Journal articles: 'Agoraphobia'

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HAYWARD, C., J. D. KILLEN, and C. B. TAYLOR. "The relationship between agoraphobia symptoms and panic disorder in a non-clinical sample of adolescents." Psychological Medicine 33, no. 4 (May 2003): 733–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291702006955.

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Background. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical correlates of agoraphobic fear and avoidance and panic disorder in a non-clinical sample of adolescents.Method. In a sample of 2365 high school students, combined data from a questionnaire and a structured clinical interview were used to classify subjects with agoraphobic fear and avoidance. Panic symptoms, major depression, childhood separation anxiety disorder, anxiety sensitivity and negative affectivity were also assessed.Results. Fifteen subjects met study criteria for agoraphobic fear and avoidance in the past year. Only three (20%) of those with agoraphobia symptoms reported histories of panic attacks and there was no overlap between those with agoraphobic fear and avoidance and the 12 subjects who met DSM-III-R criteria for panic disorder. However, subjects with agoraphobia symptoms and those with panic disorder reported similar levels of anxiety sensitivity and negative affectivity. Childhood separation anxiety disorder was more common among those with agoraphobic fear and avoidance compared to those without.Conclusion. Agoraphobic avoidance is rare in non-clinical samples of adolescents and usually not associated with panic attacks. However, adolescents with agoraphobia symptoms and those with panic disorder have similar clinical correlates consistent with a panic/agoraphobia spectrum model.

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Goldberg, Carlos. "Contributing Factors Associated with Agoraphobia." Psychological Reports 72, no. 1 (February 1993): 192–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.72.1.192.

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24 agoraphobics, 6 panic subjects, and 27 normal controls were compared on several factors assumed to be associated with agoraphobia. As compared to controls, agoraphobics scored higher on these factors, but, in general, there were no differences between agoraphobics and panic subjects without agoraphobia.

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Watts, Fraser N., and Arnold J. Wilkins. "The role of provocative visual stimuli in agoraphobia." Psychological Medicine 19, no. 4 (November 1989): 875–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700005596.

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SYNOPSISThree studies examine the role that provocative visual stimuli have in eliciting anxiety reactions in people with agoraphobia. Such stimuli elicit more anxiety in agoraphobic patients than control subjects. The effect of visual stimulation appears to be specific: (1) non-visual stimulation is without comparable effect; (2) both control and agoraphobic groups show similar effects of visual stimulation on another reaction such as headache. The anxiety effects of visual stimuli are correlated with the extent to which subjects experience depersonalization and somatic symptoms of agoraphobia, but not correlated with depression or the behavioural or cognitive aspects of agoraphobia. Alternative accounts of the possible role of visual stimulation in the anxiety reactions of agoraphobic patients are discussed.

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Bowen, Rudradeo C., Donald G. Fischer, Peter Barrett, and Carl D'Arcy. "The Relationship between Agoraphobia, Social Phobia and Blood-Injury Phobia in Phobic and Anxious-Depressed Patients." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 32, no. 4 (May 1987): 275–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674378703200405.

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This paper reports the results of principal components and stepwise discriminant analyses of anxiety, depression and fear scores for 74 phobic and anxious-depressed psychiatric patients. Factor analysis indicated a coherent agoraphobia factor, with less coherent blood-injury and social phobia factors. Discriminant analysis showed a high degree of correct classification of diagnosed agoraphobic, blood-injury and social phobic patients particularly for agoraphobia. A frequency distribution of the phobia scores indicated an all or nothing quality to agoraphobic fears. The results indicate that agoraphobia is a fairly coherent syndrome, but that more work is needed on the concepts and measurement of blood-injury and social phobias.

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Wittmann, A., F. Schlagenhauf, A. Guhn, U. Lueken, C. Gaehlsdorf, M. Stoy, F. Bermpohl, et al. "Anticipating agoraphobic situations: the neural correlates of panic disorder with agoraphobia." Psychological Medicine 44, no. 11 (January 7, 2014): 2385–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713003085.

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BackgroundPanic disorder with agoraphobia is characterized by panic attacks and anxiety in situations where escape might be difficult. However, neuroimaging studies specifically focusing on agoraphobia are rare. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with disorder-specific stimuli to investigate the neural substrates of agoraphobia.MethodWe compared the neural activations of 72 patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia with 72 matched healthy control subjects in a 3-T fMRI study. To isolate agoraphobia-specific alterations we tested the effects of the anticipation and perception of an agoraphobia-specific stimulus set. During fMRI, 48 agoraphobia-specific and 48 neutral pictures were randomly presented with and without anticipatory stimulus indicating the content of the subsequent pictures (Westphal paradigm).ResultsDuring the anticipation of agoraphobia-specific pictures, stronger activations were found in the bilateral ventral striatum and left insula in patients compared with controls. There were no group differences during the perception phase of agoraphobia-specific pictures.ConclusionsThis study revealed stronger region-specific activations in patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia in anticipation of agoraphobia-specific stimuli. Patients seem to process these stimuli more intensively based on individual salience. Hyperactivation of the ventral striatum and insula when anticipating agoraphobia-specific situations might be a central neurofunctional correlate of agoraphobia. Knowledge about the neural correlates of anticipatory and perceptual processes regarding agoraphobic situations will help to optimize and evaluate treatments, such as exposure therapy, in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia.

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Marchand, André, and Michel Wapler. "L'effet des troubles de la personnalité sur la réponse au traitement béhavioural-cognitif du trouble panique avec agoraphobie." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 38, no. 3 (April 1993): 163–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674379303800302.

