Academic literature on the topic 'Agricultural structures. Farm buildings'

Over the centuries, farm buildings, which accompany the development of agriculture, have played an important role in defining spatial and environmental planning. In some European countries in particular, these rural structures have been built based on traditional agricultural needs and typical land characteristics. Considering the land abandonment that has occurred over the last five decades, with farmers moving to more comfortable residences in neighboring urban settlements, historical farm buildings have often been abandoned, thus causing a leakage of the historical-cultural heritage of the rural landscape. Nowadays, open data and geographic technologies together with advanced technological tools allow us to gather multidisciplinary information about the specific characteristics of each farm building, thus improving our knowledge. This information can greatly support the protection of those buildings and landscapes that have high cultural and naturalistic value. In this paper, the potential of Geographic Information Systems to catalogue the farm buildings of the Basilicata region (Southern Italy) is explored. The analysis of these buildings, traditionally known as masserie, integrates some typical aspects of landscape studies, paving the way for sustainable management of the important cultural heritage represented by vernacular farm buildings and the rural landscape.

Artificial intelligence applications in fire safety of agricultural structures have practical economic and technological benefits on commercial agriculture. The FAO estimates that wildfires result in at least USD 1 billion in agriculture-related losses due to the destruction of livestock pasture, destruction of agricultural buildings, premature death of farm animals, and general disruption of agricultural activities. Even though artificial neural networks (ANNs), genetic algorithms (GAs), probabilistic neural networks (PNNs), and adaptive neurofuzzy inference systems (ANFISs), among others, have proven useful in fire prevention, their application is limited in real farm environments. Most farms rely on traditional/non-technology-based methods of fire prevention. The case for AI in agricultural fire prevention is grounded on the accuracy and reliability of computer simulations in smoke movement analysis, risk assessment, and postfire analysis. In addition, such technologies can be coupled with next-generation fire-retardant materials such as intumescent coatings with a polymer binder, blowing agent, carbon donor, and acid donor. Future prospects for AI in agriculture transcend basic fire safety to encompass Society 5.0, energy systems in smart cities, UAV monitoring, Agriculture 4.0, and decentralized energy. However, critical challenges must be overcome, including the health and safety aspects, cost, and reliability. In brief, AI offers unlimited potential in the prevention of fire hazards in farms, but the existing body of knowledge is inadequate.

This review paper investigated the durability and corrosion of materials used in the construction of agricultural buildings. Even though concrete and metal were the materials of choice in the construction of farm structures, they are susceptible to corrosion and environmental degradation. Acid attacks result in the oxidation of metals and mass losses and reduced compressive strength of the metal structures. Concrete structures are degraded in high humidity environments, such as lagoons, agricultural effluents, and animal manure. Poultry, cow, and pig manure contain variable quantities of corrosion-inducing chemicals, such as sulfates, nitrates, chlorides, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. However, the degradation of concrete structures can be mitigated by the utilization of modified concrete containing sulfur, fly ash, silica fume, and nanoparticles such as silica. Concrete structures made of fiber-reinforced polymers are less prone to corrosion and are more durable. The design for durability has also emerged as a viable option for optimizing the service life of agricultural buildings by adhering to the exposure limits.

The health diagnosis of agricultural structures is critical to detecting damages such as cracks in concrete, corrosion, spalling, and delamination. Agricultural structures are susceptible to environmental degradation due to frequent exposure to water, organic effluent, farm chemicals, structural loading, and unloading. Various sensors have been employed for accurate and real-time monitoring of agricultural building structures, including electrochemical, ultrasonic, fiber-optic, piezoelectric, wireless, fiber Bragg grating sensors, and self-sensing concrete. The cost–benefits of each type of sensor and utility in a farm environment are explored in the review. Current literature suggests that the functionality of sensors has improved with progress in technology. Notable improvements made with the progress in technology include better accuracy of the measurements, reduction of signal-to-noise ratio, and transmission speed, and the deployment of machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in smart IoT-based agriculture. Key challenges include inconsistent installation of sensors in farm structures, technical constraints, and lack of support infrastructure, awareness, and preference for traditional inspection methods.

The peculiarities of the formation of new organizational and production structures of the agricultural sector of the Bulgarian economy in terms of integration into the European Union are considered. One of the conditions for ensuring the competitiveness of Bulgarian agriculture was the creation of a significant number of farms of various organizational and legal forms. Peculiarities of creation and functioning of private agricultural enterprises against the background of privatization of former labor cooperatives and state farms with observance of a clearly regulated legislative procedure are studied. The peculiarities of creating private agricultural farms in two forms are generalized: private households and large agro-firms. Of course, there were some difficulties with the privatization of agricultural machinery, equipment, technical and farm buildings. Also, difficulties arose with the management of agricultural commodity production due to the long absence of a tradition of private property in agriculture. It is proved that one of the features of the formation of new organizational and production structures was their creation on the basis of decolectivization and privatization. The main task of this process was to create an efficient and competitive environment for the development of the agricultural sector. The basis of agricultural management in Bulgaria in the period 1996-2007 were private agricultural enterprises, which were more efficient in their activities than other organizational and legal forms of management. However, the imperfection of the management system of the agricultural sector did not allow to accelerate the process of productivity of the industry, to attract the latest scientific advances and more efficient use of logistics. In the pre-integration period, no program of management actions for the functioning of agricultural enterprises was developed, which did not contribute to the growth of their financial and economic indicators and the competitiveness of these farms.

The aim of this study was to compare the folk archi-tecture of two neighbouring villages in Outer-somogy; fonó and kisgyalán. The prestigious agricultural buildings were built in the 19th century as a result of the change in farm management conditions due to river control and drainage. field experience proved that the function of stables significantly changed by the 21st century. The stables had residential function in many cas-es; these barns were quantified in both villages on street basis. in those streets which were established after 1945, barns built were not always finished, their proportion, quality and conver-sion into house for living were nearly the same in both villages. However, Kisgyalán had an average financial position, while fonó was a rich village with middle peasants. Consequently, the true-born population of two villages built different quality agricultural buildings and structures. shed of extremely high standard were found in fonó, while beautifully crafted corn-cribs were established in kisgyalán. The preservation of the buildings is of high interest of the population of both villages.

