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1
Tripathi, Amarnath, and A. R. Prasad. "Agricultural Productivity Growth in India." Journal of Global Economy 4, no. 4 (December 31, 2008): 322–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1956/jge.v4i4.113.
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The case of Indian agricultural performance was impressive. The food production and increases in productivity are essential for meeting the growing demands for food in the future. There is widespread opinion that this growing demand can be met by increased use of inputs or increases in agricultural productivity. Productivity growth of agriculture in India over the past four decades was the result of a combination of factors such as new incentives to farmers offered by the government who considered them as autonomous economic agents, and physical factors such as land, labour, capital (in the form of machines, working animals, irrigation system, and so on), and intermediate inputs such as fertilizer. Indian agricultural growth has been less dependent on the conventional inputs of capital. Capital was computed as the sum of the value of agricultural machinery, farm equipment and tools, transport equipment in farm business, land improvements, investments in private and public irrigation, and farm houses in Indian agriculture. As the growth of agriculture increases the importance of conventional inputs of capital becomes lesser in comparison to modern inputs of capital. Since mid 1960s, a package of modern inputs of capital such as high yield variety seeds, chemical fertilizers, tractor etc. has been continuously used with increasing trend in Indian agriculture. This was main cause of the remarkable growth in output of agriculture during 1970s and 1980s decades. This paper is aimed at analyzing the impact of some production variables (input) on agricultural productivity growth (output) in Indian agriculture from 1969-70 to 2005-06. The question here is whether or not these different variables have an impact on agricultural production.
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van Schendel, Willem. "What Is Agrarian Labour? Contrasting Indigo Production in Colonial India and Indonesia." International Review of Social History 60, no. 1 (February 10, 2015): 73–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859015000012.
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AbstractIn scholarly writings, the term “agrarian labour” is used variously. It can refer to a very specific set of productive activities – the cultivation of crops and animal husbandry – but it can also have the much broader connotation of rural or non-urban labour. These different uses can be confusing, especially in comparative research. This paper starts from the French comparative agriculture school and its conceptualization of three nested scales of analysis – the “cropping system”, the “activity system”, and the “agrarian system”. It tests these ideas in a comparison of labour employed in the production of indigo dye in two colonial systems (British India and the Dutch East Indies). The article concludes that this approach helps counteract monocausal explanations of labour relations in terms of agro-environmental determinants, the force of colonial capitalism, or local work cultures. It also promotes agriculture-sensitive readings of social transformations by comparing social orders that comprise both agricultural and non-agricultural labour relations.
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Shanmugan, K., and Bhagirath Prakash Baria. "Agricultural Labour Productivity and Its Determinants in India." Indian Journal of Labour Economics 62, no. 3 (August 31, 2019): 431–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41027-019-00180-x.
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Tripathi, Amarnath. "Total Factor Productivity Growth in Indian Agriculture." Journal of Global Economy 6, no. 4 (October 31, 2010): 286–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1956/jge.v6i4.67.
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n this study, time series data has been related to broad agricultural outputs which included farming, livestock, forestry, and fisheries and 3 conventional inputs: labour, land, and capital, to construct an index of total factor productivity (TFP) between 1969-70 to 2005-06. A TFP index is simply the ratio of an output index to an input index. Therefore, growth in TFP is the residual share of output growth after accounting for changes in land, labor, and other conventional agricultural inputs. Changes in TFP can be interpreted as a measure of the collective contribution of non-conventional inputs in agriculture, such as improvements in input quality, market access, economies of scale, and technology. What emerges from this exercise is a picture that raises concern about future growth in Indian agriculture, and the welfare of the people who depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Agricultural productivity in India appeared to stagnate in the late 1990s after enjoying two decades of rapid growth.
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Roy, Shantanu De, and Mampi Bose. "COVID-19 Crisis and Some Contours of the Rural Labour Market in India." Indian Economic Journal 69, no. 3 (June 3, 2021): 479–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00194662211023833.
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Indian labour markets are segmented based on caste, gender groups, region, types of workers and types of contractual arrangements. An important feature of the labour markets in India, notwithstanding intersectionalities across segments, is greater access to high-quality work with social security benefits to the privileged sections of the society as compared to the socially oppressed sections, including women. The latter dominate in low-quality, less stable and insecure work in the informal sector.The COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdown measures have increased the vulnerability of the informal workers, including the migrant workers. The article analyses the features of rural and urban labour markets, prior to the outbreak of the pandemic, that had contributed to vulnerability of the workforce. The analysis was based on the National Statistical Office ( NSO, 2020 )—Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) database of 2018–2019, NSSO (2014)—Report of the Situation of Agricultural Households in India, NSSO (2014)—Employment and Unemployment Survey, Labour Bureau, and the Economic Survey of India. It also analyses the impacts of the pandemic on the rural labour market based on the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) database. Our analysis reveals that the rural labour market in India was more adversely affected by the lockdown measures than the urban counterpart. In the rural areas, there was collapse of non-farm employment and increased participation in agricultural work was largely an outcome of distress. Furthermore, reverse migration of workers had led to sharp decline in remittances, particularly in the eastern Indian states that are largely agrarian and poor. The article advocates policy initiatives that include expansion of the rural employment programmes for providing relief to the poor and working population in India.
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Mahapatra, Sushanta. "Livelihood Pattern of Agricultural Labour Households in Rural India." South Asia Research 27, no. 1 (February 2007): 79–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026272800602700105.
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Anbarasan, P. "Agriculture labour market in India." AGRICULTURE UPDATE 14, no. 2 (May 15, 2019): 183–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.15740/has/au/14.2/183-186.
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Satishkumar, M., and K. B. Umesh. "Farmers Strategies to Cope Labour Shortage in Northern and Southern Dry Zones of Karnataka, India." Current Agriculture Research Journal 6, no. 2 (June 28, 2018): 206–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/carj.6.2.10.
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This study aimed to analyze the strategies adopted by the farmers to overcome the labour shortage in Sindhanur taluk of Raichur district and Mandya taluk of Mandya district. Random sample of 120 farmers each from the taluk were selected for the study. Opinion survey was conducted and results revealed that mechanization of agricultural operations, shifting towards less labour required crops, hiring labour from outside the village and intensive use of family labour are the major strategies adopted by farmers to overcome labour shortage. Mechanization in agriculture helped to solve the labour shortage. Therefore, this study concludes that the awareness among farmers should be created about existence of custom hiring centres and they should be encouraged to use it through self help groups based on subsidized rates.
