Journal articles on the topic 'Agriculture – Maroc (est)'

Au Maroc, l’exploitation individuelle des eaux souterraines a permis le développement rapide d’une agriculture irriguée intensive. Dans la plaine de Berrechid, la ressource est limitée et surexploitée. L’agence de bassin tente depuis une dizaine d’années de mettre en place une contractualisation avec différents acteurs pour réguler les prélèvements en eau souterraine à usage agricole. L’objectif de l’étude est d’analyser en quoi la catégorisation des agriculteurs, se distinguant par leur accès à l’eau et au foncier, et les interactions entre ces catégories d’agriculteurs, sont utiles pour penser la gouvernance de la nappe. Une fois la dynamique de l’agriculture irriguée retracée, des enquêtes ont permis d’établir une typologie d’agriculteurs, puis les arrangements et rivalités entre les différents types d’agriculteurs ont été caractérisés. Les résultats montrent que l’utilisation accrue des eaux souterraines a déclenché des rivalités pour l’accès à l’eau, ainsi que l’exclusion de certains agriculteurs dans un contexte de baisse de la nappe. Pour dépasser ces problèmes d’accès, certains agriculteurs mettent en place des arrangements coopératifs autour des différents facteurs de production (eau, terre, capital, savoir-faire, main-d’œuvre). Cependant, ces arrangements accentuent, paradoxalement, la surexploitation de la nappe et les rivalités, et entraînent la poursuite et l’évolution des formes d’arrangements coopératifs. La compréhension fine de la nature des relations entre différents types d’agriculteurs peut permettre d’inclure une réflexion sur l’équité sociale dans le projet de concession aux associations de producteurs, qui pour le moment semble ignorer ces relations.

Situé dans une zone géographique où les ressources hydriques sont limitées, le Maroc a multiplié les efforts pour gérer ses ressources en eau. Ces efforts se sont concrétisés à travers l’amélioration continue du cadre législatif régissant le secteur de l’eau et s’adaptant aux nouvelles contraintes qu’elles soient climatiques, technologiques et/ou économiques. Dans ce sens, ce travail vise l’évaluation de l’impact de ces interventions publiques sur la croissance agricole et économique observées. La démarche méthodologique adoptée se base sur la méthode de comptabilité de croissance ou « Growth Accounting », développée par Solow en 1957. Elle permet de décomposer la croissance en contribution des facteurs et celle de la productivité. Les résultats de cette étude confirment le rôle primordial que joue l’agriculture en tant que moteur de croissance de l’économie marocaine. Ils montrent également que la contribution de l’eau à la croissance de la valeur ajoutée agricole est de l’ordre de 2% et qu’elle demeure tributaire des conditions climatiques, qui à leur tour changent sous l’effet du réchauffement climatique. Located in a geographical area with limited water resources, Morocco has multiplied its efforts to manage its water resources. These efforts have been materialized through the continuous improvement of the legislative framework governing the water sector and adapting to the new constraints whether they are climatic, technological and/or economic. In this sense, this work aims at evaluating the impact of these public interventions on the observed agricultural and economic growth. The methodological approach adopted is based on the growth accounting method developed by Solow in 1957. It allows for the decomposition of growth into factor contributions and productivity contributions. The results of this study confirm the primary role played by agriculture as an engine of growth in the Moroccan economy. They also show that the contribution of water to the growth of agricultural value added is around 2% and that it remains dependent on climatic conditions which are changing under global warming.

Le sous-bassin versant (SBV) d’Agoudal est la partie amont de la vallée d’Imilchil relevant de la province de Midelt et la région de Draa-Tafilalet au Sud-Est du Maroc. Il s’étale sur la tranche altitudinale asylvatique du Haut Atlas central, allant de 2400 à plus de 3150 m. Ce sont des écosystèmes fragiles dont les sols sont peu arables et peu protégés, à haut risques d’érosion. Ils sont dans un stade très avancé de dégradation, sous l’effet de l’action de l’Homme, des facteurs écologiques, aggravés par les changements climatiques. L’objectif principal de cette recherche est d’évaluer le degré de sensibilité de la zone d’étude vis-à-vis de l’érosion hydrique et de cartographier les zones vulnérables prioritaires pour d’éventuelles interventions d’atténuation. La méthode utilisée s’est basée sur l’Équation Universelle Révisée des Pertes en sols (RUSLE) en intégrant les différents facteurs causaux de ladite équation dans le Systèmes d’Information Géographique (SIG) et en se servant des données officielles (cartes géologiques et topographiques de la zone d’études, données climatiques, les études sur l’érosion réalisées par les départements étatiques concernés) et la télédétection, validées par les réalités de terrain. Les résultats dégagés montrent que la quasi-totalité de ce bassin est soumis à une forte dégradation des sols ; en effet près de 66% de la superficie de la zone d’étude est couverte par les classes de dégradation spécifique de 50 à 400 t/ha/an et 18.9% affiche des taux faibles à moyens allant de 7,4 à 32,17 t/ha/an. Seulement 1,4% du SVB est soumise à des taux de dégradation spécifique inférieurs à 7,4 t/ha/an. La valeur moyenne du taux d’érosion est de 255t/h/an, avec un écart type de près 285 t/an/ha, dû l’hétérogénéité des caractéristiques du milieu et de ses conditions. Ces chiffres attestent que cette région est soumise aux hauts risques d’érosion. Ce phénomène ajouté aux inondations récurrentes, constituent la principale menace qui met en péril l’agriculture vivrière de cette zone, ce qui donne le signal d’alarme pour intervention de mitigation urgente. The Agoudal sub-basin is the upstream part of the Assif Melloul watershed in the Imilchil valley belonging to the province of Midelt and the region of Draa-Tafilalet in south-eastern Morocco. It is located on the Asylvatic altitudinal slice of the Central High Atlas, ranging from 2400 to more than 3150 m. These are fragile ecosystems with poor arable land that are poorly protected, with a high risk of erosion. They are in fact in their advanced stage of degradation due to human activities and ecological factors aggravated by climate change. This paper focuses on assessing the degree of sensitivity of this area to water erosion, and it aims to map priority vulnerable areas for any future mitigation intervention. The method was based on the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) by integrating the causal factors of this equation in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and by using remote sensing data validated based on official data (geological maps and topography of the study area, climatic data, studies on erosion carried out by the state departments concerned) and remote sensing (validated by the realities on the ground). The results show that almost all the watershed is subject to severe soil degradation due to water erosion. In fact, nearly 66% of its area is covered by specific degradation classes of 50 to 400 t / ha / year, and 18.9% of the area displays low and medium erosion rates. Only 1.4% of the study area is subject to specific degradation rates less than 7.4 t / ha / year. The average erosion rate is 255 t / h / year, with a standard deviation of 285 t / year / ha, mainly due to the heterogeneity of the characteristics and its conditions. These figures show that this region is subject to high risks of erosion. This phenomenon, along with recurrent floods, constitutes the main threat that is endangering subsistence agriculture, which gives the alarm signal for urgent mitigation intervention.