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This study measures the effect of personality disorders on the efficacy of treatment of agoraphobia. Forty-one patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia are evaluated for the presence of a personality disorder (according to DSM-III-R criteria) before the onset of treatment. The treatment consists in 14 sessions of behavioural cognitive therapy. Various measures of agoraphobic avoidance are obtained before (pre-test) and after the end of treatment (post-test, three month follow-up). Effect of treatment reaches statistical and clinical significance for all patients. Grouping of patients according to presence or absence of personality disorder shows no significant difference between the groups before or after treatment on scores of agoraphobia. A subgroup of patients with dependent personality disorder does not differ on measures of agoraphobic avoidance from patients without personality disorders or with other personality disorders. The discussion points out methodological limitations, differences in our study from other studies regarding the effect of personality on the treatment outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia, as well as possibilities for future studies.

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Moran, Carmen, and Gavin Andrews. "The Familial Occurrence of Agoraphobia." British Journal of Psychiatry 146, no. 3 (March 1985): 262–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.146.3.262.

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SummaryAgoraphobia is believed to run in families, but this belief is not well supported by the literature. Data were gathered on the risk of agoraphobia in parents and siblings of 60 agoraphobic probands; 12½% of the relatives were reported to have or have had agoraphobia. This risk is significantly greater than estimates of the population incidence, and requires explanation. The details of the pedigrees do not directly support simple genetic models while investigations into environmental factors in agoraphobia by other workers have been inconclusive. As a putative case has been established for the familial occurrence of agoraphobia, further work is required to shed light on whether genetic or cultural factors are paramount

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Cox, Brian J., Richard P. Swinson, and Brian F. Shaw. "Value of the Fear Questionnaire in Differentiating Agoraphobia and Social Phobia." British Journal of Psychiatry 159, no. 6 (December 1991): 842–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.159.6.842.

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The present study examined responses on the Fear Questionnaire (FQ) of 68 patients suffering panic disorder with agoraphobia, 50 social phobics, 75 subjects with ‘non-clinical’ panic attacks, and 188 non-panicking controls. The FQ agoraphobia and social subscales had satisfactory internal consistency and were accurate (82%) in correctly differentiating the patients. In general, the patient and control groups differed as expected. The highest level of social fear was reported by social phobics and the highest level of agoraphobic fear was reported by patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Five items from these two subscales significantly differentiated social phobia from panic disorder with agoraphobia. The results support the reliability and validity of the FQ.

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Argyle, Nick, Carol Solyom, and Leslie Solyom. "The Structure of Phobias in Panic Disorder." British Journal of Psychiatry 159, no. 3 (September 1991): 378–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.159.3.378.

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Fear and avoidance of individual phobic situations were measured in 1168 patients with panic disorder suffering current attacks. Correlation and principal-components analyses give components of agoraphobia, illness phobia, and social phobia in panic disorder. Agoraphobia does not stand out so clearly as illness phobia and social phobia as a separate factor; ‘fear of open spaces' shows some separation from other agoraphobic situations. Frequency of panic attacks and changes associated with their remission have no special relationship to agoraphobia. Closer attention to social and illness phobia may be fruitful in discerning the evolution of panic disorder.

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Mokhber, N., and F. Savadkoohi. "The effects of olanzapine in treatment of panic disorder with and without agoraphobia." European Psychiatry 26, S2 (March 2011): 165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-9338(11)71876-4.

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BackgroundIn this study, we have evaluated the effects of Olanzapine in treatment of panic disorder with and without agoraphobia.Method and materialsPatients whit resistant panic disorder (resistant to tow SSRI agents) who came to psychiatric clinic of Ibn-e-Sina and Ghaem Hospitals-Mashhad during 2004–2005 were enrolled in this study. Low dose Olanzapine (2.5 milligram per day) was administered initially. ALL cases were evaluated by different psychiatric tests such as agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire panic attack and anticipatory anxiety scale, Hamilton depression test and general functional assessment.ResultsIn this study, 30 patients were divided into two groups of panic disorder with agoraphobia (13 cases) and panic disorder without agrophobia (17 cases). Comparing these two groups, all indexes were improved significantly by time but The frequency of panic attacks in the last week minor panic attack duration of panic attacks agoraphobic cognition scale and Hamilton depression indexes were Improved significantly especially in those cases with panic disorder and agoraphobia Although the therapeutic response according to anxiety score, total panic attacks Hamilton depression test and general functional assessment was not showed any Difference.ConclusionOlanzapine augmentation has acceptable effects in the treatment of drug resistant panic disorder with agoraphobia and therapeutic effects were more significant among patients with panic disorder without agoraphobia.

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Hafner, R. Julian, and Michael J. Roder. "Agoraphobia and Parental Bereavement." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 21, no. 3 (September 1987): 340–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048678709160930.

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The prevalence of parental bereavement was determined in 50 married female outpatients with a DSM-III diagnosis of agoraphobia and in a control group of married female outpatients diagnosed as having non-psychotic psychiatric disorders other than agoraphobia. The two groups were matched for age and overall severity of psychiatric symptoms. Compared with the general population, the patient control group reported a statistically significant excess of parental, but not maternal, bereavement. The agoraphobic group was significantly younger than the control group at the time of parental loss. These data, together with other reports, suggest a contribution of paternal bereavement before the age of 30 years to agoraphobia in married women and a contribution of recent parental bereavement to psychiatric disorder in general.

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Newell, Robert, and Isaac Marks. "Phobic nature of social difficulty in facially disfigured people." British Journal of Psychiatry 176, no. 2 (February 2000): 177–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.176.2.177.