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Venu, B. N., K. B. Umesh, B. V. Chinnappa Redy, and T. M. Gajanana. "Pattern and Drivers of Agricultural Labour Migration in Karnataka, India." Indian Journal of Economics and Development 12, no. 3 (2016): 557. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/2322-0430.2016.00174.8.
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Deb, Surajit. "Livelihood Prospects Across Social Classes in Rural India." Social Change 49, no. 2 (June 2019): 310–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0049085719844117.
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In the third part of the Social Change Social Indicator series, we look at livelihood prospects across social classes in rural India. The rural population in India earns its living from different livelihood types—farming, agricultural labour, other manual labour, domestic services or other jobs. The majority of farmers in the country are however small landholders and therefore depend on other sources of income to earn enough money to survive or to even purchase crucially needed seeds and fertilisers. Then there are the agricultural labours who do not own land of their own and work in the fields to earn daily wages. Since the land support for these rural families has become increasingly difficult, a section of the rural population has started looking outside their locale for jobs. In recent decades, jobs for urban construction and private security services industry has provided a potential alternative for backward or economically weaker sections from the rural and semi-urban areas of the country. The government has been trying to provide employment opportunities and livelihood for villagers within their villages by encouraging them to start their own enterprises, supporting them by providing some training and finance. But although rural occupational opportunities have increased comparatively in several states, the creation of productive livelihoods for different social classes remains a challenge in certain rural segments of India. From data one observes that while a majority of Schedules Caste (SC) farmers remain daily wagers, the livelihood of the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community remains dependent on forest, agriculture and animal husbandry. The Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011, provides survey data on the livelihood opportunities of SC, ST and Non-SC–ST households across sources such as cultivation, non-agricultural own account enterprises, manual casual labourers, part- or full-time domestic services, ragpicking, begging and others.1 Our analysis of data refers to eighteen states that cover more than 95 per cent of the SC or ST population in the country.
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Chakraborty, Sonali. "Inequalities in Farm Sector Labour Force in India." Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 8, no. 1 (July 2, 2020): 44–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/sijash.v8i1.3247.
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The back bone of the rural economy in India is the farm sector or agricultural sector. It also contributes an overall economic and social development towards the nation. Farm activities include agriculture (crop production), plantation, animal husbandry (milk, meat, egg, etc.), forestry & logging, and fishing. In India, the lion share of the labor force is engaged in the farm sector(Pal and Dutta.Though the female labor force participation is typically low in our country, their share in agriculture is commendable and not decreasing as it has been noticed in all other sectors in the recent past. But whether this participation in true sense is in gain full economic activities is to be looked into. Wage discrimination, stereotyping of works, working hours are some inequalities that females are facing at the workplace. In this analysis, an attempt has been made to see the inequality in malefemale participation in farm sectors. Their wage differentials in rural-urban sectors, in different states, have been computed following NIC(National Industry Classification) and NCO(National Classification of occupation) using unit-level data of NSS(National Sample Survey,68th round 2011-12 and Periodiclabour force survey, 2017-18). From preliminary observations, it is noted that there is an increase of rural females as market-oriented crops producers or animal producers and related workers from 2011-12 to 2017-18. The NIC gives the industry-specific picture, where they mainly engaged in mixed farming, plant propagation, post-harvest activities along with perennial and non-perennial crop production. Reduction in a rural male in all these industries is noted as an opposite criterion. In both the rural and urban sectors, gender inequalities persist in wages in almost all NIC activities. Some exceptions like raising of cattle, supporting activities for crop production, fresh water aquaculture, growing of bush fruits and nuts where average earnings of females are a little bit higher than male workers working as either casual labor or regular waged salaried person.
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Sujatha, R. V., K. Suhasini, and Y. Eswara Prasad. "Organic Farming For Sustainable Agriculture: A Comparative Analysis Of Organic Versus Conventional Rice And Cotton." Journal of Global Economy 4, no. 3 (September 30, 2008): 196–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1956/jge.v4i3.116.
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Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rain-fed, tribal, mountains and hill areas of the country. Among all farming systems, organic farming is gaining wide attention among farmers, entrepreneurs, policy makers and agricultural scientists for varied reasons such as it minimizes the dependence on chemical inputs (fertilizers; pesticides; herbicides and other agro-chemicals) thus safeguards/ improves quality of resources, and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment and achieve long term improvements in the quality of resource base.Organic farming has received considerable attention in India in the recent past. In India, the per cent area under organic farming is only 0.03 per cent of the total area under agriculture when compared to Austria (11.30%), Switzerland (9.70%) and Italy (7.94%) according to SOEL Survey, February 2003. Some of the major organically produced agricultural crops in India include crops like plantation, spices, pulses, fruits, vegetables and oil seeds etc
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Brass, Tom. "Class struggle and the deproletarianisation of agricultural labour in Haryana (India)." Journal of Peasant Studies 18, no. 1 (October 1990): 36–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066159008438442.
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Trivedi, Prashant K. "Revisiting Senapur: Reflections on Agrarian Changes in North India." Social Change 47, no. 4 (November 21, 2017): 509–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0049085717730248.
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Through a revisit study in 2013, this article attempts to explore agrarian relations in Senapur, a village located in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Research reveals that landlessness remains concentrated amongst dalits as does the continuing hold of ‘upper castes’ on land. When inheritance acts as the primary mode of transfer of landed property in the absence of market-mediated and state-mediated transactions, two results are evident: a decrease in the size of holdings due to the subdivision of property and simultaneously the land remains with the original group of land owners resulting in continuing group inequalities. Given this skewed landownership pattern, one-fifth of the total input cost in cultivation by the landless class is usurped by the landed class in the form of land rent. Another interesting feature of agrarian relations that is observed is the occasional rise in cash agricultural wages which accompany falling incomes from agricultural labour wages. The study also reveals that the ‘eradication of the small farmers’ is not a perceptible phenomenon in Senapur with farming families augmenting their income from other sources to keep their small farms going. The biggest change appears in the composition of the labour force marked by a massive movement from agriculture to construction in the last one decade.