In this study, we will focus on the different dimensions of performance, and make a descriptive analysis of the industrial sector’s position in the national economy. We will also assess the clout and the performance of each industrial branch, through the measurement of the following indicators: the added value, the employment, the number of companies, the investment, the foreign trade, the comparative advantage and the degree of export commitment. This research shows that the industry contributes the most to GDP with an average of about 19% during the 1985-2016 period, followed by agriculture with (15%), trade with (12%), construction industry and public works with (5%). By industry, statistics show the predominance of the agri-food, textile, leather, mechanical, metal and electrical industries in overall industrial production over the period 1985-2016, while in terms of exports, the mechanical, metallic, electrical", and "textile and leather" branches are at the top of the list with a share of 27% for each. Over the period of 1985-2014, the chemical and parachemical industry ranks first in terms of investments in the industrial sector with a 33% share, and thus promises significant growth prospects. In terms of regions, figures show the predominance of the Grand Casablanca region, which accounts for 41% of companies created, 61% of national industrial production, 56% of industrial exports, and 50% of the total workforce employed during the 1985-2014 period. All this is happening with a remarkable rise of the Tangier-Tetouan region in recent years.

Instabilities of the ground is regarded as one of the most serious problems that affect many areas in Morocco. The study is important and beneficial because it concerns various sections of the Rif area. Indeed, certain zones which came at the top have been seriously affected. Disorders are numerous: destruction of homes, loss of agricultural land, and deterioration of infrastructure (roads, railways, and bridges). The aim of this study is focused on the zones where the road network generally is much damaged. This, however, causes a disturbance and even an interruption of the road traffic during stormy periods. The detailed study of lithology, climatology, geomorphology, hydrology, and the slope of the studied zones allows us to highlight the characteristics of the unstable grounds. It also helped us to figure out that the rheological nature of the ground plays a significant role in the characterization of the type of movement.The analysis of various movements which was found enables us to conclude that an instability of the ground depends on the conjunction on many factors, whether they are of provision or release. The most important factors causing the instabilities of the ground are: The alternation of rocks of nature; permeability and plasticity were well contrasted. The rugged relief and steep slopes. Geotechnical properties. Seismicity. Irregular rainfall. Geomorphology and land use. Anthropogenic action. Spatial distribution of the risk zones shows that the majority of the studied sections experience strong risks and medium risks levels.

Dans les périmètres irrigués du Maroc, la pollution nitrique diffuse des eaux souterraines augmente le risque de détérioration de la qualité des ressources hydriques et engendre un risque sanitaire pour la population rurale s'approvisionnant le plus souvent directement de l'aquifère. La présente étude, réalisée dans le périmètre du Tadla (3600 km2), située au centre du Maroc, vise à faire l'état des lieux de la contamination des eaux souterraines par les nitrates et à identifier les causes potentielles de cette pollution. Le suivi de la concentration des eaux souterraines en nitrates a été réalisé durant la période août 1996 - avril 1998 dans un réseau de cent puits. Les paramètres du milieu physique et des pratiques culturales ont été déterminés soit par des mesures au champs, des analyses au laboratoire ou par enquête auprès des agriculteurs dans un réseau de 40 sites. Les résultats sont présentés sous forme de cartes thématiques par le SIG. Le niveau actuel de la pollution nitrique des eaux souterraines dans le périmètre irrigué du Tadla commence à devenir critique. De part la pollution ponctuelle mise en évidence aux alentours de quelques agglomérations urbaines et à l'aval des sucreries, les zones dont les teneurs en nitrates des eaux souterraines dépassent 50 mg NO3- /l sont localisées en aval des Béni Amir et en aval et à l'Est des Béni Moussa Est. Béni Moussa Ouest reste en général moins polluée que Béni Moussa Est. Les apports excessifs en eau et en engrais azotés pour les cultures pratiquées (blé, betterave, cultures maraîchères, arboriculture et luzerne), sont les causes directes de la pollution diffuse. Par ailleurs, il est certain que la texture du sol (argileuse, argilo-limoneuse et limono-argileuse), la teneur en argile (29% à 55%) et tous les paramètres qui leurs sont corrélés notamment la réserve utile du sol, réduisent le risque de lixiviation des nitrates en profondeur et assurent en conséquence un contrôle naturel de la pollution nitrique des eaux souterraines. Néanmoins, tous les autres facteurs étudiés notamment le niveau des nappes faible par rapport au sol (<4m-12m), la vitesse d'infiltration du sol en milieu saturé généralement élevée (20-450 mm/h), les teneurs assez importantes du sol en matière organique (1.5%-3.5%) et en azote total (0.10%-0.15%), joueraient positivement sur la vulnérabilité de la nappe à cette pollution. De même, le pouvoir de minéralisation élevé des sols couplé aux conditions écologiques favorables à une minéralisation intense de la matière organique native du sol, assez caractéristique des régions irriguées à climat méditerranéen, seraient en partie responsable de cette pollution. Néanmoins, Aucune corrélation n'a été mise en évidence entre la teneur en nitrate des eaux souterraines et les combinaisons linéaires des variables du milieu physique. Ceci serait dû à l'homogénéité du milieu physique et à l'accumulation de la pollution suivant le sens d'écoulement des nappes de l'amont vers l'aval hydraulique. Vu le niveau d'intensification agricole que connaît cette région, la situation risquerait de s'aggraver rapidement induisant, en dehors de toute mesure de prévention, la détérioration de la qualité des eaux souterraines dans cette région.

