Secret Vice." The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984. 198-223. Wilkins, John. An Essay Towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language. Presented to the Royal Society of England in 1668. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. 3rd ed. Trans. G.E.M. Anscombe. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1958. Yaguello, Marina. Lunatic Lovers of Language: Imaginary Languages and Their Inventors. Trans. Catherine Slater. (Les fous du langage. 1985.) London: The Athlone Press, 1991. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Sarah L. Higley. "Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/0003/languages.php>. Chicago style: Sarah L. Higley, "Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3, no. 1 (2000), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/0003/languages.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Sarah L. Higley. (2000) Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3(1). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/0003/languages.php> ([your date of access]).

Introduction: The Creative Arts and Regional Well-BeingThe relationship between regionalism, well-being, and the creative arts has enjoined significant attention from community activists, commercial entrepreneurs, policy analysts, artists, and researchers over recent years (Australia Council for the Arts, “Living Culture”; Australia Council for the Arts, “The Arts in Regional Australia;” Drummond, Keane, and West; Elg; Warren, and West; Woodward, Bremner, and Cahalan). Underpinning most of the activity and research in this area is the understanding (occasionally bordering on an un-critical presumption) that the creative arts make a positive contribution to regional well-being. Commenting on the Live. Love. Life. creative-arts wellness festival in Daylesford, Victoria, Mary-Anne Thomas (Member of Parliament for the state seat of Macedon) stated that the festival will “reinforce Daylesford and the Macedon Ranges’ status as one of the nation’s leading wellness destinations” (Elg). For Thomas, it would appear that the linkage of the creative arts to regional well-being is never in doubt; which is to say, always already available for reinforcement. According to university-based researchers Margaret Woodward, Craig Bremner, and Anthony Cahalan, writing in a more scholarly and critical register, “there is a growing body of research which shows that thriving creative industries and cultural activities are crucial for the health and vitality of a region and its communities” (3). Qualifying this, they add that: “Achieving high levels of community well being through thriving creative activity is not however without its challenges in regional Australia” (3). Similarly, Rozaline Drummond, Jondi Keane, and Patrick West present their work as a test of the efficacy of the creative arts in aiding regional well-being: The opportunity to work collaboratively with a community like the one at Lake Bolac [Victoria] provided an occasion to gauge our discerning and initiating skills within creative-arts research and to test the argument that the combination of our different approaches adds to community and individual well-being. Our approach is informed by Gilles Deleuze’s ethical proposition that the health of a community is directly influenced by the richness of the composition of its parts. (n.p.)Deleuzean philosophy aside, quantitative data indicates that people in regional Australia are increasingly optimistic about the positive impact of the creative arts on their well-being. In 2016, 57% believed the arts impacted their sense of well-being and happiness, up from 52% in 2013 (Australia Council for the Arts, “The Arts in Regional Australia”). Given this article’s emphasis on place and well-being in relation to located creative-arts production, it is worth citing another dataset from the same Australia Council for the Arts publication, which details the “Location of Professional Artists”:There continues to be a concentration of artists in urban areas. Three quarters (74%) live in cities, compared to two thirds of the Australian population. This urban concentration […] may in part be related to concentration of cultural infrastructure in cities.1 in 6 Australian artists live in regional cities or towns (16%) and around 1 in 10 live in rural, remote or very remote areas (11%). (n.p.)Regional artists are a minority voice in the Australian creative arts. But the ways in which a minority voice is constructed, and the (potential) impact a minoritarian position has within the wider debate about regional well-being and the creative arts, requires careful unpacking. Ironically, creative artists themselves have been relatively neglected actors in this space. Working with Tony Birch’s short story, “The Red House”, as a neglected text of regionalism, this article exposes oversights in current understandings of the connection between well-being and regionalism. The Voice of the Regional Artist and “Resistant Speech” It is important to recognise that the “concentration of artists in urban areas” may sometimes lead to situations where non-regional artists, in the undoubtedly well-meaning pursuit of regional well-being, drown out the voices of regional artists in regional places (Australia Council for the Arts, “The Arts in Regional Australia”). Drummond, Keane, and West, all city-based artists, show sensitivity to this problem in their observation that: “It is not for the artists to presume that they can empower a [regional] community.” Certainly, regional artists and communities should take the lead in the development of regional well-being through the creative arts. The problem of (not) speaking for the other is, however, not so easily dealt with (Spivak). While urban artists might adopt the strategy of consciously allowing regional artists a voice, making such allowance could itself be viewed as a play of privilege and power by the city-based practitioner, resourced by their greater “concentration of cultural infrastructure” (Australia Council for the Arts, “The Arts in Regional Australia”). It is notoriously difficult to give the slip to the relatively invisible operations of entitlement. Furthermore, even if the regional artist is given a voice, there are many different ways of being heard or not heard. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s distinction between “speaking” and “talking” is useful here. Discussing “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in an interview with Bulan Lahiri, Spivak notes that: “It was not about talking. It was about: when the subaltern speaks there is not enough infrastructure for people to recognise it as resistant speech. That’s what it means.” In this crucial move, Spivak refines understanding of the issues at stake around the minoritarian position of regional artists. It is not enough for regional artists merely to “talk”; rather, they must be heard with the full impact of “resistant speech” (Lahiri). Obviously, what Spivak means by the “infrastructure” of “resistant speech” differs from the meaning the word “infrastructure” has in the Australia Council for the Arts publication referred to above, which employs the term as part of a governmental and technocratic discourse (“The Arts in Regional Australia”). The distance separating these two usages of “infrastructure” indicates the difference between the quantitative and the qualitative. Working with Spivak, this article’s focus is on the gap or failing in the infrastructure of qualitative research that has led to the relative neglect of Tony Birch’s short story “The Red House” as a significant text of regionalism. The Australia Council for the Arts, with its quantitative and empirical methodology, would not count Birch as a regional writer (to the best of the author’s knowledge, Birch lives and works in Melbourne). Its definition of a regional artist undermines the possibilities of a qualitative research infrastructure. However, recognizing the powerful regional concerns within a text by a primarily city-based writer like Birch is a key move, not only in expanding the definition of who counts as a minoritarian regional writer, but in giving voice to the “resistant speech” of women and children, subalterns on Spivak’s terms, within the regional-urban flux (Lahiri). The aim of this article is to give voice to Tony Birch as a regional writer, at least insofar as he is the author of “The Red House”, while also addressing the issue of well-being (as linked to the curse of domestic violence), through attention to Birch’s artistic re-creation of regionalism. In this way, working with Spivak’s reference to “infrastructure,” the aim is to nurture the growth of a research infrastructure open to a more productive engagement with regionalism, which begins by nuancing the definition of regional. It is not that regional artists, defined either by their demography or (as with Birch) by their creative concerns, are not “talking” rather, what they are saying is not being recognised in Spivak’s strong sense of “speaking”. Indeed, the very fact that Birch is not a regional writer in an empirical sense, and that, as will be explored later in this article, “The Red House” is not even primarily set in a regional location, has at least one important consequence. Potentially, it increases the value of Birch’s short story to an engagement with regionalism, given that “The Red House” unfolds regionalism as a concept always already in productive dialogue with other frameworks of place (such as the urban and the international). To the extent that Birch is a city-based writer of regionalism, and thus on the (urban) margin of the (regional) margin, he enlivens an exquisite position of minoritarian power. Furthermore, “The Red House” contains a diversity of acute insights into the nexus of regionalism and well-being that, to date, critics have overlooked. “The Red House” and the Well-Being of Places Comparatively little scholarly attention has been paid to creative work that itself dramatises and interrogates the issue of regional well-being. Tony Birch’s short story “The Red House” (2006), from his collection of linked stories (which is sometimes referred to as a novel) Shadowboxing, is a particularly interesting candidate to fill this gap in the literature, given how delicately it ranges across, and problematises, the division between the urban and the regional.“The Red House” is the opening story of Shadowboxing. Covering a period of close to a decade, loosely overlapping with the 1960s, and set in different parts of Victoria and Melbourne, it is told in the voice of Michael, who recounts the story of a peripatetic family under stress and struggling to survive. The first sentence reads: “We moved to the red house in the winter after my younger sister, May, died of meningitis” (1). The first page also establishes the place-based coordinates of the story: “In the weeks following our move from Clunes back to Fitzroy, our new house was almost submerged by a rising flood” (1). Birch’s interrogation of regionalism will henceforth operate largely along the Clunes-Fitzroy axis. Fitzroy is an inner-city suburb of Melbourne while Clunes is a small regional town (present population: approximately 2000) about 140 