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Ahmad, Mumtaj, Pasarul Islam, and Shamsul Haque Siddiqui. "Role of Agricultural Technology on Socio-Economic Development in Hathras District, Uttar Pradesh." National Geographical Journal of India 66, no. 3 (September 30, 2020): 222–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.48008/ngji.1743.
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Agriculture in India has experienced a significant transformation in the past fifty years, with agriculture being more and more oriented to a productivist form of socio-economic production. Introduction of new agricultural technologies, high yielding varieties of seeds, improve access to irrigation, education, efficient use of fertilizers and extension services are capable of enhanced productivity per unit of land. Increased production further reflects on socio-economic transformation in rural communities. The study uses secondary data from various sources published by the Government of India and the Government of Uttar Pradesh. The study covers the period between 2000-01 and 2014-15 to analyze the role of agricultural technologies on socio-economic transformation in Hathras district. The methodology adopted for the present study are Data Interpolation or Extrapolation, Yang’s Crop Yield Index, Dayal’s Labour Productivity, Data Standardisation technique Z- score, and Composite Z score. The study concludes that the district has experienced tremendous technological changes in agricultural practices, agriculture induced better productivity and productivity further leads to overall socio-economic transformation.
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Sarkar, Anupam. "Agricultural Mechanization in India: A Study on the Ownership and Investment in Farm Machinery by Cultivator Households across Agro-ecological Regions." Millennial Asia 11, no. 2 (August 2020): 160–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0976399620925440.
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Despite the signs of distress and fatigue in Indian agriculture, the use of machines in crop operations has increased manifold in recent times. Proponents of mechanization argue that mechanization saves time and cost, and improves agricultural productivity. The Government of India has also encouraged mechanization through subsiding farm machinery and establishing custom hiring centres. Earlier studies have found significant regional variation in the spread of agricultural mechanization. Cost of cultivation data collected by Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) reveal that although the share of machine labour in the cost of cultivation per hectare has increased, there exist significant differences across crops in the use of mechanical input. Empirical studies in different regions have found a significant presence of the rental market for services of agricultural machinery. However, in recent years there have been very few studies on the patterns of mechanization based on household-level data on ownership and investment in agricultural machinery and implements. Agro-ecological characteristics of a region are said to have a significant impact on the level of mechanization. Ownership of machinery is also significantly influenced by the factors such as size of landholding, access to irrigation and access to institutional credit. The pattern of investment and ownership of machinery has important implications on the profitability of farming. This article uses unit-level data from the All-India Debt and Investment Survey (NSS 70th round 2013) to study the pattern of agricultural mechanization in India based on the ownership of agricultural machinery and implements. Using ownership and expenditure data it studies the questions of recent patterns in agricultural mechanization across agro-ecological regions and land classes.
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SANCHEZ, ANDREW, and CHRISTIAN STRÜMPELL. "Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on India's Working Classes." Modern Asian Studies 48, no. 5 (March 17, 2014): 1233–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x14000018.
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AbstractWith reference to original ethnographic and historical research on India, the papers collected in this forum suggest conceptual refinements that might re-centre the study of class in regional scholarship. Through discussions of class politics in industrial, construction and agricultural contexts, the authors interrogate the conceptual oppositions between stably employed fordist labour forces and the ‘working poor’ that have often constrained ethnographic and historical analyses of India's working classes. Inspired by Marxist historiography, this forum engages with the historically contingent emergence of Indian working classes through different types of labour, gender and ethnic struggles, and considers the complex political boundaries that are produced by such processes.
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WAGAN, Zulfiqar Ali, Zhang CHEN, Seelro HAKIMZADI, and Muhammad Sanaullah SHAH. "Assessing the effect of monetary policy on agricultural growth and food prices." Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 64, No. 11 (November 26, 2018): 499–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/295/2017-agricecon.
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Agricultural growth is closely associated with sustainable economic development. This is especially true from the perspective of developing countries, such as India and Pakistan, where significant portions of the labour force are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. This study analysed the impact of macroeconomic policy (i.e. monetary policy) on employment, food inflation, and agricultural growth by analysing to what extent monetary policy is effective in controlling food price inflation, the effect of contractionary monetary policy on the agricultural sector’s employment and productivity, and the extent of monetary policy transmission to money market rates and 10-year interest rates. We did so by applying a factor-augmented vector autoregressive model proposed by Bernanke et al. (2005) to agricultural data from 1995 and 1996 to 2016 for India and Pakistan, respectively. We found that tight monetary policy significantly reduced food inflation and agricultural production while increasing the rural unemployment rate. Short-term and 10-year interest rates increased owing to the contractionary monetary policies pursued by both countries. An inclusive monetary policy whereby policymakers work alongside governments to achieve price stabilisation and reasonable employment rates is recommended.
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Ghose, Ajit K. "Structural Change and Development in India." Indian Journal of Human Development 15, no. 1 (April 2021): 7–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09737030211005496.
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Structural change—reallocation of labour from lower-productivity economic activities to higher-productivity ones—is not just an important contributor to growth but is also the principal route to improvement in employment conditions in developing economies. In history, remote and recent, structural change associated with successful development has involved labour reallocation from agriculture to manufacturing and services at early stages and from agriculture and manufacturing to services at later stages. Structural change in India, however, has been and continues to be very different; even at an early stage of development, labour reallocation has occurred from agriculture to services but not to manufacturing. While this kind of structural change has contributed to growth, its effect on employment has been very weak. The pace of improvement in employment conditions has been very slow. Economic growth, consequently, has not been accompanied by commensurate development. The challenge for the future is one of enhancing the role of manufacturing in the growth process.
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Rosenzweig, Mark R. "The Consequences of the Agricultural Productivity Growth for Rural Landless Households: Findings from Research Based on the Indian Green Revolution Experience (The Iqbal Memorial Lecture)." Pakistan Development Review 39, no. 4 (December 1, 2000): 337–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v39i4pp.337-361.