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BackgroundOver 390 000 people in the UK are disfigured. Facial disfigurement distresses sufferers markedly but has been studied little.AimsTo compare fearful avoidance of people with a facial disfigurement with that of a group of patients with phobia.MethodComparison of Fear Questionnaire agoraphobia, social phobia and anxiety depression sub-scale scores of 112 facially disfigured people (who scored high on Fear Questionnaire problem severity in three survey studies) with those of 66 out-patients with agoraphobia and 68 out-patients with social phobia.ResultsFacially disfigured people and patients with social phobia had similar Fear Questionnaire scores. In contrast, facially disfigured people scored lower on the agoraphobia sub-score but higher on the social phobia sub-score than did patients with agoraphobia.ConclusionsFacially disfigured people with psychological difficulties resembled people with social phobia on Fear Questionnaire social phobia, agoraphobia and anxiety/depression sub-scores but were less agoraphobic and more socially phobic than were people with agoraphobia. Facially disfigured people thus appeared to be socially phobic and to deserve the cognitive – behavioural therapy that is effective for such phobias.

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13

McConaghy, Nathaniel, Derrick Silove, and Wayne Hall. "Behaviour Completion Mechanisms, Anxiety and Agoraphobia." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 23, no. 3 (September 1989): 373–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048678909068295.

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Little attention has been paid to the situations which provoke the initial attack of anxiety in agoraphobia. According to the behaviour completion hypothesis many normal subjects experience increased tension in such situations when there is a delay in the completion of a behaviour. One hundred and eight medical students completed a questionnaire designed to investigate this hypothesis. They reported experiencing increased tension or anxiety significantly more frequently in situations provoking agoraphobia when the situations contained a component of delay, as compared to such situations without this component, or to situations not commonly provoking agoraphobia. It is proposed that tension, anxiety and panic form a continuum of increasing levels of arousal, but are associated with different cognitions. It is further proposed that the arousal level of agoraphobics is sensitized, so that delay which provokes mild increases of arousal in the healthy, provokes high arousal in agoraphobics. This finding supports the hypothesis that delay in behaviour completion is a mechanism in the generation of tension and anxiety.

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McConaghy, Nathaniel, Derrick Silove, and Wayne Hall. "Behaviour Completion Mechanisms, Anxiety and Agoraphobia." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 23, no. 3 (September 1989): 373–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000486748902300324.

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Little attention has been paid to the situations which provoke the initial attack of anxiety in agoraphobia. According to the behaviour completion hypothesis many normal subjects experience increased tension in such situations when there is a delay in the completion of a behaviour. One hundred and eight medical students completed a questionnaire designed to investigate this hypothesis. They reported experiencing increased tension or anxiety significantly more frequently in situations provoking agoraphobia when the situations contained a component of delay, as compared to such situations without this component, or to situations not commonly provoking agoraphobia. It is proposed that tension, anxiety and panic form a continuum of increasing levels of arousal, but are associated with different cognitions. It is further proposed that the arousal level of agoraphobics is sensitized, so that delay which provokes mild increases of arousal in the healthy, provokes high arousal in agoraphobics. This finding supports the hypothesis that delay in behaviour completion is a mechanism in the generation of tension and anxiety.

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Silove, Derrick. "Perceived Parental Characteristics and Reports of Early Parental Deprivation in Agoraphobic Patients." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 20, no. 3 (September 1986): 365–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048678609158884.

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It is commonly believed that patients with agoraphobia have suffered more frequently from aberrant family experiences in childhood. Some authors have described an excess of parental deprivation and others have incriminated parental overprotectiveness. Recent studies have failed to confirm these impressions but, instead, find that agoraphobic patients recall deficits in parental warmth and care during their early years. This report of a Sydney case-control study adds support to the view that parental overprotectiveness in isolation is unlikely to place the child at greater risk of developing agoraphobia in the future. Only when the child experiences a sense of parental neglect and lack of care, either alone or in combination with overprotection, does the risk of agoraphobia in adulthood appear to be increased.

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Kovalev, A. I. "Clinical features of the combination of agoraphobia and non-psychotic mental disorders." Medical Herald of the South of Russia 13, no. 2 (June 29, 2022): 146–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.21886/2219-8075-2022-13-2-146-153.

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The review article gives a modern definition of the concept of agoraphobia. Different classification approaches in the typing of agoraphobia are presented. Its role as a factor aggravating the course of non-psychotic mental disorders is shown. The features of its manifestation depending on the nosological affiliation are analyzed. It was revealed that agoraphobia is a predictor of an unfavorable outcome in people with panic disorder. In turn, panic disorder often causes the development of agoraphobia. At the same time, gender and age aspects are noted. The comorbidity of agoraphobia and somato-vegetative type of generalized anxiety disorder is shown. Agoraphobia increases the risk of suicidal behavior in depression, has a high correlation with the severity of personality disorders, especially of the avoidant and dependent type. At the same time, some researchers dispute the point of view that these types of personality disorders are predisposing factors for panic disorder and agoraphobia, based on retrospective data on the premorbid personality structure of patients with anxiety disorders. The relationship between PTSD and panic disorder is emphasized in connection with the emergence of a circular model of the development of feelings of fear, which postulates a similar etiology of anxiety disorders. There is a comorbidity of agoraphobia with disorders of the hypochondriac spectrum: from the degree of fixation to obsessive nature. reduces the effectiveness of therapy for schizophrenic spectrum disorders and the quality of life of patients. The picture of the panic disorder itself with agoraphobia becomes heavier if the patient has chronic alcoholism (in particular, the frequency of seizures increases), while the presence of agoraphobic symptoms leads to a relapse of alcoholic illness, which is explained by taking alcohol to relieve symptoms, and also increases the likelihood of developing dependence on tranquilizers.