The article presents changes in fixed assets in agriculture on farms in two selected countries of the European Union, which are Poland and Spain in the period from 2004-2016. Both of these countries were selected on the basis of similar qualitative and quantitative characteristics that are characteristic of agriculture. An additional determinant of the choice of these countries was a similar economic situation before and after accession to the structures of the European Union. The article consists of an introduction, where the essence and significance of fixed assets in agriculture have been presented. Subsequently, the material and methodology of the research were presented. The comparison of fixed assets of both countries was based on statistical data from the European Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN). The analysis of the material shows that in the years 2006-2016, the value and number of fixed assets in total in Polish and Spanish farms were gradually increasing. Two significant groups of fixed assets were indicated, namely: agricultural land with plantations (SE446) and buildings (SE450). In Polish farms, depreciation is higher than in Spain, which is related to the greater number of owned buildings. In addition, the value of livestock was almost three times higher in Spain than in Poland in 2004-2016.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a multidimensional framework for the identification, description and comparative analysis of alternative farm structures and their properties for economic development. Design/methodology/approach Integrating previous typologies and considering a large set of examples, the authors identify six attributes that are necessary to characterize and compare farm structures: size; strategy; organizational form; legal form; who the owners are; and degree of separation of ownership and control. They also discuss potential complementarities between those organizational attributes and specific features of the institutions of developing and emerging countries, such as contract enforcement and property rights protection regime, and developed capital markets and corporate law. Findings Conceptually and empirically, effective farm structures can deviate from the templates traditionally considered – “small family-owned farm” or “large factory-like corporate farm,” combining structural attributes in diverse ways. The dimensionalization of farm structures also helps in revealing complementary institutional traits at the regional or larger system level that may foster development processes. Research limitations/implications The paper is limited to theory building and case-based evidence. Nevertheless, it provides dimensions that can be measured on a larger scale and by quantitative studies. Originality/value This paper sheds light on organizational diversity in agriculture and on a wider set of feasible development paths.

The given article deals with the influence of Soviet political and legal regulations on the everyday life of a post-war Ukrainian village. The level of topic development in the scientific literature was analyzed. A considerable source group consists of materials, connected with the party and economic documents. They give an opportunity to find out those aspects of rural everyday life, which deals with the peasants’ manufacturing life, tangible security, village specialists supporting, etc. It was found that there were statutory regulations, that determined the permissible size properties. Excessive land was divested from the peasants, which caused their resistance and indignation. Therefore, it influenced the family’s nutrition. It was revealed that the decree of 1948, according to which the agricultural tax rate increased, affected negatively to the financial possibilities of the peasant family. Before this decree, families whose relatives died in the war and did not have able-bodied workers, except for widows, especially with children under the age of 8, were completely exempt from tax. Now they had to pay 50% of the tax. The laws concerning the production sphere of the village were analyzed. For example, the decree «About the eviction of people who viciously evade work in agriculture and lead an antisocial, parasitic lifestyle from the Ukrainian SSR» should have influenced the peasants’ attitude to work in the collective farm. It empowered the local authorities to settle the issue of exportation outside the village, the republic of virtually any peasant farmer who did not work minimum hours, as well as the residents of the village who were not members of the collective farm through the collective farms and village gatherings. In making a decision, often reasons were not usually taken into account. A significant number of sentences was unfair. The problem of the rehabilitation of rural housing was considered. In 1945. a decree was adopted, named «About the construction of residential buildings of collective farmers, industrial buildings, cultural and household structures in the countryside». It shifted the main construction works, including the provision of building materials, to the collective farms.

Highlights Sustainable tools for surveillance of farm injuries and injury-related hazards in the U.S. are needed. A new tool for the surveillance of injury hazards on row crop farms has excellent inter-rater reliability. The new tool is simple and straightforward to complete and requires minimal training. Abstract. Agriculture is among the most dangerous industries in the U.S., yet routine surveillance of injury hazards is not currently being conducted on a national level. The objectives of this study were to (1) describe a new tool, called the Hazard Assessment Checklist (HAC), to identify and characterize farm hazards that increase injury risk to farmers and farm workers; and (2) report the inter-rater reliability of the new tool when administered on row-crop farms in Iowa. Based on a literature review and a consensus of expert opinion, the HAC included hazards related to self-propelled vehicles, powered portable implements, fixed machinery and equipment, farm buildings and structures, fall risks, and portable equipment associated with fall risks. A scoring metric indicating the extent of compliance with recommended safety guidelines and standards was developed for each item of the HAC, which included compliant, minimal improvement needed, substantial improvement needed, and not compliant. Inter-rater reliability was assessed from data collected by research staff on 52 row crop farms in Iowa. Cohen’s weighted Kappa values demonstrated high inter-rater reliability, ranging between 0.86 and 0.94 for all HAC sections. The HAC can be completed in 1.5 to 2 hours on each farm and requires about three hours of training, two of which are spent in the field training. The ability to monitor injury-related hazards over time using an empirically driven tool will contribute significantly to injury prevention efforts in an industry with consistently high rates of fatal and nonfatal injuries. Keywords: Agriculture, Audit, Checklist, Hazards, Injury.

Air distribution ducts are used in the environmental control of livestock and poultry building as well as the conditioning of most agricultural produce.
In order to simplify the approach to the design of ventilation ducts, a mathematical equation has been derived to describe the average air velocity of a duct.
The primary objective of the research work was to test goodness of fit of an equation describing the average air velocity of perforated ventilation ducts, under balanced as well as unbalanced air distribution: $V = H sb{o}{X over L} + (V sb{L}-H sb{o}) {X sp2 over L sp2}$.
This equation was successfully tested using data measured from 14 ducts of constant cross-sectional area, built of wood or polyethylene with outlets of various shapes and aperture ratios. Results indicated that aperture ratio and distance along the duct are the two most significant factors influencing the average duct air velocity values, but material and outlet shape had little effect.

Abstract Slate and shale are not usually considered as building stone for the construction of entire buildings in the vernacular farm architecture of the area north of the Vaal River (historically known as the Transvaal). Sandstone and granite as principal building stone types were more common. Slate and shale are two different stone types but due to their similar layered structure they are often used together in the construction of the same wall. Current research has revealed that slate and shale did play a significantbutselectiveroleinvernacularbuildingtechnologyintheregion.Slatewasusedforfinishing and solving specificproblemsinfolkbuildingtechnology.Oneofthereasonswhythesestonetypes were less popular as building material is the isolated occurrences of outcrops in the region. Sandstone and granite are more common and readily available. The few buildings constructed with slate and shale had a unique character reflectedinthewalltexturewhenthestoneislaidflat.Becausethe stone is released from its rock bed in thin plates with an almost completely flatsurfaceonbothsides, it is usually laid flatandneedslittlemortartosecureastablewall.Thispaperintroducesratherthan analyses the use of these materials in the vernacular architecture of the former Transvaal region.