kilometres north-west of Melbourne (Clunes). A flashback section of three pages or so, early on in the story, fills in the events leading up to the return to Melbourne after May’s death in Clunes. Apart from this, the story has a linear structure. The various spatial shifts of “The Red House”, both within Melbourne and between Clunes and Melbourne, are all triggered by threats against, or the pursuit of, multiple modes of well-being. The first move reflects the promise of a fresh romantic union: “It was only after he [Michael’s father] had met my mother and moved with her to my [maternal] grandmother’s house over in Carlton that he had left Fitzroy for the first time in his life” (4–5). This move from Fitzroy to Carlton is followed by a much bigger one: Carlton to Clunes. Implicated in this move are at least two modes of well-being: “The eventual move to the bush had come on the advice of a doctor at the public hospital. He said that the fresh air would help my dad recover from [his] asthma” (5); however, “My grandmother told me years later that the move did not really have all that much to do with his asthma. It was the drink” (5). The context is the husband’s assault of “his six months’ pregnant wife” with “a straight right on the end of her nose” (5). The decision to move to Clunes is made by Michael’s mother: “He fought with her so much that my mother eventually decided that she would have to move away from her mother’s house, for both their sakes. Clunes was a drastic move. But it worked, for a time […]. They appeared happy” (6). This part of “The Red House” unpacks the complexities of how well-being and (physical and mental) health are linked in a social matrix; a physical ailment (asthma) elides an addiction to alcohol, until a doctor’s discourse (validated by the authority of a medical establishment) is subverted by the subalternate voice of Michael’s grandmother. This passage also dramatises the abject scenario of a victim (Michael’s mother) attending to the well-being of her persecutor (Michael’s father) by moving to Clunes “for both their sakes” (6).Subsequently, May is born in Clunes, “a ‘special baby’. She was magical even…” (6). Indeed, “My father’s habit of explosive anger melted before May. He was truly besotted with her” (6). Just before what would have been her second birthday, May dies. “My father wanted to bring May back to Melbourne for burial, but my mother stood up to him and demanded that she be buried in the town where she was born” (6). This is the most powerful enduring connection of Michael’s family to regional Clunes. Significantly, well-being (in the sense of survival and the rebuilding of happiness after the tragic death of a daughter) is dispersed differently, through place, by mother and father, along gendered lines. While the mother wants her daughter’s birthplace and place of death to coincide, the father wants to possess his daughter, almost as if she were an object, by returning her to the city for burial. (Space restrictions preclude further exploration here of the many issues raised by May’s death, including those around the gendered nexus between well-being [happiness] and the proximity or otherwise to a child’s burial place.) After May’s death, Michael’s father’s behaviour deteriorates once more. The domestic violence continues: “It was difficult for my mother to find anything safe to say to him […]. She tried to talk about May with him several times, but he either responded with silence, or swore and yelled at her uncontrollably. He also found his way back to the pubs” (7). The decision to return to Melbourne is made by Michael’s father, against his wife’s wishes: And then one night after he had walked in from the pub he sat down at the table and just said to her, ‘Fuck all this fresh-air bullshit, we’re going back to Melbourne.’ She tried persuading him to stay, talked about his job and my school, but he would not listen. He got sick of her talking and slammed a fist into his heavy palm. ‘We’re fucken going. That’s it. We’re going.’ And that was it.She looked across the table that night and saw once again the man she had married six years earlier, the man who she had deceived herself had faded and eventually disappeared with the move away from the city. (7)In this passage, well-being (even if only imagined rather than real) is explicitly linked to place. Shortly afterwards, the family moves into the red house, where they will remain. The flashback section of the text has already sketched out the chain of events that leads to the return to the city, while also commenting on the agency Michael’s mother exercises in dealing with what, to her, is an unwelcome situation: “Mum […] had argued against coming back to the city. She sensed the looming danger in my father moving back both to his old streets and his old habits. But on realising that she had no real say in the matter, she was determined to ensure that she at least have some say in the house she was moving into” (4). Specifically, Michael’s mother turns her Fitzroy house into the regional house left behind in Clunes. Under her influence, “It wasn’t long before the inside of the house came to life and began to resemble the old place at Clunes” (11). Again: she brings a portrait of May, along with assorted baby belongings, into the Fitzroy house, keeping this secret from her husband. Thus, Michael’s mother infiltrates regional place into urban place as a strategy of (subalternate) well-being. In summary, “The Red House” unpacks well-being as an expansive category shaped by domestic violence, in a negative sense, but also more positively by the actuality or promise of happiness. It