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Pyke, Jennifer, and Jacqueline Roberts. "Social Support and Married Agoraphobic Women." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 32, no. 2 (March 1987): 100–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674378703200204.

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This study was conducted to determine if a relationship exists between social support and agoraphobia. Married agoraphobic women from a support group for phobics were compared with married, non-agoraphobic women from Family Practice clinics, and social support factors were examined. The agoraphobic women were found to perceive their husbands as less supportive. As well, there were important reductions in network size and network support in these agoraphobic women.

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Caldirola, Daniela, Claudia Carminati, Silvia Daccò, Massimiliano Grassi, Giampaolo Perna, and Roberto Teggi. "Balance Rehabilitation with Peripheral Visual Stimulation in Patients with Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia: An Open-Pilot Intervention Study." Audiology Research 13, no. 3 (April 28, 2023): 314–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/audiolres13030027.

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Given the involvement of balance system abnormalities in the pathophysiology of panic disorder and agoraphobia (PD-AG), we evaluated initial evidence for feasibility, acceptability, and potential clinical usefulness of 10 sessions of balance rehabilitation with peripheral visual stimulation (BR-PVS) in an open-pilot 5-week intervention study including six outpatients with PD-AG who presented residual agoraphobia after selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment and cognitive–behavioral therapy, dizziness in daily life, and peripheral visual hypersensitivity measured by posturography. Before and after BR-PVS, patients underwent posturography, otovestibular examination (no patients presented peripheral vestibular abnormalities), and panic-agoraphobic symptom and dizziness evaluation with psychometric tools. After BR-PVS, four patients achieved postural control normalization measured by posturography, and one patient exhibited a favorable trend of improvement. Overall, panic-agoraphobic symptoms and dizziness decreased, even though to a lesser extent in one patient who had not completed the rehabilitation sessions. The study presented reasonable levels of feasibility and acceptability. These findings suggest that balance evaluation should be considered in patients with PD-AGO presenting residual agoraphobia and that BR-PVS might be an adjunctive therapeutic option worth being tested in larger randomized controlled studies.

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Hoffart, Asle, and Svenn Torgersen. "Mental Health Locus of Control in First-Degree Relatives of Agoraphobic and Depressed Inpatients." Psychological Reports 71, no. 2 (October 1992): 579–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1992.71.2.579.

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Mental health locus of control in 77 first-degree relatives of agoraphobic, agoraphobic and major depressed (comorbid), and depressed inpatients were studied. Relatives of comorbid patients externalized locus of control more to chance than did relatives of agoraphobic and of depressed patients. These results suggest that a tendency to externalize to chance is familially transmitted and may be a vulnerability factor for the development of the comorbid condition of agoraphobia and major depression.

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Latas, Milan, Mihajlo Mitrovic, and Vladan Starcevic. "Gender differences in psychopathologic features of agoraphobia with panic disorder." Vojnosanitetski pregled 63, no. 6 (2006): 569–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vsp0606569l.

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Background/Aim. To examine gender differences in the major psychopathologic features in agoraphobia with panic disorder. Method. The study was conducted as a clinical study. The sample consisted of 119 patients, 32 men (26.9%) and 87 women (73.1%) with the basic diagnosis of agoraphobia with panic disorder. All the patients were evaluated with the clinical instruments suitable for the assessment of various clinical features associated with agoraphobia with panic disorder - questionnaires (the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 90, the Panic Appraisal Inventory, the Fear Questionnaire, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and the Beck Depression Inventory), and the clinical rating scale (the Panic and Agoraphobia Scale). After the data collection, the sample was divided into two groups by the gender. Then the groups were compared. Results. There were no differences between the genders in the global psychopathologic features (the age at the onset of a disorder, duration of a disorder, severity and frequency of panic attacks, intensity of general psychiatric symptoms, intensity of general anxiety and depression). The women, however, reported a subjective perception of a more severe agoraphobic avoidance and males were significantly more likely than the females to anticipate the serious somatic consequences of panic attacks and worry about somatic health. Conclusion. There were a few gender specific psychopathologic features in patients with agoraphobia with panic disorder, so further studies would be necessary to come to a more precise conclusion.

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Vos, S. P. F., M. J. H. Huibers, L. Diels, and A. Arntz. "A randomized clinical trial of cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for panic disorder with agoraphobia." Psychological Medicine 42, no. 12 (April 30, 2012): 2661–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291712000876.

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BackgroundInterpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) seems to be as effective as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the treatment of major depression. Because the onset of panic attacks is often related to increased interpersonal life stress, IPT has the potential to also treat panic disorder. To date, a preliminary open trial yielded promising results but there have been no randomized controlled trials directly comparing CBT and IPT for panic disorder.MethodThis study aimed to directly compare the effects of CBT versus IPT for the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Ninety-one adult patients with a primary diagnosis of DSM-III or DSM-IV panic disorder with agoraphobia were randomized. Primary outcomes were panic attack frequency and an idiosyncratic behavioral test. Secondary outcomes were panic and agoraphobia severity, panic-related cognitions, interpersonal functioning and general psychopathology. Measures were taken at 0, 3 and 4 months (baseline, end of treatment and follow-up).ResultsIntention-to-treat (ITT) analyses on the primary outcomes indicated superior effects for CBT in treating panic disorder with agoraphobia. Per-protocol analyses emphasized the differences between treatments and yielded larger effect sizes. Reductions in the secondary outcomes were equal for both treatments, except for agoraphobic complaints and behavior and the credibility ratings of negative interpretations of bodily sensations, all of which decreased more in CBT.ConclusionsCBT is the preferred treatment for panic disorder with agoraphobia compared to IPT. Mechanisms of change should be investigated further, along with long-term outcomes.