This project documents the Ludwick-Swope Farmstead's architectural development from 1833 until 1994. Technology, economics, and local preferences all impacted this process. There was no set year when the farm "appeared" in full blown form. The evolution occurred over many decades.House histories and county histories are common in Rockbridge County, but no research has focused on farmstead history. Court records, historic photographs, area histories, the farmstead, and oral histories were examined. Each source provided information on the farmsteads development. This information was combined into a historic structures report, which documents the findings and the farmstead's current condition.Complete farmsteads are becoming scarce and few people remember what structures were once part of a working farm. Although some museums have farmstead reconstructions, no attempt has been made to show farmstead development over a broad period of time. This paper was designed to remedy this oversight by documenting one farmsteads development through the past century and a half.
Department of Architecture

Lantbruksbyggnader sätter stor prägel på den svenska landsbygden och utseendet på de äldre lantbruksbyggnaderna uppskattas av många, men vad är det som utmärker dessa byggnaderna? Syftet med denna undersökning är att identifiera vilka arkitektoniska kvaliteter som utmärker äldre lantbruksbyggnader med avgränsning till Södermanland. Denna kunskap ska sedan omsättas i ett gestaltningsförslag på ett litet gårdscentra i Södermanland för att ge exempel på hur de arkitektoniska kvaliteterna kan nyttjas och framhävas för att skapa attraktiva lantbruksbyggnader som bygger vidare på traditionen. En litteraturstudie genomfördes för att kartlägga tidigare forskning och kunskap relevant till ämnet. Tre exempel på mindre gårdar med någon form av medvetet arkitektoniskt inslag valdes ut för en fallstudie, som gav undersökningen exempel på samtida problem och lösningar. Fallstudierna utfördes genom studiebesök på gården och intervju med ägaren samt med arkitekten bakom byggnaderna. Utifrån analys av litteraturstudien och fallstudierna sattes resultatet samman i en syntes för att identifiera arkitektoniska kvaliteter hos lantbruksbyggnader. Syftet med gestaltningsförslaget är att ge ett exempel på hur resultatet kan användas i konceptutvecklingen av ett nytt litet gårdscentra. Ur litteraturstudien och fallstudierna identifierades 9 arkitektoniska kvaliteter via syntesen. Dessa arkitektoniska kvaliteter är: ”Starkt förhållande till omgivningen”, ”I ett sammanhang”, ”Harmoni”, ”Bra skydd”, ”Ärlig konstruktion”, ”Mänsklig koppling”, ”Vackert åldrande”, ”Livfullhet” och ”Historiskt värde”. Inför gestaltningsförslaget gjordes ett studiebesök och en intervju med beställarna följt av platsanalys för att fastställa förutsättningar, behov och önskemål i det specifika fallet. Utifrån litteraturstudien identifierades även metoder för analys och konceptutveckling, vilka tillsammans med förutsättningarna och syntesen låg till grund för konceptutvecklingen, som sedan ledde fram till ett gestaltningsförslag där de arkitektoniska kvaliteterna är tagna i beaktning. Slutsatsen av arbetet är att det finns många arkitektoniska kvaliteter att ta hänsyn till i utformningen av lantbruksbyggnader och det finns enkla verktyg och metoder att använda för att förstärka dessa arkitektoniska kvaliteter.
Agricultural buildings are a distinctive feature of the Swedish countryside and the appearance of the older agricultural buildings are appreciated by many, but what is it that distinguishes these buildings? The purpose of this study is to identify the architectural qualities that characterize older agricultural buildings in Södermanland. This knowledge will then be translated into a design proposal for a small farm center in Södermanland to give examples of how the architectural qualities can be used to create attractive agricultural buildings based on tradition.  A literature study was conducted to map previous research and knowledge relevant to the subject. Three examples of smaller farms with some form of conscious architectural element were selected for a case study, which gave the study examples of contemporary problems and solutions. The case studies were carried out through study visits to the farms and interviews with the owner and with the architect behind the buildings. Based on an analysis of the literature study and the case studies, the results were put together in a synthesis to identify architectural qualities of agricultural buildings. The purpose of the design proposal is to provide an example of how the results can be used in the concept development of a new small farm centers. From the literature study and the case studies, 9 architectural qualities were identified via the synthesis. These architectural qualities are: "Strong relationship with the environment", "In a context", "Harmony", "Good protection", "Honest construction", "Human connection", "Beautiful aging", "Liveliness" and "Historical value". Prior to the design proposal, a study visit and an interview with the clients were made, followed by an site analysis to determine the conditions, needs and wishes in the specific case. Based on the literature study, methods for analysis and concept development were also identified, which together with the conditions and synthesis formed the basis for the concept development, which then led to a design proposal where the architectural qualities were taken into account.  The conclusion of the work is that there are many architectural qualities to take into account in the design of agricultural buildings and there are simple tools and methods to use to strengthen these architectural qualities.

Utvecklingen för Sveriges jordbruk går mot färre och större gårdar runt om i landet. Jordbrukarnas växande verksamhet resulterar i ett ökat antal djur i boskapen. Detta ger ett större behov av stallbyggnader med öppna ytor och långa spännvidder. Länsstyrelsen har uppmärksammat stora variationer i de totala byggkostnaderna för stallbyggnader i landet. Tillsammans med Länsstyrelsen Gävleborg utvecklades en idé att undersöka hur materialkostnaderna påverkas av olika spännvidder och olika stomsystem. Målsättningen är att undersökningen ska resultera i ett beslutsunderlag för ny-, till- och ombyggnation av stallbyggnader. Tidigare forskning och teori undersöktes samt ett flertal platsbesök gjordes för att öka kunskaperna inom området och fastställa vilka spännvidder och stomsystem som skulle undersökas. En parametrisk studie på fyra olika typfall av stallbyggnader gjordes. Två typfall i undersökningen konstruerades av trä och två av stål. Den parametriska studien ska redovisa samband mellan stallbyggnaders spännvidd och kostnad samt vilket stomsystem som är mest ekonomiskt fördelaktigt. Kostnaderna i undersökningen innefattar enbart materialkostnader. Resultatet visar att kostnaderna ökar linjärt med den ökande spännvidden. De undersökta typfallens materialkostnader är relativt likvärdiga, men treledsramen i stål har den lägsta materialkostnaden för samtliga undersökta spännvidder.
The Swedish agriculture is developing towards fewer and larger farms. The growing business for the farmers results in an increased number of animals in livestock. This provides a greater need for agricultural buildings with open spaces and long spans. Länsstyrelsen has noted large variations in total construction costs for agricultural buildings in the country. Along with Länsstyrelsen Gävleborg developed an idea to explore how material costs are affected by various spans and different frame systems. The objective is that the study will result in a decision-making basis for new construction and reconstruction of agricultural buildings. Previous research and theories were examined and a number of site visits were made to increase knowledge in the field and determine which spans and frame system to be investigated. Parametric studies of four different scenarios of the agricultural buildings were made. Two cases in the study were constructed of glulam and two of steel. The parametric study is to report relationship between agricultural building spans and costs as well as which building system that is most economically advantageous. The cost of the survey includes only material costs. The result shows that the cost increases linearly with the increasing span. The material costs of the four tested scenarios are relatively equal, but the tapered steel frame has the lowest material cost for all tested spans.