Water is a precious and essential natural resource for multiple uses. Its use for food or hygiene requires excellent physicochemical and microbiological quality. To assess the quality of well water for human consumption in the Al Hoceima region which is located in North of Morocco, a physico-chemical and bacteriological control was carried out on the basis of 10 water samples from wells in this area. The analyzes were performed on these samples by measuring the following physic-chemical parameters: temperature, pH, electric conductivity (EC), chloride (Cl -),dissolved oxygen, nitrate (NO3 -), and possibly seeking unwanted bacteria (total bacteria, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci). The samples were analyzed systematically to measure all the physicochemical indicators of pollution. Correlation between pollution parameters were conducted to give a reponse element on the main causes pollution. The results performed analysis, revealed a pollution of an agricultural origin. This is confirmed by the maximum levels of chlorides, which exceed 2640 mg/l, thereby explaining the high conductivity levels (4800μs/cm). In addition 14% of analyzed wells have nitre levels 50mg/l nitrate pollution a not alarming. However, if a pollution of agricultural origin is mentioned, the lithological contribution can not be neglected on the results obtained.

The rainfall erosivity factor (R factor in Universal Soil Loss Equation), denoting rain energy, is a key factor for soil loss modeling. Its present and future estimation is thus significant for any action related to soil and water conservation and planning. The extended series of precipitations at high temporal resolution, essential to its evaluation, are not readily available in Morocco. The objective of this study is to predict the evolution of rainfall erosivity by 2080 in the Western Rif, based on predictions of daily rain provided by the General Climatic Models (GCMs). To reflect the seasonal variability of rainfall, and thus of R factor, a series of instantaneous rain measured over 35 consecutive years was used to monthly calibrate a model to calculate erosivity based of daily rainfall. The application of this model to the predictions of different GCMs and for various scenarios of climate evolution in Western Rif shows a weak evolution of erosivity on an annual timescale but a very strong evolution of the latter according to seasons with a reduction in R factor during winter and spring, and a pronounced increase during summer and autumn. This discernable change of the seasonality of rainfall erosivity is very useful for adjusting the evolution of agricultural practices and for selecting appropriate soil protection measures.

La aplicación de agroquímicos para proteger cultivos y controlar enfermedades, plagas y malezas es una práctica habitual en la agricultura. Esta tendencia a nivel mundial comienza alrededor de la década de 1950, en consonancia con los postulados de la denominada ‘Revolución Verde’, y a partir de entonces distintas instituciones tanto internacionales como nacionales han intentado regular su uso y aplicación. El artículo busca explicar los procesos de producción de instrumentos de regulación en materia de agroquímicos en Argentina. Para eso, desde una perspectiva constructivista, y partiendo de estudios previos, se reconstruye el marco normativo nacional e internacional en términos de trayectoria socio-técnica, desde los años 1950 en adelante, a partir del análisis de documentos, programas, códigos, directrices, convenios y acuerdos internacionales, así como leyes y otros instrumentos de regulación y control de uso, aplicación y comercialización de agroquímicos en Argentina.

Morocco has taken over the desire to ensure sustainable development and to promote the treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater. In this context, several sewage treatment plants were created, in order to protect the environment from direct discharges of wastewater, and to hope for the reuse of treated wastewater. The use of Activated sludge process in treating the wastewater has been the solution to many problems. In order to evaluate the performance of wastewater treatment plant of the city of Al-Hoceima (North of Morocco). We studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters; we carried out a series of measures such as: temperature, pH and conductivity, the biochemical oxygen demand BOD5, the chemical oxygen demands COD, fecal coliforms (FC) and total coliforms (TC). Measurement of the BOD5, COD and TSS yields values give respectively 96%, 95% and 85%. The tests showed that the treated water can be obtained with a quality complying with the agricultural reuse.

The present study concerns the biological assessment of Beht’s river quality in Morocco during the period Mai-June of 2014 using the standard Global Biological Index of Control and Surveillance Networks (GBICSN).Thus twelve sampling stations were chosen for the determination of the impact of agricultural and urban waste of Beht’s area on the biological waters quality of this river. As results this biological approach showed downgrading notes of the biological index from the watershed’s uphill to its downstream reflecting this way the deterioration of water quality with increasing anthropogenic action and inputs.

In recent decades, the drought becomes one of the important phenomena resulting from and climate change variability. Its indirect effects in the time can have an economic, agricultural, hydrological or social impact. The aim objective of this study is to characterize the climate drought at the catchment level of Oum Er Rbia (Morocco) for the period 1985/2013 through the calculation of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for the four stations studied: El Jadida, Safi, Beni Mellal and Khouribga. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) originally proposed by Mckee et al. (1993) is used as an index of follow-up to the drought and recommended by the World Meteorological Organization. The results obtained after the calculation of this index have enabled us to locate the drought periods of more remarkable in their intensity, their duration and their frequency.

In the Meknes region, urban and peri-urban green spaces are mainly irrigated by wastewater, whose flow has considerably increased in recent years due to the extent of urbanization. These agricultural areas along the three valleys of Bou Ishak, Boufekrane and Ouislane are an asset of the city of Meknes, but they are at the origin of the proliferation of culicidal species harmful to the urban population, especially during the summer season marked by the decrease in clear water from sources. The biotypological analysis of the breeding sites encountered in the studied perimeter, revealed the main elements that determine the distribution of culicidal species. This depends in large part on the situation of the deposits, either upstream of the discharges of the waste water or downstream of these discharges. Thus, deposits located in the southern suburbs of Meknes, upstream of domestic and industrial wastewater discharges, show an important specific richness with the presence of eleven species divided into four genera. On the other hand, in the lodgings located in the urban perimeter, characterized by polluted water, we noted the predominance of two species belonging to two genera Culex and Aedes. The reduction in the specific richness of these deposits is related to the degradation of water quality, mainly due to the discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater.