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Rubino, I. Alex, Monica Verucci, and Enzo Fortuna. "Microgenetic Styles of Regulation among Two Nonpsychotic Psychiatric Groups." Perceptual and Motor Skills 76, no. 3_suppl (June 1993): 1059–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1993.76.3c.1059.

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The serial version of the Color-Word Test was employed to assess the regulative styles (or adaptive patterns) of two nonpsychotic psychiatric groups, one with Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia, the other without either of the latter two diagnoses. Agoraphobics ( n = 30) were individually matched for sex, age, and education with nonagoraphobic patients and with nonclinical controls. Compared with normals, nonagoraphobic patients had fewer Stabilized (S) and more Cumulative-Dissociative (CD) Primary Types, fewer Cumulative (Cr) and more Dissociative (Dr) and Cumulative-Dissociative R-types (CDr), more Dissociative V-types (Dv). The agoraphobic sample showed styles more akin to those of normal persons than to the other psychiatric group with the exception of an elevated frequency of R-Dissociation (Vr type). Interestingly, very low scores on several secondary variables were more frequent in the clinical groups than in the nonclinical sample.

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FAVA, G. A., C. RAFANELLI, S. GRANDI, S. CONTI, C. RUINI, L. MANGELLI, and P. BELLUARDO. "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia treated by exposure." Psychological Medicine 31, no. 5 (July 2001): 891–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291701003592.

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Background. There is a paucity of long-term outcome studies of panic disorder that exceed a 2-year follow-up. The aim of the study was to evaluate the long-term follow-up of patients with panic disorder with agoraphobia treated according to a standardized protocol.Methods. A consecutive series of 200 patients satisfying the DSM-IV criteria for panic disorder with agoraphobia was treated in an out-patient clinic with behavioural methods based on exposure homework. One hundred and thirty-six patients became panic free after 12 sessions of psychotherapy and 132 were available for follow-up. A 2- to 14-year (median = 8 years) follow-up was performed. Survival analysis was employed to characterize the clinical course of patients.Results. Thirty-one of the 132 patients (23%) had a relapse of panic disorder at some time during follow-up. The estimated cumulative percentage of patients remaining in remission was 93·1 after 2 years, 82·4 after 5 years, 78·8 after 7 years and 62·1 after 10 years. Such probabilities increased with younger age, and in the absence of a personality disorder, of high pre-treatment levels of depressed mood, of residual agoraphobic avoidance after exposure, and of concurrent use of benzodiazepines and antidepressant drugs.Conclusions. The findings suggest that exposure treatment can provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Disappearance of residual and subclinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim of exposure therapy.

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Solyom, L., B. Ledwidge, and C. Solyom. "Delineating Social Phobia." British Journal of Psychiatry 149, no. 4 (October 1986): 464–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.149.4.464.

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The natural history-including psychiatric symptoms, precipitating factors, onset and course of illness, and personality characteristics-of 47 social phobics, 80 agoraphobics, and 72 simple phobics was examined. The social phobia group differed from the agoraphobia group by having a lower mean age, fewer females and married members, and a higher educational and occupational status. They were less fearful generally, less obsessive, and less likely to follow a fluctuating or phasic course. There was overlap between the two groups with regard to main phobias, and they were similar with regard to adjacent symptomatology. Both the social and agoraphobia groups differed in similar and significant ways from simple phobics.

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North, Max M., Sarah M. North, and Joseph R. Coble. "Effectiveness of Virtual Environment Desensitization in the Treatment of Agoraphobia." International Journal of Virtual Reality 1, no. 2 (January 1, 1995): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.20870/ijvr.1995.1.2.2603.

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The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the virtual environment technology in the area of psychotherapy. Consequently, this study investigated the effectiveness of a virtual environment desensitization (VED) in the treatment of agoraphobia (fear of being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing). It was done with a traditional experimental design using N=60 subjects. Thirty subjects were placed in the experimental group and thirty subjects were placed in the control group. Two instruments were used: an Attitude Towards Agoraphobia Questionnaire (ATAQ) and the Subjective Unit of Discomfort Scale (SUDS). Only subjects in the experimental group were exposed to the VED treatment. The virtual environment desensitization was shown to be effective in treatment of subjects with agoraphobia (experimental group). The control group, or no-treatment group, did not change significantly. All the attitudes towards agoraphobic situation decreased significantly for the virtual environment desensitization group (experimental group) but not for control group. The average SUDS in each session decreased steadily across sessions, indicating habituation. This research, including the pilot studies, has established a new paradigm for utilizing virtual environment technology in the effective, economical, and confidential treatment of psychological disorders.

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Hand, Iver. "GROUP EXPOSURE IN VIVO FOR AGORAPHOBICS (1974): A MULTIFACETED PILOT STUDY AND ITS IMPACT ON SUBSEQUENT AGORAPHOBIA RESEARCH." Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 28, no. 4 (October 2000): 335–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465800004033.