Smallholder agriculture is faced with so many challenges despite all the policies and programmes that have been channelled towards ensuring improvement in this sector. Improving smallholder agricultural productivity requires that smallholder farmers gain access to reliable and adequate farmer support services such as physical infrastructures like good road network, functional irrigation facilities, extension services, finance and efficient marketing system. However, these support services are lacking in a vast majority of the rural communities in which the smallholder farmers live and work. This study is centred on governance within the food value chains, with specific focus on butternuts and chicken value chains;with a view to identifying those factors preventing smallholder farmers from accessing the mainstream market. Ciko and Mbozi villages in Mbashe local municipality were used as the research sites for the study. Data were collected across the two villages through sampling of 100 individual farming households based on random selection; questionnaires and checklist of questions were used as tools to access information from farmers through focus group discussions, personal interviews and key informants. In addition,Ciko Santrini project and foundation community project, which are the two agricultural community projects located within the study area were also investigated. Conceptual and analytical frameworks were employed in the research analysis. Williamson’s 4-level of social analysis and the sustainable livelihood frameworks were used to conceptualize the analysis. Inferential analysis was carried out using binary logistic regression and discriminant analysis with focus on butternuts and cSmallholder agriculture is faced with so many challenges despite all the policies and programmes that have been channelled towards ensuring improvement in this sector. Improving smallholder agricultural productivity requires that smallholder farmers gain access to reliable and adequate farmer support services such as physical infrastructures like good road network, functional irrigation facilities, extension services, finance and efficient marketing system. However, these support services are lacking in a vast majority of the rural communities in which the smallholder farmers live and work. This study is centred on governance within the food value chains, with specific focus on butternuts and chicken value chains;with a view to identifying those factors preventing smallholder farmers from accessing the mainstream market. Ciko and Mbozi villages in Mbashe local municipality were used as the research sites for the study. Data were collected across the two villages through sampling of 100 individual farming households based on random selection; questionnaires and checklist of questions were used as tools to access information from farmers through focus group discussions, personal interviews and key informants. In addition,Ciko Santrini project and foundation community project, which are the two agricultural community projects located within the study area were also investigated. Conceptual and analytical frameworks were employed in the research analysis. Williamson’s 4-level of social analysis and the sustainable livelihood frameworks were used to conceptualize the analysis. Inferential analysis was carried out using binary logistic regression and discriminant analysis with focus on butternuts and chicken production among the smallholder farmers in the study area to determine factors that could encourage farmers ‘access markets. The results showed that factors such as; assistance from government agency, partnerships with private and public institutions and farmers’ decision due to access to information were significant at 1% level for both butternuts and chicken production. On the other hand, factors such as provision of input subsidy and farmers’ membership of agricultural development projects are significant at 5% level. The findings suggest that adoption of any or combination of the significant factors could serve as good support structures for farmers and they could directly help them market their produce efficiently.

Orientador: Antonio Ludovico Beraldo
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agricola
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T11:32:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Zucco_LorisLodir_D.pdf: 10570276 bytes, checksum: 090871f339d00c3709ca38718b69a991 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007
Resumo: A reciclagem pode ser considerada uma ferramenta adequada para minimizar o impacto humano causado ao meio ambiente, o que aponta para o aproveitamento de resíduos agrícolas na obtenção de materia is para construções rurais, como uma forma alternativa de seqüestro ou da não emissão de carbono. O aproveitamento racional dos resíduos ainda é um problema não solucionado e uma parte substancial dos resíduos é desperdiçada, ou contamina o meio ambiente. No entanto, agregados de origem vegetal podem ser empregados na fabricação de artefatos leves de cimento, na busca de materiais de comportamento diferenciado em termos de isolamento térmico e acústico e de resistência às cargas dinâmicas. Esse trabalho de pesquisa, baseado em estudos anteriores envolvendo o aproveitamento da casca de arroz (CASCA), objetivou a redução no consumo de cimento através da incorporação de maior quantidade de material, a casca de arroz queimada em condições especiais, resultante de processo industrial (CINZA). Os percentuais de adição de casca e de cinza, variaram em função do tipo de mistura (pasta ou compósito). Assim, as diferentes misturas cimento-cinzacasca obtidas foram agrupadas em FASES, de acordo com o tipo de mistura (Pasta ou Compósito), a quantidade de casca (7,5% nas Fases I e II; variável nas Fases III e IV) e a quantidade de cinza (0%, 5%, 20% e 35%, na fase I e de 0%, 20% e 35%, nas demais fases). Por ser um material biológico a casca de arroz apresentou comportamento físico-químicomecânico variável, com síntese apresentada ao final de cada fase, em função do grande volume de informação (interação entre os fatores CASCA e CINZA). São apresentadas avaliações do comportamento químico, físico e mecânico das misturas à base de cimento, com incorporação de casca de arroz e/ou cinza da casca de arroz. As avaliações evidenciaram através do comportamento químico das misturas, o efeito negativo dos extrativos da casca de arroz (lavada em solução de cal) sobre as reações químicas do cimento (curva de hidratação), bem como sua redução pela adição de cinza, independentemente da distribuição em tamanho das partículas de casca. Atribuiu-se ao alto teor de carbono (98%) da cinza, a melhoria no comportamento químico das misturas. As reduções observadas em alguns parâmetros químicos, com a adição de cinza, está associada ao aumento de massa no sistema. A avaliação do comportamento físico-mecânico das misturas evidenciou que a adição de casca promoveu um aumento na resistência em tração por compressão diametral e redução na resistência em compressão simples. A adição de cinza promoveu aumento nestas resistências. A avaliação das placas prensadas evidenciou a ausência de diferença significativa entre as misturas, fato este também constatado na fase III, de modo que a adição de cinza não afetou de forma significativa a resistência mecânica, o que sugere a mistura 10 mm-35% como sendo a mais adequada para a produção de compósitos cimento-cinza-casca, com redução no consumo de cimento em cerca de 25%. Destaca-se que a mistura 10 mm-35% apresentou a maior capacidade de confinamento (ou de não emissão) de carbono. Sua capacidade de confinar foi estimada em cerca de 1,9 toneladas de CO2 por tonelada de cimento consumido no processo de fabricação do compósito, o que seria liberado para a atmosfera, quando da queima da casca de arroz no uso ou descarte inadequados. Palavras-chaves: calorimetria; casca de arroz; cimento; cinza; compósito
Abstract: The recycling is an effective tool to minimize environmental impact that is caused by human civilization. The utilization agricultural residual for rural construction is an efficient way for retain or reduce carbon emission to the atmosphere. However, the present-day techno logy is not enough to be a satisfactory level. A part of the residue is not consumed, and the rejected substances are causing environmental pollution. However, the vegetable aggregates can be employed to lightweight cement artifacts production, which is applied to thermal and acoustic isolators. This work look for a method for light artifacts production with minor cement consumption and larger rice husk (HUSK) consumption, with the help of the rice husk burned by a special industrial process (ASH). The ash and rice husk addition percentages had varied in function of the type of mixture (paste or composite). The different gotten mixtures cement-ash-rice husk been grouped in PHASES, in accordance with the type of mixture (Paste or Composite), the amount of rice husk (7.5% in Phases I and II; variable in Phases III and IV) and the amount of ash (0%, 5%, 20% and 35%, in phase I and of 0%, 20% and 35%, in the too much phases). For a biological material, the rice husk presented behavior changeable physic-chemistry-mechanic. A analyze synthesis is presented on the end each phase; this is necessary of the great volume of the information (interaction between the factors HUSK and ASH). Evaluations of the chemical, physical and mechanical behavior of cementash- rice husk mixtures are presented. The evaluations had evidenced through the chemical behavior of the mixtures, the negative effect of the extractives of the rice husk (Washed in Lime Solution) on the chemical reactions of the cement - hydration curve (temperature against time), the its reduction with the ash addition, independently of the particles size range. The high carbon content (98%) of the ash attributed the improvement to the chemical behavior of the mixtures. The reductions observed in some chemical parameters, with the ash addition, are associated with the increase of mass in the system. The behavior physical-mechanical evaluation of the mixtures evidenced that the rice husk addition increase the resistance in Brazilian test, with reduction in the resistance in simple compression. The ash addition promoted increase in this resistance. The evaluation of the board manufacturing evidenced an absence of significant difference between the mixtures, fact also evidenced in phase III. The ash addition not is significant affect in the mechanical resistance properties. The mixture 10 mm-35% proposed from at the production of composite, have reduction in the cement consumption in about 25%. In detach for 10 mm-35% mixture, presented the higher capacity of retain or reduce carbon dioxide emission. The capacity of to confine was estimated to in about 1.9 tons of CO2 for each ton of cement consumed in the process of manufacture of the composite, what would be emitted for the atmosphere, when of the burning of the rice husk, on the use or in the inadequate deposit. Keyywords: ash; calorimetric, cement; composite; rice husk
Doutorado
Construções Rurais e Ambiencia
Doutor em Engenharia Agrícola