RésuméL’État marocain décida en 2006 de privatiser les terres des coopératives de la réforme agraire créée au début des années 1970. Cette dynamique foncière s’inscrit dans des processus plus larges de changements agraires, qui se manifeste entre autre par la vente des terres, l’introduction de nouvelles cultures à forte valeur ajoutée, l’utilisation de nouvelles technologies (forage et goutte-à-goutte) et des transformations dans les relations de travail. Ces changements auront une influence sur le développement de l’agriculture familiale et les relations de genres. À la base d’un travail ethnographique et historique portant sur une coopérative dans la plaine du Saïss, nous suggérons d’ouvrir la « boite noire » de l’agriculture familiale pour illustrer les dynamiques de genre qui marquent aujourd’hui l’impact des changements agraires. À travers ce regard nous illustrons dans un premier temps comment, pendant la période de la coopérative la terre, l’exploitation et la famille paysanne étaient intimement liées. Les activités et l’organisation autour de la terre forment les identités des hommes et des femmes paysans. Aujourd’hui, nous illustrons au travers de différentes trajectoires de familles paysannes comment ce modèle est en mutation. Les dynamiques agraires offrent de nouvelles opportunités à certains jeunes hommes et agriculteurs « modernes ». Cependant, différentes femmes paysannes ne trouvent plus de fierté dans le travail agricole et essaient de développer de nouvelles identités féminines rurales, ce qui n’est pas facile. Ainsi, nous verrons que le devenir de l’agriculture paysanne dépendra fortement de cette nouvelle génération de jeunes agriculteurs et agricultrices et de leurs aspirations à moderniser leur devenir.

Human activities such as agriculture, swimming, livestock, public washing, and the use of latrines around the river are considered as major causes of damage to the river ecosystem, affecting the growth of Macroinvertebrate, and thus assessing the condition of the river. This study aimed to study the composition of Macroinvertebrate and the quality of water health in Sumber Maron River, in the village of Gondanglegi. This research was conducted from March to April 2018. The method used in this research was the quantitative method using primary data. Research stations were identified by considering land-use in nine regions. The sampling technique of total macroinvertebrates was the kicking technique using the manual mesh with a 500 µm applied to the submerged solid substrates. The data were analyzed using a BMWP Index and interpreted by calculating the Average Scores Per Taxon (ASPT). The result of this research represented that there were 20 taxa of macroinvertebrates, which consisted of It belongs to 8 orders (Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Tricladida, Decapoda, Odonata, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera) and four class (Oligochaeta, Hirudinea, Gastropoda, Crustacea). Generally, the lowest taxa groups found in the station A1 (3 taxa), which were the agriculture and toilet (recreation area). Meanwhile, the highest taxa groups were found in station B3, which was the recreation area, by a total of 14 taxa. Macroinvertebrate with the lowest abundance was Gerridae at station A3, which respectively had the number of 1 ind.5m-2. Macroinvertebrate with the highest abundance was Baetidae at the station B3, which is the recreation area, by the number of 549 ind.5m-2. The result of modified BMWP – ASPT analysis showed a value of 3.3 – 5.75, which indicated that the condition of Sumber Maron River was ranging from bad to excellent category. The bad water condition was found in the agriculture and toilet (recreation area), whereas the excellent water condition was found in the swimming pool (recreation area). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) revealed that environmental variables were significant for an explanation of the variance in the family.

Soil erosion causes many environmental and socio-economic problems: loss of biodiversity, decrease in the productivity of agricultural land, siltation of dams and increased risk of flooding. It is therefore essential to establish a detailed evaluation of this process before any spatial planning. To evaluate the effects of soil erosion spatially and quantitatively in order to face this phenomenon, and propose the best conservation and land development strategies, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) coupled with a geographic information system (GIS) is applied. This model is a multiplication of the five erosion factors: the erosivity of the rain, the erodibility of the soil, the inclination and the slope length, the vegetation cover and the anti-erosion practices. The study area is the Moulay Bouchta watershed (7 889 ha), which is located in the western part of the Rif Mountains, is characterized by a complex and contrasting landscape. The resulting soil loss map shows an average erosion rate of 39.5 (t/ha/yr), 87% of the basin has an erosion rate above the tolerance threshold for soil loss (7 (t/ha/yr)). Soil losses per subbasin range from 16.2 to 81.4 (t/ha/yr). The amount of eroded soil is estimated at 311,591 (t/yr), corresponding to a specific degradation of 12.1 (t/ha/yr). In the absence of any erosion control, 25% of the soil losses would reach the new dam located a little upstream of the basin outlet, reducing its water mobilization capacity to 59,625 (m3/yr). The application of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to soil erosion factors shows a significant influence of topographic factor (LS) on soil erosion process, followed by the effect of support practices (P), then by soil erodibility (K).

L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier une voie de valorisation du stérile d’exploitation des phosphates comme matière première alternative dans l’industrie céramique. Cinq formulations sont étudiées pour produire par pressage à sec des carreaux céramiques. Ces formulations sont réalisées en mélangeant le stérile avec des argiles locales abondantes selon des pourcentages qui varient de 0 à 100 %. Les carreaux céramiques produits sont caractérisés par leurs propriétés physiques (absorption d’eau, retrait de cuisson), mécaniques (résistance à la flexion) et de surface (observation en microscopie électronique à balayage). Les résultats de cette étude montrent que l’intégration du stérile des mines de phosphates permet d’améliorer les propriétés mécaniques des carreaux céramiques. Une utilisation industrielle de ce déchet minier entre 20 et 50 % dans des formules à base d’argile pourrait donc être envisageable pour concevoir des produits de faïence, conformes aux exigences mécaniques et techniques applicables. Cette voie de valorisation permet de gérer les grandes quantités des rejets miniers et donc leur impact environnemental ainsi que de préserver les ressources naturelles non renouvelables.

L’érosion des sols et le transport solide sont des causes de perte de capacité de stockage des barrages. Il est important d’identifier et de cartographier les sous-bassins contribuant le plus à l’envasement. Le bassin versant de l’oued Bouregreg a été choisi pour exemple, car le barrage Sidi Mohammed ben Abdellah (SMBA) situé à l’aval s’envase. Les modèles utilisés, RUSLE (équation universelle révisée des pertes de sol) et MUSLE (équation universelle des pertes de sol modifiée par Williams), sont empiriques et bien connus. Ils permettent la réalisation d’une cartographie thématique facilitée par l’utilisation de systèmes d’information géographique. À l’issue de cette analyse, les sous-bassins générant une forte érosion seront clairement mis en évidence pour que des mesures correctives y soient mises en œuvre.