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This paper reviews the research in agoraphobia in four areas: (i) Is the group application of exposure in vivo really the most effective treatment for agoraphobia? (ii) Does high group cohesion really increase the power of group exposure? (iii) Was the exposure mode applied in this study actually the first cognitive-behavioural intervention in behaviour therapy of anxiety disorders? (iv) How often do agoraphobics really suffer from marital discord, and how does this affect the outcome of short-term, massed exposure-treatment? It describes the development of concepts and the evolution of knowledge, but it also points out the redundancies, misunderstandings and pitfalls in research that have hindered progress. This paper does not deal with the data quality of the studies reviewed; sometimes high data quality does not result in high information quality, and vice versa. This is therefore not a scientific paper but a non-comprehensive journey through the recent history of research in behaviour therapy for agoraphobia. It is hoped to give practice-relevant information for clinicians and some new ideas for future research.

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Pollard, C. Alec, and Gerald L. Cox. "Social-Evaluative Anxiety in Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia." Psychological Reports 62, no. 1 (February 1988): 323–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1988.62.1.323.

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18 agoraphobics with panic attacks had significantly higher scores on the Willoughby Personality Schedule, a measure of social-evaluative anxiety, than 18 matched patients with panic disorder. Results are compatible with the position that hypersensitivity to criticism is associated with and may contribute to the development of agoraphobia following panic attacks, but further research is needed.

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Berle, David, Vladan Starcevic, Anthony Hannan, Denise Milicevic, Claire Lamplugh, and Pauline Fenech. "Cognitive factors in panic disorder, agoraphobic avoidance and agoraphobia." Behaviour Research and Therapy 46, no. 2 (February 2008): 282–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.12.002.

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Biran, Mia. "Cognitive and Exposure Treatment for Agoraphobia: Reexamination of the Outcome Research." Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 2, no. 3 (January 1988): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.2.3.165.

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Researchers working within the behavioral framework have concluded that in vivo exposure is an effective, though incomplete, treatment for agoraphobia. Cognitive treatments (i.e., the modification of internal dialogue) have been found less effective and show little supplemental value to exposure. In this paper it is argued that the behavioral perspective has provided a limited vision of cognitive therapy as an effective supplement to exposure. Reexamination of the research literature engenders different conclusions and opens up some fresh possibilities for a combined exposure-cognitive treatment. From a cognitive perspective, the modification of self-statements and internal dialogue is not enough for producing enduring and generalizable therapeutic results. A complete treatment for agoraphobia requires a combination of in vivo exposure with a bona fide cognitive therapy which addresses core cognitive constructs about the world and the self specific to agoraphobic patients.

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Hoffart, Asle, Ann Hackmann, and Harold Sexton. "Interpersonal Fears among Patients with Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia." Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 34, no. 3 (May 2, 2006): 359–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465806002980.

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To study the role of catastrophic interpersonal cognitions in panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, a questionnaire listing such items – the Interpersonal Panic Fear Questionnaire (IPFQ) – was constructed and administered to English and Norwegian samples. The results of the factor analysis indicated a three-factor structure of interpersonal fears: fear of negative evaluation, fear of being trapped and separated from safe persons and places, and fear of being neglected. The corresponding three IPFQ scales had satisfactory internal consistency and sensitivity to change following therapeutic intervention, discriminated well between diagnostic groups, and correlated moderately with measures of other dimensions of panic disorder and agoraphobia. The construct validity of the interpersonal fears was further supported by mostly significant relationships between the IPFQ scales and a measure of agoraphobic avoidance, when the contribution of intrapersonal (physical, loss of control) fears was controlled.

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Certo, Janine. "Agoraphobia." Cream City Review 43, no. 2 (2019): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ccr.2019.0045.

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Franklin, John A. "Agoraphobia." International Review of Psychiatry 3, no. 2 (January 1991): 151–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09540269109110397.

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van den Berg, L., and T. Sellar. "Agoraphobia." Theater 43, no. 2 (January 1, 2013): 51–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/01610775-1966533.

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Laybourne, Paul C., and Joann G. Redding. "Agoraphobia." Postgraduate Medicine 78, no. 5 (October 1985): 109–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1985.11699155.

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Morgan-Brown, Mark. "An Association of the Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR) and Agoraphobia and Panic Attacks." British Journal of Occupational Therapy 60, no. 5 (May 1997): 223–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030802269706000511.

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Eighteen people who suffered from panic attacks and/or agoraphobia were compared with 18 controls in their responses to the Schilder test for the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex. All the research individuals scored highly, compared with only a third of the control group. The result was statistically significant using the Mann-Whitney U test, suggesting a relationship between the Schilder test and panic or agoraphobic states.

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Wardle, Jane, Peter Hayward, Anna Higgitt, Chris R. Brewin, and Jeffrey Gray. "Causes of Agoraphobia: The Patient's Perspective." Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 25, no. 1 (January 1997): 27–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s135246580001537x.

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Patients' beliefs about the causes of anxiety problems have received comparatively little attention. In the present study, agoraphobic patients rated the contribution of eight factors in causing their condition. They also selected the major cause of their agoraphobia and evaluated that in relation to the elements of attributional style. The most commonly selected major cause was stress, which also attracted the highest average ratings. This was followed in frequency by disposition (being a naturally nervous person), circumstances (staying home too much) and childhood experiences. Depression was associated with stronger beliefs in the contribution of several of the causal factors and with rating the major cause as more stable and global. Anxiety was associated with a stronger belief in medical illness as a cause, and with a lower sense of controllability of the major causes. These results suggest that agoraphobic patients' views of the causes of their condition vary, and could usefully be evaluated in relation to the provision of treatment in order to modify the way treatment options are presented to the patients.

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Ito, L. M., L. A. De Araujo, V. L. C. Tess, T. P. De Barros-Neto, F. R. Asbahr, and I. Marks. "Self-exposure therapy for panic disorder with agoraphobia." British Journal of Psychiatry 178, no. 4 (April 2001): 331–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.178.4.331.