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
The landscape of James A. Garfield’s Mentor, Ohio home (now preserved at James A. Garfield National Historic Site) contains multiple layers of historical meanings and values. The landscape as portrayed in political biographies, political cartoons, and other ephemera during Garfield’s 1880 presidential campaign reveals the existence of the dual cultural values of agrarian tradition and agricultural progress in the late nineteenth century. Although Garfield did not depend on farming exclusively for his livelihood, he, like many agriculturalists of this era participated in a process of mediation between these dual values. The function of the landscape of Garfield’s farm between 1876 and 1880 is a reflection of this process of mediation. After President Garfield’s assassination in 1881, his wife and children returned to their Mentor home. Between 1885 and c. 1905, Garfield’s widow Lucretia made numerous changes to the agricultural landscape, facilitating the evolution of the home from farm to country estate. Despite the rich history of this landscape, its cultural complexity and evolution over time makes it difficult to interpret for public audiences. Additionally, the landscape is currently interpreted exclusively through indoor museum exhibits and outdoor wayside panels, two formats with severe limitations. I propose the integration of deep mapping into interpretation at James A. Garfield National historic site in order to more effectively represent the multi-layered qualities of its historic landscape.

The thesis is a case study of two traditional family farms that were settled in Oregon in 1850 and 1915. The study embraces the theory that material culture reflects customs and values. The material culture indicators within the study are the architectural structures of the Oregon farms. The study filters the architecture through theoretical and historical data of both Oregon and the Upland South. The farms are recorded with oral history, photographs, architectural descriptions, and evolutionary settlement patterns. The filtering process results in two constructs that correlate the commonalities of both the Oregon farms and the Upland South architecture. The results point out that, with the disappearance of vernacular architecture on family farms, it follows that historic traditional cultures vanish.
Graduation date: 1993

AbstractFor most countries, the historical path to development includes a sectoral shift of labor from agriculture to other sectors, an inflow of capital to agriculture, and a boost in land productivity. Early in the process of structural transformation, when populations are primarily rural and agrarian, the pace of sectoral migration can appear slow, as births that occur in much larger rural populations nearly match out-migration. As populations become increasingly urban, the dynamics shift, as rural populations experience continued out-migration matched with a declining share of births. This sets the stage for rising wages and labor-saving mechanization in agriculture. In many places, mechanization is associated with economies of scale that encourage a transformation in farm structures toward larger farms. Still, farm structures have been slow to change in Asia and Africa, where most farms are small, limiting potential productivity gains. This chapter uses a cross-country panel of data spanning five decades to examine the relationships among sectoral migration, gaps in sectoral incomes, and mechanization.

AbstractEuropean farming systems are diverse, and food has traditionally played a central role in the shaping of individual and cultural identities. In this chapter, taking a food systems approach, we examine European issues for the interrelationships among agriculture, environmental sustainability, nutrition, and health, considering all steps in the food value chain from growing through to consumption and recycling. There are multiple policy objectives and instruments to coordinate, but, although the challenges are unprecedented, so too are the scientific opportunities. A wide range of issues are covered, including those for: agroecology and the implications for ecosystem assessment, other new production systems, linking soil structure and health both with environmental sustainability and novel products of the bioeconomy, and microbiomics. There are major opportunities for developing climate-resilient food systems while, at the same time, reducing the contribution that agriculture makes to climate change, along with accompanying implications for food policy. Recommendations for ambitious action include: promoting transdisciplinary research to fill present knowledge gaps; continuing to strengthen the research enterprise in the EU, recognising that EU scientists have crucial roles to play in building global critical mass in food system science; and reaffirming the use of science to inform innovation, policy and practice. In particular, for the EU, the Farm-to-Fork (F2F) policy has important objectives, but must be fully informed by the scientific evidence, well aligned with biodiversity, the circular economy and bioeconomic strategies, and transparent in communicating the consequences both for the domestic consumer and for the rest of the world.