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There has been much debate over the extent to which economic growth reduces poverty and augments human development among the poor. This paper describes ongoing research using survey data on the Green Revolution experience in India that focuses on this issue. The research is based on a general-equilibrium model of labour markets for adults and children that differentiates households by whether they own land and incorporates a public sector that chooses the amount of school building. The empirical results suggest, consistent with the model, that expectations of improvements in agricultural productivity increase the schooling of children in landed households and reduce schooling in landless households, in part because of the operation of the child labour market, as landless child labour is used to replace landed child labour lost due to increased child school attendance in landed households. The results also show, however, that school construction in India was undertaken at higher levels in areas in which there were expectations of greater future productivity increases, and that the closer proximity of schools differentially benefited landless households. Thus school building policy in India tended to offset the adverse distributional consequences of agricultural technological change in the early stages of the Green Revolution. The allocation of schools, however, did not fully offset the incentives for landless households to reduce schooling investments. The perverse correlation between human development and income growth observed among the poor landless households in India at the initial stages of the Green Revolution, thus, was not due to lack of responsiveness of public resources but to the lack of a return to schooling in the non-farm sector.
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Chennakrishnan, P., and D. Thenmozhi. "An Analysis of Agriculture Sector of Inclusive Growth in India." Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities 8, no. 4 (April 1, 2021): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/sijash.v8i4.3719.
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Agriculture remains the dominant supporter of the Indian populace. The thriving industry and service sectors depend on the agricultural sector for their development. The inter-linkage among the three sectors could not be undermined at any cost. It is the massive absorbent of the labor force even though the disguised unemployment exists in varied magnitude. The share of agriculture to the GDP has come down from 57.7% in 1950-51 to 32.2% in 1990-91 at the time of liberalization, 24.6% in 2000-2001, 15.7% in 2009-2010 then 17%. In the post-independence era, stagnant production, low productivity, traditional technology, and poor rural infrastructure were the major challenges for the Government. India is principally an agricultural country. The agriculture sector estimates 18.0% of the GDP and employs 52% of the total workforce. There is a continuous steady decay in its presence towards the GDP, and the agriculture sector is losing its shine and anchor position in the Indian economy. The problems with which the Indian agricultural scenario is charged in present times are many. Still, this in no way undermines the interest of the sector and the role it can play in the holistic and inclusive growth of the country. Agriculture is fundamental for the sustenance of an economy, as is food for a human being.
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Bhuta, Aishwarya, and Mridula Muralidharan. "Not All Time Is Money: Women’s Burden of Unpaid Work." ANTYAJAA: Indian Journal of Women and Social Change 5, no. 2 (December 2020): 95–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/24556327211012843.
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Since the 1990s, India has been witnessing a downward trend in female labour force participation (FLFP). Feminist economists have argued that the invisible labour of unpaid household work is quintessential for the social reproduction of the labour force. Time-use statistics can be useful for estimating the value of unpaid work and lead policy responses towards increasing FLFP. This study analyses the report on Time Use in India-2019 to draw insights from data on women’s disproportionate burden of unpaid domestic and caregiving services. It is argued that this has implications for their participation in the labour market. The patriarchal structure of the family pushes the onus of domestic labour on women. This confines them to home-based, poorly remunerated and informal work, or excludes them from the labour market. Interventions in the form of generating non-agricultural job opportunities in rural areas, establishing infrastructural support mechanisms in workplaces and encouraging female education and employment can not only stimulate FLFP but also help to address the crisis of jobless growth.
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V, Suma. "Internet of Things (IoT) based Smart Agriculture in India: An Overview." Journal of ISMAC 3, no. 1 (February 26, 2021): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.36548/jismac.2021.1.001.
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The increasing global population demands improved production to provide food in all sectors, especially in agriculture. Still, at certain periods, demand and supply will not match. Managing and sustaining capital and manpower is still a demanding challenge for improving agricultural production. Smart agriculture is a better option for growing food production, resource management, and labour. This research provides an overview of predictive analysis, Internet of Things (IoT) devices with cloud management, security units for multi-culture in the agriculture sector with considering farmer’s prior experiences. And also highlights the challenges and complications expected while integrating modern technology in the traditional farming practice experience. Based on the statistical and quantitative approaches gives better revolutionary changes in the current agriculture system. Besides, drone activation from IoT encounters crop status and stages, irrigation, plant leaves diseases in the green field. The sensors are activated for various purposes in IoT are discussed. Modern agriculture with state-of-the-art IoT devices and concepts is the main objective of this research. The systematic evaluation provides current and future trends in the agriculture sector.
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Lanka, Sanjay V., Iqbal Khadaroo, and Steffen Böhm. "Agroecology accounting: biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods from the margins." Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 30, no. 7 (September 18, 2017): 1592–613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/aaaj-12-2015-2363.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a socio-ecological counter account of the role that agroecology plays in supporting the sustainable livelihoods of a co-operative of smallholder coffee farmers, where very little value is created at their end of the coffee commodity chain. Agroecology may be defined as the science that provides the ecological principles and concepts for the design and management of productive agricultural ecosystems that conserve natural resources. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a case study design of a coffee-producing co-operative in India using data collected from participant observation, focus groups and unstructured interviews with indigenous smallholder farmers. It combines the science of agroecology with the labour theory of value as a theoretical framework. Findings An agroecological approach supports agricultural biodiversity, while promoting sustainable livelihoods since members of the co-operative are able to reduce their use of external inputs. However, an agroecological transformation is curtailed by the continued dependence on corporate value chains. A framework using the labour theory of value is used to explain the extraction of surplus value from the labour of both the smallholder farmers as well as nature. This study provides evidence of the role of government policy and practice in perpetuating the status quo by not promoting either research on agroecology or direct consumer to producer value chains while providing subsidies for the inputs of industrial agriculture. Originality/value There have been very few studies that have provided an account of the limited value generated in agricultural commodity chains for smallholder farmers due to the need to purchase the inputs of industrial agriculture supported by government subsidies. This study extends the field of accounting for biodiversity into agriculture using the science of agroecology to explain the role played by biodiversity in increasing the amount of value generated by smallholder farmers. By utilising the labour theory of value, the authors have introduced the notion of the labour power of nature as represented by the environmental services that nature provides.
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Choudhury, Dhrupad, and R. C. Sundriyal. "Factors Contributing to the Marginalization of Shifting Cultivation in North-East India: Micro-Scale Issues." Outlook on Agriculture 32, no. 1 (March 2003): 17–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000003101294226.