RESUMO O objetivo deste artigo é identificar os fatores que explicam o estabelecimento de compromissos mútuos entre os agricultores familiares e compradores de produtos hortícolas na Região Serrana do Rio de Janeiro. Para tanto, analisa 567 transações referentes a uma amostra de agricultores familiares baseados em sete municípios. A Economia dos Custos de Transação (ECT) é usada como marco teórico. O estudo empírico parte da construção de uma variável que divide as transações em dois grupos. No primeiro grupo, intitulado "com compromisso", o comprador fornece insumos ou assistência técnica ao produtor. Já no segundo grupo, intitulado "sem compromisso", inexiste tal comprometimento de conhecimento e recursos. Estatísticas descritivas e um modelo logístico (logit) binário mostram que transações "com compromisso" se caracterizam por um maior nível de especificidade do ativo e um amplo conjunto de rotinas de coordenação. Por sua vez, a construção de confiança emerge como um mecanismo de coordenação fundamental mesmo naquelas transações "sem compromisso".

Les modèles climatiques régionaux (MCR) du projet Cordex prévoient une diminution des précipitations de 18% et une augmentation de la température moyenne de 0,5°C dans la zone de Ghis-Nekkor à l’horizon de 2050. Ces changements futurs pourraient anticiper plus d’aridité avec un climat régional qui tend vers le caractère aride à l’horizon de 2080. L’augmentation des températures conjuguée à des précipitations de plus en plus faibles pourrait affecter la recharge de la nappe de Ghis-Nekkor. Afin d’évaluer l’impact de ces changements sur les fluctuations piézométriques et la recharge de la nappe, l’amélioration des connaissances géologiques et hydrogéologiques s’avère nécessaire. Cela a conduit à la production des coupes hydrogéologiques représentatives, ainsi que le développement du modèle géologique 3D de l’aquifère. Les fluctuations du niveau piézométrique observées ont été analysées et interprétées pour la période 1972-2012. Les fluctuations et les cartes du niveau piézométrique montrent une baisse du niveau de la nappe due à la variation de la recharge de la nappe et aux conditions climatiques, puisque pour les années sèches une diminution du niveau piézométrique est remarquée, cela se traduit d’ailleurs par la réduction du bilan hydrique de la nappe. En l’occurrence, la recharge de la nappe a été estimée à travers les projections des précipitations issues du MCR « HIRHAM5 » sous deux scénarios (RCP 4.5 et RCP 8.5). Les résultats montrent une réduction de la moyenne annuelle de recharge de 12% et 20% respectivement pour les périodes 2021-2050 et 2051-2080 sous le scénario RCP 4.5. De plus, les valeurs de la recharge future de la nappe sous le scénario RCP 8.5 seraient de plus en plus faibles et pourraient atteindre une diminution de 30% pour la période 2065-2080.

The study deals with the possibility of waste utilization by using briquetting technology (production of solid fuels) and the potential of the manual low-pressure briquetting press in rural and peri-urban areas of East Java, where firewood is still commonly used as a source of energy for heating and cooking (besides LPG). The research compares households from the Donowarih village (Malang regency) and from the Maron peri-urban area (Blitar regency). Through quantitative and qualitative research, we document the potential of briquette production from household waste and agriculture production. The population from the peri-urban area is interested and willing to invest more in the technology, even though a higher biomass production has been found in the rural area. Financial possibilities were similar in both areas (p = 0.8986). A positive correlation (R = 0.5146) was found between the level of education and level of potential investments. Thus, higher education level meant higher interest in technology and the willingness to invest in it. In both areas there is a potential for briquette production and demand for its usage. Nevertheless, further research is recommended to find the suitable composition of bio-briquettes after the installation of wooden manual low-pressure briquetting press.

<p style="text-align: justify;">La fermentation méthanique s'est rapidement implantée dans le secteur agroalimentaire pour le traitement et la valorisation énergétique des effluents.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Une revue bibliographique fait le point sur les nouvelles technologies de fermentation qui ont considérablement évoluées. L'état de l'art de la méthanisation dans ce domaine industriel est également présenté.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">L'industrie viti-vinicole (distilleries), par les fortes charges organiques émises en distillation et ses besoins énergétiques, est doublement concernée par la méthanisation. L'analyse de la faisabilité biologique et du potentiel énergétique à partir des divers résidus liquides (vinasses) et solides (marc) montre l'efficacité de la méthanisation en dépollution (80-90 p. 100 de la DCO) et souligne l'intérêt de la production de méthane qui peut couvrir près de la moitié de l'énergie consommée par la distillation.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">+++</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The methane fermentation has been fastly developed in agricultural and food industries for wastes treatment and energy production.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A bibliographic review takes stock of new fermentation technologies which have made important progress. The present state of the anaerobic plants in the agro-industrial field is also presented.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Wine distilleries, by there high organic strength wastes and energy needs for distillation, are doubly concerned by anaerobic digestion. The biological feasability and the energy potential analysis from liquid (stillages) and solid (pomace) wastes show the efficiency for purification (COD eliminated : 80-90 p. 100) and the interest of methane production which represents about half of distillation energy consumption.</p>

En España la Evaluación de Suelos, dentro del contexto de la Edafología Aplicada, ha tenido un desarrollo muy tardío y, sobre todo, una evolución muy dependiente de las metodologías internacionales más significativas: la Clasificación de Capacidades Agrológicas, el sistema paramétrico de Riquier, Bramao y Cornet, y los procedimientos de evaluación establecidos por la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación. Analizamos las principales características metodológicas y las ventajas e inconvenientes que conllevan la aplicación de estos sistemas de evaluación, cuestionando la vigencia de estas metodologías y justificamos la necesidad de establecer un marco metodológio propio, adaptado a las condiciones biofísicas de nuestro territorio. La cartografía de suelos del Plan Nacional de Cartografía Temática Ambiental refleja esta situación, incorporando el Indicador de Capacidad y de Vulnerabilidad como elementos metodológicos innovadores en la valoración del recurso suelo. [fr] En Espagne l'Evaluation des Sols, dans le contexte de l'Edaphologie Appliquée, a eu un développement très tardit et, surtout, une évolution très dependente des méthodologies internationales les plus significatives: la Classification del Capacités Agrologiques, le système paramétrique de Riquier, Bramao et Cornet et les procédés d'évaluation établis par l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Agriculture et l'Alimentation. Nous analysons les principales caractéristiques méthologiques ainsi comme les avantages et les inconvénients dérivés de leur application. Le résultat est une mise en question de la validité de ces méthodologies. C'est ainsi que nous justifions le besoin d'établir un cadre méthodologique propre adapté aux conditions biophysiques de l'Espagne. La cartographie des sols du Plan National de Cartographie de l'Environnement nous montre cette situation tout en incluant de l'Indicateur de Capacité et celui de Vulnétabilité comme des éléments méthologiques innovateurs dans la valoration la ressource sol.