AbstractFollowing the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics, food supply pressures and the rapid expansion of crop varieties with defined performance characteristics, international systems were set up throughout the 20 C to regulate the trade of seed, the protection of intellectual property and the sale of productive varieties of key agricultural crops. These systems are a highly connected but largely linear set of processes. System changes are slow to be adopted due to the cascade of effects that structural alteration would have globally. Multi-omic technologies and the subsequent proliferation of data types used within modern breeding, offer the possibility to gain deeper insights into the performance characteristics of varieties. Current integration of data, standards and ownership structures limit their applications for wider purposes, both private and public. We explore how data within and between breeding programmes and the varietal approval and monitoring processes could be made FAIR. We examine what role expanded or aligned programmes of data collection and expanded trait evaluation at the point of varietal registration and evaluation, as well as on farm could have in ensuring the best linkage of public and private data to address some of the challenges society faces over the next 30 years with the required, rapid transition to sustainable agricultural systems.

The Historic Rural Building Pilot Scheme, launched in 2018, was a collaborative project between national cultural and natural heritage organisations, government agencies and five English National Parks. Its aim was to bring life back to traditional agricultural buildings within the boundaries of participating National Parks. Funding was available for building repairs using traditional methods and materials, with the aims of preserving the distinctive character of the areas and keeping the buildings in continued agricultural use.The Author is an independent heritage consultant employed by Dartmoor National Park Authority to oversee the 13 repair projects selected there. These ranged in size from small, isolated barns to a large, late 19thcentury model farmstead. Typical works included masonry and cob repairs, timber repairs, roof replacement etc. A total of £1.3m has been offered in the National Park covering 80% of the cost of eligible repairs.The paper briefly describes Dartmoor and provides an overview of the scheme. Individual case studies are considered, illustrated with photos, describing the history and significance of each building, their construction, the structural problems affecting them before repair; and the philosophy and solutions adopted.

Approximately 132 agricultural tractor overturn fatalities occur per year (Myers and Snyder, 1993). The use of rollover protective structures on farm tractors (ROPS), along with operator seat belt use, is the best known method for preventing these fatalities. One impediment to universal ROPS use, however, is low clearance situations, such as orchards and animal confinement buildings. To address the need for ROPS that are easily adapted to low clearance situations, the Division of Safety Research (DSR), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), developed a prototype automatically deploying, telescoping ROPS (AutoROPS). The NIOSH AutoROPS consists of two subsystems. The first is a retractable ROPS that is normally mounted to the tractor axle and latched in its lowered position for day-to-day use. The second subsystem is a sensor that monitors the operating angle and rate of roll on two axes of the tractor. If an overturn condition is detected by the sensor, the retracted ROPS will deploy and lock in the full upright position before ground contact. This paper discusses the second generation design of the latch and release mechanism (LRM) for the NIOSH AutoROPS and recommends key areas for future surveillance and design research to best facilitate reduction in farm rollover fatalities.

Evolution of agrarian systems in countries with fragmented agricultural area structure leads to a decrease in the number of farms and an increase in the area and effectiveness of entities developing their activity. It is necessary to find out the causes of disagrarization - a process that is manifested at the macroeconomic level in reduced significance of agriculture in the national economy, among other things, and reduced importance of agricultural incomes in the economy of the countryside and a part of farms at the microeconomic level - in order to effectively impact ongoing changes that often affect the whole regions. The paper is an attempt to identify the factors determining the intensity of the process of the production and economic disagrarization of farms in Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Calculation procedures performed using the zero unitarization method and Data Mining tools enabled assessment of the intensity of the phenomenon analysed in the different territorial units (gminas), and identification of factors that have the biggest impact on its intensity. Using the process of modelling by the C&RT method it has been found out that the characteristics that describe the agrarian structure historically, i.e. intensity of the organisation of agriculture, fragmentation of the agrarian structure, had a big impact on differentiation of gminas in terms of the intensity of disagrarization. High intensity of the organisation of agriculture combined with good environmental conditions is conducive to the retention of production functions of agriculture in a given area. With low intensity of the organisation of agriculture and very large fragmentation of the agrarian structure, the intensity of disagrarization was very often determined by characteristics typical of periurban areas or tourist attractions, i.e. increase in population density and increase in the number of residential buildings. Urban development of a given territorial unit stimulated processes of exiting agriculture.

Brownfields are mostly associated with urban areas. However, the consequences of political and economic transformation have also affected rural areas. The most common type of brownfields in Slovakia is brownfields after agricultural production. The objective of the study was to identify the brownfields in the Zlaté Moravce district and focus primarily on the localisation of agricultural brownfields in the individual municipalities of the district. The district under review belongs to the Nitra Region, which is the most agriculturally used region in Slovakia. In order to meet our goal we mainly used the field research method and within this method the techniques such as observation, interviews with the employees of the municipal authorities, the owners of brownfield areas, the inhabitants of the municipalities and collection of photographic documentation. In the District we identified 64 brownfields and according to their original use it was predominantly agricultural brownfields amounting to a total number of 36. Most of them are in private hands. In many cases there is not only a single brownfield owner. Agricultural brownfields presented up to 95 % from the overall area of all brownfield categories. Agricultural brownfields are situated almost in every municipality in the district. In the majority of the cases it is agricultural areas, which include a number of abandoned buildings. In the Zlaté Moravce District none of these areas or buildings respectively has been revitalized so far because of the complicated ownership structure and lack of funding necessary for their restoration.

The paper aims to analyze a case of vernacular architecture in Cellole (Italy) built on the roman maritime villa of Sofonio Tigellino, prefect under the Emperor Nero.‘Villa San Limato’, built in the eighteenth century, includes a roman cryptoporticus and some thermal rooms of the original roman villa. The roman walls, the ancient mosaics and the marmoreal rests of San Limato were accidentally found in 1954, during agricultural works. Only in 1971 the roman villa was fully excavated by Werner Johannowsky.The roman villa of ‘San Limato’ is a rare example of suburban roman villa with private baths, included in a much larger archaeological area on the edge of the ancient Roman colony of Sinuessa (296 a.C. – V century). The ruins of Sinuessa are still visible on the seacoast of Mons Massicus and, underwater, off the coast of Mondragone.The ‘Masseria San Limato’ is an interesting case study for examine the coexistence between archaeological pre-existence and rural architecture. It’s possible to study how the rural farm have been developed often re-using the archeological rests, as foundations for the new buildings or employing archaeological materials inside the building.The ‘Masseria San Limato’, which is largerly in a state of disuse and abandonment, is not yet fully known and constitute an important example of local built heritage for the values of construction tradition, materials and techniques that they preserve.The study is characterized by an interdisciplinary approach. It will illustrate the characteristic values of an emblematic vernacular architecture and his state of conservation analyzed with respect to the structural instability and degradation in order to identify guidelines for the conservation, enhancement and the storytelling, at the same time, of the rural and archeological heritage.