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Shifting cultivation, locally known as jhum, is the predominant agricultural practice for most communities inhabiting the uplands of north-east India. The negative impacts of the practice on forest and biological resources, soil erosion and land degradation have been a serious concern for several decades now to administrators and planners as well as to the academic community. In the current context, the practice has undergone drastic changes and has become increasingly unviable, gradually leading to the marginalization of farmers practising it. Although shifting cultivation in this area has been the focus of intensive studies, particularly in terms of the underlying ecological dynamics, few have attempted to analyse the factors contributing to the marginalization of the practice. This paper examines micro-scale issues that contribute to reducing productivity (and hence marginalization), and which are of immediate concern to the shifting cultivator. The paper focuses on fundamental issues influencing the reduction in fallow cycle lengths, the impact of rural–urban migration on labour requirements for agriculture, the consequences of inadequate employment and cash generation facilities on labour availability and crop productivity, as well as government efforts to promote agricultural productivity in these areas. The main focus of the paper is on the impact of each of these factors and their synergystic effect on the marginalization of shifting cultivation.
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Prakash, Om. "IV. Opium Monopoly in India and Indonesia in the Eighteenth Century." Itinerario 12, no. 1 (March 1988): 73–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300023366.
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The dominant theme in the historical literature on agricultural production for export is the fast-expanding demand by Europe in the course of the industrialisation during the nineteenth century of agricultural goods originating in Asia, Africa as well as the Regions of Recent Settlement. In a large number of cases, the growing supplies of agricultural export were put together through recourse to the plantation system. The colonial governments often played an important, and sometimes a decisive, role in the rise and the smooth functioning of this system. This could be in the form of liberal land grants, the delegation of coercive authority to the management over the labour supply and so on. The direct, including entrepreneurial, role of the government was often evident also in arrangements which were not of the usual plantation variety, but which operated on the basis of accommodation, and indeed integration, with the existing organisation of traditional peasant agriculture. An outstanding example of this is the well-known Cultivation System introduced by Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch in Dutch Indonesia in the 1830s. The common theme that cuts across the bulk of the great diversity of arrangements of the use of coercive power by the colonial state in a variety of ways and often in fairly liberal doses.
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Markovits, Claude. "Indian Merchant Networks Outside India in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: A Preliminary Survey." Modern Asian Studies 33, no. 4 (October 1999): 883–911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x99003467.
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In spite of the recent flowering of studies on the South Asian diaspora, we are nevertheless left with many gaps in our knowledge and many unanswered questions. The bulk of existing work is still focused on the migration of agricultural labour and the ‘Little Indias’ it spawned in various corners of the world. The recent migrations of educated professionals to the countries of the ‘First World’, particularly the USA, are also attracting increasing attention. The whole field of migration and diaspora studies remains, however, dominated by a host country perspective which tends to obliterate the general picture from the point of view of South Asian history.
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Pavithra, R. H. "Socio-Economic Condition of Female Agricultural Labourers- With Special Reference to Mandya District." IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences (ISSN 2455-2267) 7, no. 3 (June 28, 2017): 458. http://dx.doi.org/10.21013/jmss.v7.n3.p7.
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<div><p>Women in rural India are involved in various stages of agricultural operations starting from sowing of seeds to hand weeding, harvesting and post-harvest activities. Over time, as technological change in agriculture has brought about a substantial change in labour-land use pattern, the nature of work of rural women has also undergone a change. Women spend a substantial part of their time not only in various activities directly related to agriculture but also in the management of livestock, poultry, etc. (Sisodia, 1985; Agarwal, 1988). However, the true picture of female work and their contribution to family expenditure is usually not clearly presented. Many economically productive activities performed by women go unrecorded as such or are subsumed within ‘domestic work’. In this paper an attempt has been made to study the socio economic condition of female agricultural labourers, and suggest suitable measures for improving their living condition.</p></div>
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Jha, Madhavi. "“Men Diggers and Women Carriers”: Gendered Work on Famine Public Works in Colonial North India." International Review of Social History 65, no. 1 (October 16, 2019): 71–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859019000579.
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AbstractThe history of labour on public works construction is usually presented as a masculine experience, either because the workforce studied is mostly male, or because the labour of women remains unrecorded. Does the history of labour and wage on public works undergo change if we account for women labourers? This article examines this question in the context of famine public works in the second half of nineteenth-century India. State employment on public works was part of a famine relief programme and women, largely from agricultural labouring and small peasant families, worked on the construction of roads, railways, canals, and tanks. The article traces the development of task-gender association on famine public works both as a norm and in practice. Further, it analyses the evidence on negotiations made by women labourers themselves with the existing gendered notions of work and wage. This study contributes to the historiography of labour in a colonial context in two ways: first, it adds to the existing corpus on forms of labour extraction for construction work; and, second, it explores the question of women's work and remuneration outside factories, mills, and mines.
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Pasala, Srinivasa Rao. "Doubling the Agricultural Income by 2022 in India: Issues and Challenges - Evidence From Andhra Pradesh." IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences (ISSN 2455-2267) 13, no. 3 (December 28, 2018): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.21013/jmss.v13.n3.p4.
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<p>The mechanism of reforms is not given enough government funding and financial assistance to the agriculture sector. This impacted the conditions of cultivation, particularly in rural living conditions. The impact of free trade brought unstable prices, difficulties in agriculture export and import and which is affected farmer’s welfare, livelihood, and other employment alternatives. The most adverse effect that has become a curse to farmers is the multiple of low price and instability in the output of cash crops. Andhra Pradesh mostly depends on rainfall agriculture. Monsoon and seasonal conditions play a crucial role in Andhra Pradesh agriculture. The proportion of area under agriculture is 37.30 percent (including fish ponds). The gross irrigated area (35.81 lakh hectares) is 48.29 percent of gross area sown (74.18 lakh hectare.) in the state. The ratio of gross irrigated area to net irrigated area is 1.32 in 2016-17, where it was 1.29 in 2015-16. (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2016-17). An attempt is made to study in depth the evolution of cost conditions in the rainfed and irrigated land agricultural practices, regarding the sustainability of livelihood practices. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of research were applied in the study through a collection of data by household survey and in-depth interviews, site visits, and field observations. For an understanding of costs and returns, calculate Cost A, Cost B and Cost C and Gross, Farm Business, Family Labour, Net, Farm Investment Incomes. The policymakers should focus on strict implement National Commission on farmer’s recommendations of increasing MSP should be at least 50 percent more than the weighted average cost of production, introduce availability of the leased technology (i.e. crop sowing and cutting machines etc.) to marginal and small farmers, reduce the inequalities between villages and towns and promote Zero Budget Natural Farming across the country.</p>
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Sapkota, Kanhaiya. "Seasonal labour migration and livelihood in the middle hill of Nepal: Reflections from Arghakhanchi District." Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies 1, no. 1 (October 5, 2018): 42–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/rnjds.v1i1.21273.