also interrogates the fine-grained links between well-being in its incarnations as medical and emotional health. At the same time, it maps the rise and fall of well-being against a human geography of regional and urban places, refusing any simplistic connection of place to well-being (more faintly, there is even the problematising presence of international place, in the character of the Italian landlord, Mr Carboni, and the reference to “the local Italian community [2]). Thus, the text’s regionalism suggests a strategic model, reliant on human intervention in the (re-)creation of place; this is most evident in Michael’s mother’s actions. “The Red House” rewards interpretation as a text of how regional place (Clunes) is re-made in urban place (Fitzroy) through the rehabilitation of a house in the interests of well-being. Well-Being and Domestic Violence across Places It is hard to imagine a greater threat to the well-being of women and children than domestic violence. This makes it all the more surprising that “The Red House” is one of relatively few texts (to the author’s knowledge) to offer a detailed outline of the territory of well-being, in its many forms stretching from the health-based to the emotional, while also including a direct and unflinching consideration of domestic violence. (One cognate text is Kathryn Heyman’s novel The Breaking, which merges medical disability and domestic violence within a broader consideration of regional well-being.) Even more unusual is the way Birch’s story of well-being and domestic violence is mapped in relation to regional and non-regional places. “The Red House” is rare and valuable for its triangulation of well-being, domestic violence, and place; above all, in its refusal to resort to any comforting notion that regional places have essential qualities that make them necessarily better for well-being than the experience of cities. This is perhaps the meaning of the colour of the red house, a colour Michael’s father hates. According to a local know-all, Emu Bailey, the red was originally a form of protest by Ettie Rogers, “‘some sort of communist’” (10). “‘Most everyone around here back then was DLP [Democratic Labour Party]. Still is, some of them. Ettie wasn’t in agreement with the others in the street, so she let them know all about it. Redone it every summer too, the same colour, red’” (10). When Michael’s mother responds to her husband’s injunction to re-paint the house “‘any colour but that fucken red’” (13) by preparing to re-paint it, subversively, “a deep red splash of colour” (19) it is not difficult to discern a silent protest, passed down from woman to woman, against the domestic violence suffered by Michael and his mother. Indeed, Birch comes very close to describing the red of the house as blood-like, labelling it “a rich congealed red” (2). “Congealed” is often used to describe blood. In this way, through a colour that evokes the body, a house becomes a visible and metaphorical protest against the bodily violence (but also emotional and mental torment) that is domestic violence. As Meg Mundell argues, “the body is integral to how literary sense of place is produced” (8). This bodily, coloured protest folds back into the special sort of place the Fitzroy home becomes. If Michael’s mother cannot keep living in Clunes, she can at least paint her city house red. Perhaps attesting to the success of this female protest, there is, towards the end of “The Red House”, a fascinating moment when, as if influenced by the domestic circumstances of transplanted place (from regional Clunes) created by Michael’s mother, domestic violence threatens, but is thwarted. Michael’s mother has just told her husband that she is going to have another baby: “He spun around and moved towards her. I thought that maybe he was going to hit her. But he didn’t. He stopped in front of her. They were toe to toe” (17). Place and (pregnant) body, in an intensified combination (or even, to riff on Spivak’s terminology, as an “infrastructure”), allow the subaltern to “speak” against her oppression. Conclusion: Re-Defining Regionalism through the Literary Creative Arts Tony Birch’s “The Red House” re-creates the regional as something other than a pre-determined place. Regionalism is “activated,” in a strategic mode, within the flux of the urban and the regional. This is particularly evident in the actions of Michael’s mother. She preserves her well-being (located in Clunes, as it were, where her daughter is buried) even after she is forced by her husband to return to Melbourne (the place she left to escape from his domestic violence). The picture of May acts as a talisman of well-being (aptly, given Clunes is described by Michael as “a town where old superstitions held sway over logic” [6]), which Michael’s mother smuggles from regional Clunes into her Melbourne house. “The Red House” is thus a vital literary rejoinder to the conceptualisation of well-being, and regional areas employed by government bodies and commercial entities, which instrumentalizes a binary opposition of the regional/non-regional. By extension, it contests the naïve linkage of regional place to well-being through a nuanced investigation into the complex links between place (regional, urban, even international) and multi-faceted well-being. Birch’s story is a valuable, fine-grained creative analysis of well-being (extending from happiness, comfort and security through to what might be called the “ill-being” of domestic violence), which is matched to an equally fine-grained engagement with multiple modalities of place. 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