The article is focused on the regeneration process of agricultural brownfields in the South Moravian Region. The selected area was intensively used for agriculture in the past, and as a result of deagrarization, a large number of brownfields originated in this area. Unused and abandoned buildings bring many problems, they are often demolished, and subsequently, new buildings are built in their place. Regeneration, which is usually more complicated than demolition and new construction, can be a much better option, however, its result can be far more valuable. During regeneration, many circumstances can be encountered that contribute to the successful restoration of the site, as well as obstacles that need to be overcome. Therefore, the aim of the article is to find, with the help of semi-structured interviews with stakeholders, the most common factors and obstacles associated with the successful regeneration of the agricultural brownfields in the South Moravian Region and suggest possible recommendations for streamlining regeneration processes. The research showed that an essential prerequisite for successful regeneration is the preparatory phase, in which a decision is made on the meaningful use of the brownfield. The next necessary step is resolving the property law relationship, securing financial resources, processing project documentation, and examining all risks that could complicate the regeneration activities. After that, it depends mainly on the involved stakeholders, their motivation, mutual cooperation and a thoughtful procedure that bring the whole project to successful completion and subsequent operation.

The change in income level and urbanization bring a different dimension to the demand to agricultural products from the food habits to supply food, increase the attention to the cereals production and enhance the agricultural effect of cereals which are the main food source of people and are used as feed and in industry. Cereals have the biggest share in agricultural production in terms of both production volume and sowing area in Turkey which produces a lot of agricultural products thanks to the climate and soil characteristics. In this study, in Turkey which is globally an important actor in cereals production and trade, the aims of producers in agricultural production and the factors in the process of making decision toward sustaining production are studied by the best-worst analysis method. Also, the relationship between the sustainability of the agriculture and cereals production, and the individual characteristics and farm structures of producers are examined by bivariate probit analysis method. In this context, study is conducted by 961 producers with face-to-face surveys in 14 provinces. According to the results, while “to increase living standards” is the most important agricultural aim, “good crop price” is the most important factor for sustainability of the agriculture. Moreover, education, agricultural experiences, household size, cereals area and total farm land are determined as the effective factors on sustainability.

The paper proposes the analysis of a significant portion of the territory of southern Italy and, more precisely, that in Calabria within the Esaro river valley, characterized by a wide hilly area that hosts numerous small ancient centres. The analysed territory, which for centuries has had a strong agricultural and pastoral vocation, presents a varied range of case studies typical of popular identity and vernacular culture but different in morphologies, construction techniques, materials and types. Through a comparative reading of some examples, therefore, the paper aims to highlight the architectural and construction features typical of the local architecture, underlining their spontaneous and identity character. Not only sporadic and isolated episodes are taken into consideration, but also entire portions of the inhabited area, which in structure and building fabric reflect the traditional life of the past. The territory’s variety allows us to analyse different types of architecture through which the vernacular culture is manifested. In addition to the most valuable examples such as farms, country houses, farmhouses, in fact, there are also examples of more modest architecture (ovens, stables, oil mills, mills, clay buildings) that express, even more, traditional and popularaspects. The study, therefore, through the analysis of the formal, functional and constructive characteristics, has made it possible to define variants and invariants of an architectural heritage with a strong identity value to protect and preserve.

Agriculture has been considered one of the most hazardous industries in the U.S., with studies showing that the worker fatality rate in agriculture is over seven times higher in 2011 than the fatality rate for all private industry workers. According to the U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), many of the fatalities and injuries that occur each year are preventable based on the use of protective equipment. Hazards associated with agricultural equipment such as farm tractors have been known for a number of years, and safety features have been introduced to mitigate, or in some cases, eliminate hazards associated with operation of this type of equipment. This paper presents a historical analysis of fatal and nonfatal injury data to identify potential effects of these safety features once introduced. The risks agricultural workers face, with an emphasis on hazards presented by farm equipment, is identified and quantified from data in recent years, specifically for farm tractors. For context, an introduction to the regulations and industry standards relevant to agricultural equipment is given, including the introduction of certain safety features such as roll-over protective structures (ROPS), which have been an industry standard requirement on tractors manufactured since the mid-1980s. Overall, recent data show continual reductions in the number of fatal injuries in the agricultural industry, particularly for farm tractors. However, further research is needed to clearly correlate the specific effects of safety mitigation devices on injuries associated with equipment in this industry.

The rural development policy of the Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury in Poland (APS) is conducted by The Agricultural Property Agency – APA (since 1.09.2017 – The National Centre for Agriculture Support). The property managed by the APA includes agricultural land, forests, farm buildings, residential buildings as well as equipment and devices that are part of the social, technical, production, commercial and service infrastructure. The aim of research was to proof the influence of the gratuitous transfer of land from the APS to local government units, to engage them in social activities. The main methods used for it were: the analyse of legal acts in Poland, the analyse of reports and statistic data from APA and method of cartographic presentation – quantitative, cartogram. This article focuses on the social aspects of the APA’s operations, based on an analysis of the data supplied by the Regional Branch of the Agricultural Property Agency in Olsztyn. The results of the analyses were presented in table format. The rural development policy concerning the performance of public purposes in rural areas was analysed. The obtained information and materials were analysed to identify social investments carried out on agricultural land donated to local authorities from Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury. The results were used to analyse and describe the social aspects of the APA’s operations in rural area in Poland. Rural areas require various types of social assistance services. The Agricultural Property Agency has successfully fostered social development in rural areas, and it has the required resources and experience to continue that mission.