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People’s livelihood in the villages of the middle hill of Nepal are based on farming system. The relationship between climate change and seasonal labor migration in the middle hill areas is a relatively understudied research topic, particularly from an empirical point of view. This article aims at contributing to the literature by analyzing the relationship between livelihoods and human mobility in two rural communities located in the Province 5, Arghakhanchi district, Nepal. Traditional rain-fed agriculture is the most important economic activity in the area. This article highlights differences in livelihood and human mobility patterns between households. The economy of the middle hill is primarily agrarian. Over 80% of the population of the middle hill districts still lives in rural areas/settings, where levels of poverty are higher than in the neighbouring countries. They depend on farming and collecting forest products for their livelihoods. In Arghakhanchi district, during the dry season, many migrate in search of temporary work as labourers particularly in Indian states. Arghakhanchi is the district where the proportion of inhabitants from low income is relatively higher than the other surrounding districts of Province 5. These people are marginalized and experience high rates of poverty, low levels of education and poor health. They are highly vulnerable to climate change, due to poverty and dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods in a vulnerable region. Consequently, more households are likely to participate in seasonal migration and those already migrating are credible to do so for longer times. Currently, such migrants take up low-paying unskilled works, mainly in urban areas in Uttarakhand, Panjab and Bhopal of India, which enables them to make meager savings, hardly enough to repay the debt of their family has incurred during food shortages. In the study area, the non-agricultural diversification is widespread and income from non-agricultural activities exceeds agricultural income. However, though mobility patterns in the area are determined primarily by broader economic considerations.Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies Vol.1(1) 2018 42-57
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Self, Sharmistha, and Richard Grabowski. "Agricultural technology and child labor: evidence from India." Agricultural Economics 40, no. 1 (January 2009): 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2008.00360.x.
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Bardhan, K. "Agricultural Growth and Rural Wage-Labor in India." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 9, no. 1 (March 1, 1989): 12–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/07323867-9-1-12.
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Sarkar, Mitali. "Abstracts." Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers 23, no. 1 (January 1998): 99–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0256090919980112.
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This section features abstracts of articles covering empirical studies, experiences, ideas, and theories published in Indian and international journals and is sponsored by the Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi. Making a departure from the regular practice, in this issue, we bring you extended abstracts of selected articles on economic reforms in India. These articles reflect the responses of academicians and bureaucrats on different aspects of India's economic reforms, including the Indian economy, industry, agriculture, financial sector, employment and labour relations.
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Gahukar, R. T. "Green Revolution in Food Crops: An Indian Experience." Outlook on Agriculture 21, no. 2 (June 1992): 129–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003072709202100208.
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India is an agricultural country with about 80% of its people dependent on agricultural activites for their livelihood. Indian agriculture accounts for 40% of Gross National Product and about 35% of total exports. The green revolution in agriculture began in the 1960s, and spectacular achievements in foodgrain production (cereals, pulses and oilseeds) resulted from the cultivation of introduced high yielding crop cultivars supplemented with fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation. The green revolution helped the country to feed the people, to stop importing foodgrains and to increase the employment potential. But increasing human population and slow industrial growth resulted in economic imbalance. The green revolution was confined to certain crops (rice, wheat) at the expense of others. The high input technology created problems of continuous monoculture cropping, depletion of the water table, deterioration of soils, introduction and multiplication of insect pests, plant diseases and weeds, intensive use of energy, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, increase in soil salinity and alkalinity, environmental pollution and ecological imbalance. The socio-economic inequalities have been enlarged in rural areas and the land/labour ratio has declined. Local crop cultivation practices have been abandoned even by small farmers. Management in agriculture escaped the attention of policy makers and scientists, and the role of rural women was ignored. Inter- and intra-regional disparities in agricultural development have created serious social and political repercussions. The farm policy has not yet been finalized. Possible solutions to overcome present difficulties and benefit marginal and small farmers and economically backward areas are discussed.
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Pai, Sudha. "Class, Gender and Agrarian Change: An Analysis of the Status of Female Agricultural Labour in India." Social Scientist 15, no. 6 (June 1987): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3517304.
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Hanchate, Amresh D., and K. V. Ramaswamy. "New agricultural technology, timeliness and wages for labour: a longitudinal study of rural wages in India." Applied Economics Letters 4, no. 4 (April 1997): 267–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/758518508.
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Garikipati, S. "Landless but not assetless: female agricultural labour on the road to better status, evidence from India." Journal of Peasant Studies 36, no. 3 (July 2009): 517–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150903142774.
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Yoganandham, Dr G. "Technological Transformation And Progress Of Agricultural Development In Gudiyattam Taluk – An Assessment." Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT) 12, no. 6 (April 11, 2021): 971–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i6.2376.
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The present day farming habitually employ trendy know-how such as automation, warmth and moisture sensors, aerial images, and GPS know-how. These highly developed devices and accuracy farming and mechanical structure permit business to be more money-making, competent, safer, and extra environmentally gracious. Contemporary farming knowledge is used to develop the wide types of production learn working by farmers. It is the basis of technological transformation. Advocating technology transfer should believe the various kinds of social capital as a choice policy alternative to the existing top down move towards in order to get better smallholder source of revenue. The key technological know-how modernization in the breathing space encompass paying attention about the areas such as indoor vertical farming, automation and robotics, livestock technology, modern greenhouse practices, precision agriculture and artificial intelligence, and block chain.
Contemporary agricultural practices use mechanized tools for irrigation, tilling and harvesting beside with hybrid seeds. In India, the cultivation know-how are labour intensive, whereas the contemporary agriculture equipment are mostly capital intensive. In this background, the researcher mainly concentrates on Technological Transformation and Progress of Agricultural Development in Gudiyattam Taluk of Vellore of Tamil Nadu in analytical perspectives.