Introduction : Au Maroc, les périodes de sècheresse sont nombreuses et ont des conséquences néfastes sur la production agricole. Le tournesol est une plante oléagineuse très affectée par la sécheresse. Les plantes oléagineuses représentent 75 % de la consommation d’huiles au Maroc. Objectif : Dans les conditions de culture d’environnement salin, l’analyse des taux de sucres extraits à partir des tiges et des feuilles permet de révéler la corrélation de l’augmentation ou l’absence d’accumulation des sucres simples et la tolérance ou la sensibilité à la salinité. Méthodologies et résultats : La culture de différentes variétés commerciales d’origine France et Maroc de tournesol révèle des pourcentages de diminution comprises entre 0% et 38 % et entre 0 % et 60 % respectivement dans l’environnement de NaCl 60 mM et de NaCl 120 mM chez les différentes variétés étudiées. Les rapports de la teneur des sucres extraites des tiges et des feuilles dans les conditions de NaCl 60 mM par rapport à la teneur sucres témoins et ceux de la teneur des sucres dans les conditions de NaCl 120 mM par rapport à la teneur des sucres témoin sont compris entre 1,042 et 1,50 et entre 1,88 et 2,16 respectivement chez les différentes variétés étudiées. Conclusion et Application des résultats : Ces variétés présentent une variabilité de la tolérance et la sensibilité. 2 variétés de tournesol (AG5640 et MK 3790) présentent une tolérance à l’environnement, 2 variétés de tournesol (Natil et Cliosol) présentent une tolérance modérée et 6 variétés (Santaffe, ORO 9, Albena, Santos, Florinne et Fleury) sont sensibles. Chez ces variétés étudiées l’accumulation de sucres simples dans les feuilles et les tiges dans l’environnement salin pourrait contribuer au maintien de l’équilibre osmotique au niveau cellulaire dans des conditions de déshydratation. D’autres études basées sur l’identification des paramètres génétiques et physiologiques permettront un criblage précoce de plantes adaptées à des contraintes liées aux stress salin et hydrique et classer les différentes variétés selon leur tolérance aux stress salin. Mots clés : Sélection tournesol, stress salin, tiges, feuilles, sucre. Ouazzani et Moustaghfir, J. Appl. Biosci. 2020 Accumulation des sucres dans les tiges et les feuilles de différentes variétés de tournesol exposées à l’environnement salin 15906 ABSTRACT Introduction: In Morocco, periods of drought are numerous and have negative consequences on agricultural production. Sunflower is an oilseed plant that very affected by drought. Oil plants represent 75% of oil consumption in Morocco. Objective: Under conditions of cultivation in a saline environment, analysis of the levels of sugars extracted from stems and leaves reveals the correlation of the increase or absence of accumulation of simple sugars and the tolerance or sensitivity to salinity. Methodologies and results: The cultivation of different commercial varieties of French and Moroccan origin of sunflower in a saline environment reveals percentages decrease in the fresh weight ranging between 0% and 38% and 0% and 60% respectively in the environment of 60 mM and 120 mM of NaCl in the different varieties studied. The ratios of the content of sugars extracted from the stems and leaves under the conditions of 60 mM NaCl conditions compared to the control sugar content and those of the content 120 mM NaCl conditions compared to the control sugar content are between 1.042 and 1.50 and between 1.88 and 2.16 respectively in the different varieties studied. Conclusion and Application of results: These varieties exhibit variability in tolerance and susceptibility. 2 varieties (AG5640 and MK 3790) show environmental tolerance, 2 varieties (Natil and Cliosol) show moderate and 6 varieties (Santaffe, ORO 9, Albena, Santos, Florinne et Fleury) are susceptible. In these varieties studied, the accumulation of simple sugars in leaves and stems in the saline environment could help maintain osmotic balance at the cellular level under dehydrated conditions. Further studies based on the identification of genetic and physiological parameters will allow an early screening of plants screening of plants adapted to constraints linked to salt and water stress to classify the different varieties according to their tolerance to salt stress. Keywords: Sunflower selection, salt stress, stems, leaves,sugars

La soja en el estado de Yucatán, México, es un cultivo relativamente nuevo (a partir de 2009) que, sin embargo, se ha expandido aceleradamente en tierras anteriormente sembradas con maíz y pastizales para ganadería, en el marco de un proceso de reconversión productiva. El presente artículo tiene como objetivo el estudio de las causas o factores que han motivado dicha expansión, así como sus efectos en la estructura agraria y productiva de Yucatán, todo lo cual implica el análisis de las políticas agrícolas y los incentivos de mercado a diferentes escalas (local–global). Uno de los hallazgos de la investigación reveló la existencia de importantes diferencias entre las dos regiones productoras de dicho grano, el Oriente y el Sur, entre las cuales figura la tipología de sus productores. Así, mientras en la primera región el cultivo de la soja es empresarial, en la segunda prevalecen grandes productores (ejidatarios), que rentan las tierras de los ejidos sureños, pasando los arrendadores a una situación de “exclusión productiva”. Sin ser el objetivo central, también se señalan los efectos negativos que el cultivo de la soja ha tenido en diversos ámbitos (medio ambiente, biodiversidad, deforestación, salud humana y animal), así como en la economía de los apicultores yucatecos. Palabras clave: soja; política agrícola; renta de tierras; Yucatán; México. Soybeans in the state of Yucatan, Mexico, is a relatively new crop (as of 2009) that, however, has expanded rapidly on previously cultivated areas with corn and pastures for livestock. The objective of this article is to study the causes or factors that have motivated this expansion, as well as its effects on the agrarian and productive structure of Yucatan, all of which implies the analysis of agricultural policies and market incentives at different scales (local-global). One of the findings of the investigation revealed the existence of important differences between the two producing regions of this grain, the East and he South, among which is the typology of its producers, since while in the first the cultivation of soy is entreprenurial, the second prevails large producers (ejidatarios), who lease the lands of the southern ejidos, entering the landlords to a process of "productive exclusion". Without being the central objective, the negative effects that the cultivation of soybean has had in different areas (environment, biodiversity, deforestation, human and animal health), as well as the impact on Yucatan beekeepers are also pointed out. Keywords: soybean; subsidies; land leasing; Yucatan; Mexico.