Original objectives and revisions The original objectives as stated in the approved proposal were: (1) To establish guidelines for the use of micrometeorological techniques as accurate, reliable and low-cost tools for continuous monitoring of whole canopy ET of common crops grown in large agricultural structures. (2) To adapt existing methods for protected cultivation environments. (3) To combine previously derived theoretical models of air flow and scalar fluxes in large agricultural structures (an outcome of our previous BARD project) with ET data derived from application of turbulent transport techniques for different crops and structure types. All the objectives have been successfully addressed. The study was focused on both screenhouses and naturally ventilated greenhouses, and all proposed methods were examined. Background to the topic Our previous BARD project established that the eddy covariance (EC) technique is suitable for whole canopy evapotranspiration measurements in large agricultural screenhouses. Nevertheless, the eddy covariance technique remains difficult to apply in the farm due to costs, operational complexity, and post-processing of data – thereby inviting alternative techniques to be developed. The subject of this project was: 1) the evaluation of four turbulent transport (TT) techniques, namely, Surface Renewal (SR), Flux-Variance (FV), Half-order Time Derivative (HTD) and Bowen Ratio (BR), whose instrumentation needs and operational demands are not as elaborate as the EC, to estimate evapotranspiration within large agricultural structures; and 2) the development of mathematical models able to predict water savings and account for the external environmental conditions, physiological properties of the plant, and structure properties as well as to evaluate the necessary micrometeorological conditions for utilizing the above turbulent transfer methods in such protected environments. Major conclusions and achievements The major conclusions are: (i) the SR and FV techniques were suitable for reliable estimates of ET in shading and insect-proof screenhouses; (ii) The BR technique was reliable in shading screenhouses; (iii) HTD provided reasonable results in the shading and insect proof screenhouses; (iv) Quality control analysis of the EC method showed that conditions in the shading and insect proof screenhouses were reasonable for flux measurements. However, in the plastic covered greenhouse energy balance closure was poor. Therefore, the alternative methods could not be analyzed in the greenhouse; (v) A multi-layered flux footprint model was developed for a ‘generic’ crop canopy situated within a protected environment such as a large screenhouse. The new model accounts for the vertically distributed sources and sinks within the canopy volume as well as for modifications introduced by the screen on the flow field and microenvironment. The effect of the screen on fetch as a function of its relative height above the canopy is then studied for the first time and compared to the case where the screen is absent. The model calculations agreed with field experiments based on EC measurements from two screenhouse experiments. Implications, both scientific and agricultural The study established for the first time, both experimentally and theoretically, the use of four simple TT techniques for ET estimates within large agricultural screenhouses. Such measurements, along with reliable theoretical models, will enable the future development of lowcost ET monitoring system which will be attainable for day-to-day use by growers in improving irrigation management.

The main recommendations of the panel report can be summarised under five key headings:  Building blocks: The ultimate aim should be to build rich, detailed and testable narratives situated within a European context, and addressing phenomena from the longue durée to the short-term over international to local scales. Chronological control is essential to this and effective dating strategies are required to enable generation-level analysis. The ‘serendipity factor’ of archaeological work must be enhanced by recognising and getting the most out of information-rich sites as they appear. o There is a pressing need to revisit the archives of excavated sites to extract more information from existing resources, notably through dating programmes targeted at regional sequences – the Western Isles Atlantic roundhouse sequence is an obvious target. o Many areas still lack anything beyond the baldest of settlement sequences, with little understanding of the relations between key site types. There is a need to get at least basic sequences from many more areas, either from sustained regional programmes or targeted sampling exercises. o Much of the methodologically innovative work and new insights have come from long-running research excavations. Such large-scale research projects are an important element in developing new approaches to the Iron Age.  Daily life and practice: There remains great potential to improve the understanding of people’s lives in the Iron Age through fresh approaches to, and integration of, existing and newly-excavated data. o House use. Rigorous analysis and innovative approaches, including experimental archaeology, should be employed to get the most out of the understanding of daily life through the strengths of the Scottish record, such as deposits within buildings, organic preservation and waterlogging. o Material culture. Artefact studies have the potential to be far more integral to understandings of Iron Age societies, both from the rich assemblages of the Atlantic area and less-rich lowland finds. Key areas of concern are basic studies of material groups (including the function of everyday items such as stone and bone tools, and the nature of craft processes – iron, copper alloy, bone/antler and shale offer particularly good evidence). Other key topics are: the role of ‘art’ and other forms of decoration and comparative approaches to assemblages to obtain synthetic views of the uses of material culture. o Field to feast. Subsistence practices are a core area of research essential to understanding past society, but different strands of evidence need to be more fully integrated, with a ‘field to feast’ approach, from production to consumption. The working of agricultural systems is poorly understood, from agricultural processes to cooking practices and cuisine: integrated work between different specialisms would assist greatly. There is a need for conceptual as well as practical perspectives – e.g. how were wild resources conceived? o Ritual practice. There has been valuable work in identifying depositional practices, such as deposition of animals or querns, which are thought to relate to house-based ritual practices, but there is great potential for further pattern-spotting, synthesis and interpretation. Iron Age Scotland: ScARF Panel Report v  Landscapes and regions:  Concepts of ‘region’ or ‘province’, and how they changed over time, need to be critically explored, because they are contentious, poorly defined and highly variable. What did Iron Age people see as their geographical horizons, and how did this change?  Attempts to understand the Iron Age landscape require improved, integrated survey methodologies, as existing approaches are inevitably partial.  Aspects of the landscape’s physical form and cover should be investigated more fully, in terms of vegetation (known only in outline over most of the country) and sea level change in key areas such as the firths of Moray and Forth.  Landscapes beyond settlement merit further work, e.g. the use of the landscape for deposition of objects or people, and what this tells us of contemporary perceptions and beliefs.  Concepts of inherited landscapes (how Iron Age communities saw and used this longlived land) and socal resilience to issues such as climate change should be explored more fully.  Reconstructing Iron Age societies. The changing structure of society over space and time in this period remains poorly understood. Researchers should interrogate the data for better and more explicitly-expressed understandings of social structures and relations between people.  The wider context: Researchers need to engage with the big questions of change on a European level (and beyond). Relationships with neighbouring areas (e.g. England, Ireland) and analogies from other areas (e.g. Scandinavia and the Low Countries) can help inform Scottish studies. Key big topics are: o The nature and effect of the introduction of iron. o The social processes lying behind evidence for movement and contact. o Parallels and differences in social processes and developments. o The changing nature of houses and households over this period, including the role of ‘substantial houses’, from crannogs to brochs, the development and role of complex architecture, and the shift away from roundhouses. o The chronology, nature and meaning of hillforts and other enclosed settlements. o Relationships with the Roman world

This paper analyzes the 2020 election, focusing on voters, not political money, and emphasizing the importance of economic geography. Drawing extensively on county election returns, it analyzes how spatial factors combined with industrial structures to shape the outcome. It treats COVID 19’s role at length. The paper reviews studies suggesting that COVID 19 did not matter much, but then sets out a new approach indicating it mattered a great deal. The study analyzes the impact on the vote not only of unemployment but differences in income and industry structures, along with demographic factors, including religion, ethnicity, and race. It also studies how the waves of wildcat strikes and social protests that punctuated 2020 affected the vote in specific areas. Trump’s very controversial trade policies and his little discussed farm policies receive detailed attention. The paper concludes with a look at how political money helped make the results of the Congressional election different from the Presidential race. It also highlights the continuing importance of private equity and energy sectors opposed to government action to reverse climate change as conservative forces in (especially) the Republican Party, together with agricultural interests.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.