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Gopalasundar, R. "The Socio-Economic Conditions of Women Agricultural Labourers in Thanjavur District of Tamil Nadu in India." Shanlax International Journal of Economics 8, no. 4 (September 1, 2020): 54–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/economics.v8i4.3272.
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The seasonal nature of agriculture and low productivity reduce demand for female labor and as a result, forced idleness is higher among women than men. Women’s productivity in agriculture also suffers from uneconomic holdings and subsistence nature of agriculture in which the family consumes the produce. Tasks performed by women are labor-intensive and mostly done by hand. This has reduced the work efficiency of women. Regardless of these variations, there is hardly any activity in agricultural production.
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VijayKumar, B., and P. Murugesan. "A Study on Livelihoods of Agricultural Workers of RishivandhiyamVillage Panchayat in Villupuram District, Tamil Nadu." Asian Review of Social Sciences 7, no. 3 (November 5, 2018): 36–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.51983/arss-2018.7.3.1476.
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Agriculture is considered to be the key sector in India as a result of quite 70.0 % of the population is relying upon agriculture. As a result, a lot of stress has been created for development for agriculture through the setup amount. Such stress is absolutely even on the cluster that agriculture is allotted the key role, trying into the magnitude of the world in terms of employment and financial gain and also the importance of the agriculture merchandise during a developed country like India. Though there has been tremendous progress in India since independence this sector isn’t developed up to expect and is meriting of terribly special thought. so as to utilize their fullest capability for max production they must be supplied with a minimum of blank minimum needs i.e., enough food, shelter, cloth, medical facilities education etc., as a result, the agricultural productivity can increase. The steps taken to higher the condition of the staff through varied schemes and plans has not been denied however all those don’t seem to be enough of the quantum of efforts created and time concerned are put together taken in to thought whereas creating a “cost benefit” analysis of all rural economic development programs. The agriculture sector plays a vital and important role in development of the rural and national economy, agriculture labourer is socially and economically poorest section of the society they are landless people, unemployment,low wages and social backwardness constitute the poverty syndrome among agricultural labourers. In this study was conducted on the economic status of agricultural labours in Rishivandhiyam village panchayat in Villupuram district, further the study to analyse socio economic status, wage structure, nature of work and problem. Finally, the study was found that major findings on the basis empirical evidence and give to suitable recommendations for upward mobility of socio-economic condition of agriculture labours.
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Kumari, Akanksha, and Prabhat Kumar Sahu. "Internet of Things-Based Smart Drip Irrigation Using Arduino." Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 17, no. 9 (July 1, 2020): 4598–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2020.9286.
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Agriculture is one of the primary sectors in the Indian economy. Over the past several years, agricultural scientific techniques and agricultural implements have developed in the region, replacing the traditional method of farming. By which the economic condition of the farmers has improved. In addition, there are still some small farmers in India who use the old traditional methods of farming of agriculture because they do not have the resources to use modern methods. Besides, it is the only region that has contributed not only to the development of itself but also to other areas of the country. Agriculture has a major contribution to the country’s GDP and national income. In addition, it requires a huge manpower and labour which constitutes about 80% of the total workforce. Employees work not only directly but indirectly in the agricultural sector. Irrigation is the use of controlled amounts of water at the required intervals to the plants. Effective irrigation will affect seed development, germination, root growth, utilization of nutrients, plant growth and revival, yield and quality of the entire development process. The farmer knows how much water he has to give to the crop and when crop is to be planted, but the best system of irrigation it is necessary to have the information about use of equipment, plant species, soil structure, soil preparation and It is also important to be aware of all these that at what stage to watering the plant. The aim of this research paper is to describe how the Internet of Things (IoT) framework plays an important role in the field of agriculture. Here to show the importance of IoT in agriculture, we choose “Smart Drip Irrigation System.”
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Sastry, R. Kalpana, and P. Manikandan. "Empowerment of Women on an Agricultural Research Farm in India: A Success Story." Outlook on Agriculture 31, no. 4 (December 2002): 253–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294146.
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At the heart of all research activities in agriculture lies the huge power of human resources, which helps to galvanize scientists into action. This disorganized force of workers, called the labour force, comprises both men and women to be employed on an equitable basis. As in other areas of work, women working on the farm have certain stereotyped roles in an otherwise supposedly non-gender-specific domain. This paper looks into the presumptions, problems and prospects of these neglected, but essential women workers on agricultural research farms. It highlights the experiences and issues that have emerged from a novel experiment involving the empowerment of farm women. In the case presented, empowerment was achieved through a threefold strategic approach. This involved education to promote positive self-image and self-confidence, skills development, and creating an awareness of social change. Various initiatives were promoted on a sustained basis to bring about the change process. These included adult literacy programmes, payment of wages to individuals through their bank accounts, on-site skills development and training, participation of workers in decision-making meetings to develop action plans and set targets for their respective areas of work, acquisition of gender-friendly equipment, health campaigns, etc. All these brought about gradual but perceptible changes in their attitudes and behaviour. The result of this empowerment process was reflected in enhanced qualitative and quantitative outcomes. A crucial factor in the success and sustainability of this empowerment process was the support and visionary outlook of top management. The lessons from this case study can serve as motivating factors for other agricultural institutions to experiment.
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Roy, Namrata Singha, and Ishita Mukhopadhyay. "Emerging Challenges of Rural Labour Market: Insights from Indian Villages." Arthaniti: Journal of Economic Theory and Practice 18, no. 1 (September 13, 2018): 86–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0976747918795227.
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This article has examined the labour market behaviour of rural India, with the objective to assess the changes taking place in the structure of the workforce and attempts to identify the factors affecting the changes in rural labour supply. In particular, this article tries to address the inconsistency between absolute declines in labour force, particularly rural females at national level, with the micro-level evidences of feminisation in farm work through the estimation of labour supply function. Empirical findings indicate an increasing trend in female participation, particularly aged in rural India. The significant positive association of occupation dummy with male labour supply and negative association with female labour supply, in one way, explains the greater participation of male workers in non-farm work and higher concentration of females in farm activities. Therefore, attention needs to be paid to promote initiatives such as youth entrepreneurship in agriculture to retain youth in farming, encourage innovations in designing appropriate location-specific machineries and tools which are female-friendly, and also organise capacity-building programmes for skill augmentation focusing rural female workers. JEL: J21, J43, J42, J16
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Patavardhan, Roopa, and D. S. Leelavathi. "Dynamics of Indian Rural Labour Supply: Causes and Consequences of Farm Labour Shortage on Agricultural Development." Arthshastra : Indian Journal of Economics & Research 2, no. 5 (October 1, 2013): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2013/v2i5/54530.