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BackgroundExposure to external phobic cues is an effective therapy for panic/agoraphobia but the value of exposure to interoceptive cues is unclear.AimsRandomised controlled comparison in panic/agoraphobia of the effects of (a) external, (b) interoceptive or (c) combined external and interoceptive self-exposure to (d) control subjects.MethodEighty out-patients were randomised to a control group or to one of three forms of self-exposure treatment (external, interoceptive, or combined). Each treatment included seven sessions over 10 weeks and daily self-exposure homework. Assessments were at pre- and post-treatment and up to 1 year post-entry. Assessors remained blind during treatment.ResultsThe three self-exposure groups improved significantly and similarly at post-treatment and up to 1-year follow-up, and significantly more than did the control subjects. Rates of improvement on main outcome measures averaged 60% at post-treatment and 77% at follow-up.ConclusionsThe three methods of self-exposure were equally effective in reducing panic and agoraphobic symptoms in the short- and long-term.

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Berle, David, Vladan Starcevic, Denise Milicevic, Anthony Hannan, and Karen Moses. "Do Symptom Interpretations Mediate the Relationship Between Panic Attack Symptoms and Agoraphobic Avoidance?" Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 38, no. 3 (March 26, 2010): 275–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s135246581000007x.

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Background: There is little consensus as to whether agoraphobic avoidance in panic disorder is characterized by a prominence of particular symptoms and interpretations of those symptoms. Aims: We sought to clarify the relationship between symptoms and agoraphobic avoidance and to establish whether catastrophic interpretations of symptoms mediate any such relationships. Method: The Symptom Checklist 90-Revised, Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire and Mobility Inventory were administered to 117 patients with panic disorder who were attending an outpatient anxiety disorders clinic. Results: Medium to large associations were found between most symptoms and agoraphobic avoidance and between particular symptoms and the corresponding symptom interpretation items. Some interpretations of symptoms were found to mediate relationships between symptoms and agoraphobic avoidance. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the catastrophic misinterpretation model of panic disorder can to some extent be invoked to explain the extent of agoraphobic avoidance, but that there may also be other pathways leading from symptoms to agoraphobia.

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Kállai, János, György Kóczán, István Szabó, Péter Molnár, and József Varga. "An Experimental Study to Operationally Define and Measure Spatial Orientation in Panic Agoraphobic Subjects, Generalized Anxiety and Healthy Control Groups." Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 23, no. 2 (April 1995): 145–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465800014399.

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In an experimental study with panic agoraphobic patients, generalized anxiety patients and normals we operationally defined and measured spatial orientation of the three research groups. The observation, that patients suffering from agoraphobia have a very narrow exploratory activity range, is as important from the point of view of therapy as theory. Our study observed panic agoraphobic patients through their exploratory abilities. We examine panic agoraphobic, generalized anxiety and normal subjects, as they utilized their exploration skills in a complicated maze. We determined that the cognitive maps drawn by the panic agoraphobic patients are inaccurate. They got lost more often and utilized far fewer navigation points during their walk in the maze, compared to the generalized anxiety or normal subjects. The frame of the conceptualization was based on personal attentional strategies, spatial orientation deficit, and exploratory activity abnormalities.

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Emmelkamp, P. M. G., R. van Dyck, M. Bitter, R. Heins, E. J. Onstein, and B. Eisen. "Spouse-Aided Therapy with Agoraphobics." British Journal of Psychiatry 160, no. 1 (January 1992): 51–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.160.1.51.

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Sixty agoraphobics were treated by behavioural therapy (self-exposure in vivo) either with their partner involved in all aspects of treatment or without their partner. The two treatment formats were about equally effective. Behavioural treatment directed at the agoraphobia resulted in improvement irrespective of marital quality and partner involvement in the therapy. The effects of treatment led neither to a deterioration of the marriage nor to adjustment problems in the partner. Avoidance behaviour, intropunitivity and overprotection were found to predict treatment response. The partners of agoraphobics were not found to have psychological problems themselves.

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Bienvenu, O. Joseph, Chiadi U. Onyike, Murray B. Stein, Li-Shiun Chen, Jack Samuels, Gerald Nestadt, and William W. Eaton. "Agoraphobia in adults: Incidence and longitudinal relationship with panic." British Journal of Psychiatry 188, no. 5 (May 2006): 432–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.105.010827.

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BackgroundTheories regarding how spontaneous panic and agoraphobia relate are based mostly on cross-sectional and/or clinic data.AimsTo determine how spontaneous panic and agoraphobia relate longitudinally, and to estimate the incidence rate of and other possible risk factors for first-onset agoraphobia, using a general population cohort.MethodA sample of 1920 adults in east Baltimore were assessed in 1981 -1982 and the mid-1990s with the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). Psychiatristdiagnoses were made in a subset of the sample at follow-up (n=816).ResultsForty-one new cases of DIS/DSM–III–R agoraphobia were identified (about 2 per 1000 person-years at risk). As expected, baseline DIS/DSM-III panic disorder predicted first incidence of agoraphobia (OR=12, 95% CI 3.2-45), as did younger age, female gender and other phobias. Importantly, baseline agoraphobia without spontaneous panic attacks also predicted first incidence of panic disorder (OR=3.9, 95% CI 1.8-8.4). Longitudinal relationships between panic disorder and psychiatrist-confirmed agoraphobia were strong (panic before agoraphobia OR=20, 95% CI 2.3–180; agoraphobia before panic OR=16, 95% CI 3.2–78).ConclusionsThe implied one-way causal relationship between spontaneous panic attacks and agoraphobia in DSM–IV appears incorrect.