Dix années après la publication du rapport de la FAO « Livestock’s long shadow », qui fait toujours référence dans les débats sur les impacts de l’élevage et la part des produits animaux dans notre alimentation, quels sont les nouveaux résultats de recherche qui affinent ce panorama mondial ? Pour répondre à cette question, les ministères français en charge de l’Environnement et de l’Agriculture ainsi que l’ADEME ont sollicité l’INRA pour synthétiser les connaissances scientifiques disponibles sur les rôles, impacts et services issus des élevages en Europe. L’exercice, qui a pris la forme d’une Expertise scientifique collective (ESCo), s’est donc intéressé aux différentes fonctions et conséquences de la production et de la consommation de produits animaux sur l’environnement et le climat, l’utilisation des ressources, les marchés, le travail et l’emploi, et les enjeux sociaux et culturels. L’expertise s’est centrée sur les services et impacts des principaux animaux d’élevage « terrestres », bovins laitiers ou allaitants, petits ruminants, porcs et volailles, et de leurs filières à l’échelle européenne. Le terme « services » renvoie à la fourniture d’un avantage marchand ou non marchand issu des activités d’élevage et/ou de l’usage de produits d’origine animale, soit une acceptation plus large que celle des services écosystémiques fournis par les agroécosystèmes. Nous utilisons l’expression « services et impacts » car les deux termes sont spontanément complémentaires, les services étant en général connotés de manière positive tandis que les impacts le sont négativement. Associer ces deux termes conduit à considérer les différents effets de l’élevage conjointement, et à souligner les complémentarités et antagonismes qui résultent des interactions entre les processus écologiques, biotechniques et économiques mis en jeu. La notion de « bouquets de services » constitue aujourd’hui un front de science dynamique dont nous avons cherché à extraire ce qui est spécifique à l’élevage. L’analyse a mis l’accent sur la variabilité des bouquets de services fournis par l’élevage selon les territoires. Une expertise scientifique consiste en un état des lieux critique des connaissances disponibles à partir d’une analyse exhaustive de la littérature scientifique. L’objectif est de dégager les acquis sur lesquels peut s’appuyer la décision publique, et de pointer les controverses, incertitudes ou lacunes du savoir scientifique. Placée sous la responsabilité scientifique de Bertrand Dumont, zootechnicien et écologue (INRA), et de Pierre Dupraz, économiste (INRA) celle-ci a réuni, pendant deux ans, vingt-six experts1 issus de différentes disciplines et institutions, et travaillant dans différents contextes afin que la diversité des résultats et des arguments scientifiques soit prise en compte. Le collectif d’experts a bénéficié de l’encadrement méthodologique de la Délégation à l’expertise, à la prospective et aux études (Depe) qui a assuré la coordination du projet, l’appui documentaire (avec la contribution des départements Phase et SAE2) et l’analyse cartographique. Le travail a abouti à la rédaction d’un rapport principal de plus de mille pages présenté publiquement en novembre 2016, d’une synthèse de 126 pages et d’un résumé en français et en anglais de huit pages. Le tout est disponible sur le site de l’INRA : http://institut.inra.fr/Missions/Eclairer-les-decisions/Expertises/Toutes-les-actualites/Roles-impacts-et-services-issus-des-elevages-europeens. Ce numéro spécial s’appuie principalement sur les éléments développés dans les chapitres 2, 6 et 7 du rapport. Le regard critique des relecteurs et le travail de réécriture des auteurs y apportent une réelle plus-value. Le premier article, coordonné par Michel Duru, présente le cadre conceptuel que nous avons proposé à partir de la littérature sur les systèmes socio-écologiques, afin de représenter de manière structurée la diversité des services et impacts rendus par les systèmes d’élevage (et de polyculture-élevage) dans les territoires. Le deuxième article coordonné par Jonathan Hercule et Vincent Chatellier établit une typologie des territoires d’élevage européens qui repose sur deux critères simples et disponibles dans les bases de données : la part des prairies permanentes dans la Surface Agricole Utile (SAU) et la densité animale par hectare de SAU. En croisant ces deux variables, nous distinguons six types de territoires que nous avons cartographiés à l’échelle européenne. Dans les cinq articles qui suivent, nous décrivons les bouquets de services rendus par l’élevage dans les territoires où il est bien représenté, le sixième type correspondant aux zones de grandes cultures. Nous analysons la variabilité qui existe autour du bouquet de services propre à chaque type, et la dynamique d’évolution de l’élevage selon les territoires. Nous traitons ainsi des territoires à haute densité animale qui concentrent 29% du cheptel européen sur seulement 10% du territoire (Dourmad et al), des territoires herbagers à haute (Delaby et al), moyenne (Vollet et al) ou faible densité animale (Lemauviel-Lavenant et Sabatier), et des territoires de polyculture-élevage (Ryschawy et al). Les deux articles qui suivent s’attachent à des configurations qui ne sont pas représentées sur la carte européenne, mais sont potentiellement présentes dans chaque catégorie de notre typologie. Nous analysons comment certaines filières s’adaptent à des attentes sociétales accrues en matière d’alimentation (produits de qualité, circuits courts) et de qualité de la vie. Marc Benoit et Bertrand Méda abordent cette question à partir d’une analyse croisée des systèmes ovins en Agriculture Biologique et poulets Label Rouge, Claire Delfosse et al en synthétisant la littérature encore fragmentaire sur l’élevage urbain et périurbain. L’article conclusif, coordonné par Bertrand Dumont, porte au débat les enseignements tirés des cartographies de services, et des modélisations et scénarios prospectifs globaux. Il propose différentes pistes pour mieux valoriser la diversité des services fournis par l’élevage. Les différents articles de ce numéro illustrent ainsi le large panorama des services et impacts de l’élevage européen. Nous espérons qu’ils donnent à voir non seulement le rôle de l’élevage vis-à-vis de la production de denrées alimentaires, de l’emploi, des dynamiques territoriales et de la construction des paysages, mais aussi comment l’élevage pourrait mieux répondre aux attentes légitimes de nos concitoyens en matière de préservation de l’environnement, de bien-être animal et de traçabilité des circuits alimentaires. Notre ambition est d’aider à sortir d’un débat qui ne considère trop souvent qu’une partie de ces effets. L’intérêt pédagogique de la grange et de la typologie des territoires d’élevage européens a déjà été largement souligné. Gageons qu’il confère à ce numéro spécial un intérêt particulier pour l’enseignement agronomique et le développement agricole. Bertrand Dumont (Inra Phase), Pierre Dupraz (Inra SAE2), Julie Ryschawy (Inra SAD, INPT) et Catherine Donnars (Inra Depe) -------1 Composition du collectif d’experts : B Dumont et P Dupraz (coord.), J. Aubin (INRA), M. Benoit (INRA), Z. Bouamra-Mechemache (INRA), V. Chatellier (INRA), L. Delaby (INRA), C. Delfosse (Univ. Lyon II), J.-Y. Dourmad (INRA), M. Duru (INRA), M. Friant-Perrot (CNRS, Univ. Nantes), C. Gaigné (INRA), J.-L. Guichet (Univ. Beauvais), P. Havlik (IIASA, Autriche), N. Hostiou (INRA), O. Huguenin-Elie (Agroscope, Suisse), K. Klumpp (INRA), A. Langlais (CNRS, Univ. Rennes), S. Lemauviel-Lavenant (Univ. Caen), O. Lepiller (CNRS, Univ. Toulouse), B. Méda (INRA), J. Ryschawy (INRA, INPT), R. Sabatier (INRA), I. Veissier (INRA), E. Verrier (Agroparistech), D. Vollet (Irstea).