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Velayudhan, Meera. "The Labour Side of the Story: Informalisation and New Forms of Mobilisation of Kerala’s Women Workers." Social Change 50, no. 1 (March 2020): 109–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0049085719901079.
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Historically, in the context of Kerala, through mobilisation, electoral and mass struggles and a broad-based alliance of poor peasants, agricultural labour and workers were forged into a political constituency. This paper locates new forms of women workers’ struggles in the post-1990 context which saw a shift in the politics of labour and in the language of class and since the People’s Planning Campaign for democratic decentralisation in Kerala, when agency moved away from trade unions to a plurality of organisations serving a range of objectives but linked with local governance. There was a shift away from exclusive collective bargaining by workers to collective social activity, for example, Kudumbashree, Ayalkootam (neighbourhood groups), public works, MNREGA forums and other forms of associational activities. Identities shifted beyond that of workers to citizens, involving a range of rights with the neighbourhood and the local as an axis. This paper focusses on women labour particularly in the context of the trajectory of development and labour in Kerala and the wider canvas in which labour movements developed post the 1980s in India.
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Mukhopadhyay, Ujjaini. "Trade liberalization and gender inequality: role of social norms." Indian Growth and Development Review 11, no. 1 (April 9, 2018): 2–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/igdr-07-2017-0051.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of trade liberalization on gender earning differentials and female labour force participation by considering the interaction between changes in relative wages, intra-household bargaining power and social norms. Design/methodology/approach A three-sector general equilibrium model is developed where female labour supply is determined as a collective household decision and depends on male and female wages and intra-household power distribution. On the other hand, the effect of power distribution on female labour supply depends on social norms. Findings Comparative static analysis shows that a tariff cut may reduce female labour force participation and widen gender earning inequality if (i) the agricultural sector is more male labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman from household work is higher than that of the man or (ii) the agricultural sector is more female labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman. Policies to raise the empowerment of women might lead to favourable labour market outcomes for women if the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman irrespective of the factor intensity condition. Research limitations/implications The results signify that the effect of trade liberalization hinges on both factor intensity conditions and the relative work preferences of women vis-à-vis men, which in turn is shaped by social norms. Originality/value The paper contributes to the scant theoretical literature on labour market consequences of trade liberalization by considering the gender equality implications of trade liberalization from a supply side perspective. The results of the model are used to explain the recent gendered labour market consequences in India in the aftermath of trade liberalization.
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SAHA, MADHUMITA, and SIGRID SCHMALZER. "Green-revolution epistemologies in China and India: technocracy and revolution in the production of scientific knowledge and peasant identity." BJHS Themes 1 (2016): 145–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bjt.2016.2.
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AbstractThis paper juxtaposes the epistemological challenges raised by new agricultural technologies in India and China during the mid- to late twentieth century. In both places, the state actively sought to adopt the ‘improved’ seeds and chemical inputs of what USAID triumphantly called the ‘green revolution’; however, in neither country did this imply an unproblematic acceptance of the technocratic assumptions that undergirded the US programme. India and China's distinct ideological contexts produced divergent epistemological alternatives to the US vision, with particularly important differences in the perceived relationship between the sociopolitical and technoscientific realms and also in the understanding of what constituted a ‘modern’ farmer. In India, critics persistently challenged the technocratic state to consider social, political and economic aspects of agrarian modernization, but radical leaders in Mao-era China went considerably further in attacking the very notion that technological change could be divorced from social and political revolution. Leaders in both India and China sought to overcome ‘backwardness’ and ‘superstition’; however, the Indian state held up examples of farmers who exemplified capitalist ideals of modernity through their willingness to take risks in pursuit of profit, while Chinese leaders valorized peasant technicians who combined experience in labour, new technical knowledge and faith in socialist revolution.
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Lazányi, János. "Trends in agriculture and food production." Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce 3, no. 1-2 (May 30, 2009): 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.19041/apstract/2009/1-2/15.
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Agricultural reform resulted a shift from collective farming to small-scale production in China. This reform also has resulted a strong increase in gross agricultural output, which coincides with a slower increase in labour productivity. At the beginning of the reforms, agriculture accounted for 70 percent of total employment in China and still employs more than 50%. As a result of these reforms, China has undergone impressive economic growth also in the agriculture; the country has become one of the world’s top exporters and is attracting record amounts of foreign investment. The government has also stepped up investments in rural areas to meet the market demand for agricultural products. Results are very competitive compared to Central and Eastern European countries, where agriculture accounted for only 15 percent of total employment, but agricultural reform resulted a strong decline in gross agricultural output, which coincides with a similarly strong decline in employment. When approaching the issue of sustainable agriculture, we have to take into consideration, which China and India feed the largest populations in the world and both countries have had its own agricultural successes in the past 50 years. China has used land far more efficiently than many developed countries. With nine percent of the world’s arable land, China is responsible for the greatest share of agricultural production worldwide. Volume of produced pork, eggs, wheat, cotton, tobacco, and rice has increased and China exports an increasing amount of product each year. China has opened his borders, but do not expose food consumers to price shocks and producers to risks and disincentives. In this paper, the land-tenure system and the trends of agricultural developments are analysed in China and selected countries of EU.
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van der Werf, Erik. "Agronomic and economic potential of sustainable agriculture in South India." American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 8, no. 4 (December 1993): 185–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0889189300005427.
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AbstractThe development of sustainable agriculture in India has been limited by the absence of data on the agricultural and economic viability of ecological agriculture and its longterm prospects. This paper describes a two-year study of seven farm pairs, each consisting of one ecological and one comparable conventional reference farm. The ecological farms differed significantly from the conventional farms in the number of crops grown, the dependence of crop activities on external nutrients, and the number of techniques used to maintain soil fertility and create plant diversity. No significant economic differences were found. Gross income, variable costs, gross margin and net cash income per hectare were in the same range for the two groups of farms. The two groups were similar in average yields for major crops, days of labor per hectare, and total returns per day of labor.