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GOISMAN, ROBERT M., MEREDITH G. WARSHAW, LINDA G. PETERSON, MALCOLM P. ROGERS, PAUL CUNEO, MOLLY F. HUNT, JENNIFER M. TOMLIN-ALBANESE, et al. "Panic, Agoraphobia, and Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 182, no. 2 (February 1994): 72–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199402000-00002.

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Thyer, Bruce A. "Agoraphobia: A Superstitious Conditioning Perspective." Psychological Reports 58, no. 1 (February 1986): 95–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1986.58.1.95.

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The disabling escape and avoidance behaviors of agoraphobics are known to be psychological sequelae to the onset of apparently spontaneous attacks of severe anxiety. Evidence is cited in favor of the view that such spontaneous panic attacks have a biological etiology and that the avoidance rituals and escape behavior of the agoraphobic may be accounted for in terms of superstitious conditioning. Although panic attacks subside within a few minutes, in most cases, regardless of the activities of the individual, ongoing operant behavior such as flight may be adventitiously reinforced by the removal of severe anxiety. Only a few such episodes may be required to establish superstitious avoidance. This analysis is supported by extensive clinical research indicating that an effective technique in alleviating agoraphobic behavior consists of exposing the patient for prolonged periods of time to anxiety-evoking situations while he refrains from all escape and avoidance behavior. This appears to weaken the apparent established contingency relationships between panic relief, and phobic escape and avoidance, and extinguishes such superstitious behavior.

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Pollard, C. Alec. "Respiratory Distress during Panic Attacks Associated with Agoraphobia." Psychological Reports 58, no. 1 (February 1986): 61–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1986.58.1.61.

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59 patients with agoraphobia and panic attacks completed check lists of physical and cognitive panic-related symptoms to estimate the extent to which respiratory distress is associated with panic. Over half of the patients reported experiencing difficulty breathing during most or all panic attacks, but respiratory difficulty was not consistently associated with panic. Further research is needed using alternative methods of assessment, but these findings suggest that biologically oriented explanations of panic which ascribe a precipitative role to respiratory dysfunction cannot account for many of the panic attacks experienced by agoraphobics.

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Hazell, Jane, and Arnold J. Wilkins. "A contribution of fluorescent lighting to agoraphobia." Psychological Medicine 20, no. 3 (August 1990): 591–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700017098.

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SynopsisUnder three types of artificial lighting 24 women with chronic agoraphobia and 24 female control subjects assessed their mood and bodily symptoms, and their heart rate was measured. One of the three types of lighting was incandescent. The other two were fluorescent, one pulsating in the conventional manner 100 times per second and the other relatively steady. Both were provided by a single fluorescent lamp controlled from one of two circuits. When exposed to the conventional pulsating fluorescent light under double-blind conditions the agoraphobic group showed a higher heart rate and reported more anomalous visual effects in response to an epileptogenic pattern. Control subjects reported more bodily symptoms under the conventional fluorescent light than under the two other lighting conditions.

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Kurt, Thomas L. "Toxic Agoraphobia." Annals of Internal Medicine 112, no. 3 (February 1, 1990): 231. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-112-3-231.

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Hardwick, Peter J. "Occupational Agoraphobia." Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists 11, no. 7 (July 1987): 230–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/s0140078900017247.

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Chance meetings in public between psychiatrists and their clients are not usually relished by either. At its least embarrassing, the encounter can pose to both parties the dilemma: Should we greet each other and risk revealing to the public our special, but stigmatised, relationship? Or, should we ignore one another and risk one (or both) of us feeling rejected? The more embarrassing encounters are well known in psychiatric covens and sometimes even revealed to outsiders in the course of ethanolic abreaction at intimate dinner parties. However, hitherto they have not found a place in conventional psychiatric literature, with its scientific emphasis and basic assumptions in the journals of smoothly flowing professionalism and the normality of the psychiatrist.

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Hardwick, P. J. "Occupational Agoraphobia." Psychiatric Bulletin 11, no. 7 (July 1, 1987): 230–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/pb.11.7.230.

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Boyd, Jeffrey H., and Ted Crump. "Westphal's agoraphobia." Journal of Anxiety Disorders 5, no. 1 (January 1991): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0887-6185(91)90018-o.

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Özmen Akdoğan, Özlem. "“East West, Home’s Best”: Feminist Politics of Sue Townsend in Bazaar and Rummage." Kadın/Woman 2000, Journal for Women's Studies 22, no. 2 (January 4, 2022): 19–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.33831/jws.v22i2.245.

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This paper discusses the social reasons for agoraphobia as a psychological disorder as observed in the women characters of British playwright Sue Townsend’s issue-based play Bazaar and Rummage (1982). The depiction of three agoraphobic women in a context characterised by patriarchal dominion constitutes the core of Townsend’s play. Although their problematic condition is presented rather comically, from their accounts, it seems apt to argue that societal oppression is the reason for their longlasting seclusion and constant fear of the outside world. The play offers a rummage sale as an opportunity for women to step outside and conquer their fear. Accordingly, in terms of presenting the psychological condition of women characters and associating the possible solution to their problem with a market occasion, Townsend’s play illustrates an example of feminist criticism. In this study, the play’s analysis is based on the 1980s context dominated by Thatcher politics, and Townsend’s portrayal of agoraphobia is discussed as a criticism of her society in which patriarchal hegemony plays a central role in women’s forced confinement.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Agoraphobia'

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