<p><em>La variabilidad en la movilidad humana es uno de los t</em><em>ó</em><em>picos arqueol</em><em>ó</em><em>gicos m</em><em>á</em><em>s abordados en el estudio de las sociedades del pasado. En el sur de la provincia de Mendoza las investigaciones han estudiado la movilidad en el marco de procesos como la introducci</em><em>ó</em><em>n de la producci</em><em>ó</em><em>n de alimentos y la intensificaci</em><em>ó</em><em>n en la explotaci</em><em>ó</em><em>n de los recursos (ca. 2000 a</em><em>ñ</em><em>os AP). Si bien se ha logrado entender gran parte de esta movilidad a trav</em><em>é</em><em>s de los is</em><em>ó</em><em>topos de </em><em>?</em><em>¹⁸</em><em>O, es necesario ajustar estos patrones con otros indicadores que puedan observarse a nivel del individuo. En el presente trabajo se articulan estos datos isot</em><em>ó</em><em>picos con informaci</em><em>ó</em><em>n derivada del an</em><em>á</em><em>lisis de lesiones degenerativas articulares y cambios ent</em><em>é</em><em>sicos que permitan discutir las estrategias de subsistencia y movilidad que implementaron las poblaciones que habitaron la regi</em><em>ó</em><em>n a finales del Holoceno tard</em><em>í</em><em>o. Se analizaron muestras osteol</em><em>ó</em><em>gicas humanas de diez sitios arqueol</em><em>ó</em><em>gicos de la cuenca del Atuel (n=25). Se compar</em><em>ó</em><em> un entierro m</em><em>ú</em><em>ltiple mezclado con entierros aislados e individualizados, que presentan cronolog</em><em>í</em><em>as posteriores a los 2000 a</em><em>ñ</em><em>os AP. Los patrones de actividad identificados indican grupos que mantienen una alta movilidad para momentos posteriores a la introducci</em><em>ó</em><em>n de los cult</em><em>í</em><em>genos en el </em><em>á</em><em>rea. Partiendo de un modelo dicot</em><em>ó</em><em>mico ideal (cazadores-recolectores m</em><em>ó</em><em>viles/agricultores sedentarios) pueden entenderse estas tendencias como el resultado de estrategias que combinan a trav</em><em>é</em><em>s del tiempo y del espacio, lo productivo y lo extractivo.</em></p>

<p>RESUMEN. El presente trabajo trata fundamentalmente sobre los aspectos económicos y en menor medida sociales en el marco de la Montaña central y oriental leonesa durante la Edad Moderna. Se analiza la incidencia de actividades económicas como la agricultura, la ganadería, el pastoreo, la artesanía, la arriería y el comercio en el siglo XVIII, así como también se analizan ciertos aspectos demográficos.</p><p>ABSTRACT. The present paper is based in social and economic aspects during the modern age from Leon´s East Mountain. We analyce the economic impact of activities like agriculture as well as livestock farming, shepherding, craftsmanship, the muleteers and commerce during 18th century, as well as demographics aspects.</p>

Abstract. This study is an experimental research that aims to find out how the response of corn growth (Zea mays) with urea-coated zeolite as nitrogen release slowly, implemented from April to December 2017. The making of fertilizer is done in Biology Laboratory of East III Floor Department of Biology Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of Makassar State University. The cultivation and maintenance of maize was conducted at Greenhouse of Ecophysiology of Seraca Crops Research Institute (Balitsereal) Maros and Analysis of nitrogen data at Soil Laboratory of Agricultural Technology Assessment Institute (BPTP) Regency. Maros South Sulawesi. This research used Randomized Block Design (RAK) 3 grouping with Control, Urea, Phosphate, Potassium (UPK), UPK Zeolite 10%, UPK Zeolit 30%, and UPK Zeolit 50%. The corn variety used was HJ 21 Agritan. Observation parameters were stem circumference, leaf chlorophyll content, plant biomass (root, stem and leaves), cob weight, ear length, seed weight, leaf nitrogen and seed nitrogen. The technique of data origin is done by using variance analysis technique (F test) / ANOVA at the level of trust α = 0,05%. Then proceed with Duncan's advanced test using SPSS statistic program 20. The results showed that there was an interaction between zeolite-coated urea fertilizer on the yield of cob and corncob with different results on the other treatment. The best results on urea-coated zeolite treatment with 10% concentration. While for stem circumference, leaf chlorophyll content, plant biomass (root, stem and leaf), seed weight, leaf nitrogen and seed nitrogen showed no effect but when viewed the average result of urea coated application of zeolite with the highest 30% concentration.Keywords: The growth of corn, the application of urea zeolite coated, slow release fertilizersp., Thalassiosira sp., Probiotic Bacteria

Chers abonnés, chers lecteurs,La revue INRA Productions Animales entre dans sa 25e année qui sera celle du changement : – Changement de Directeur de la publication avec l’arrivée d’Hervé Guyomard, Directeur scientifique pour le secteur agriculture à l’INRA, en remplacement de Patrick Herpin que nous remercions pour le soutien sans faille qu’il a apporté à la revue entre 2008 et 2011. – Changement d’équipe de rédaction avec René Baumont et Pascale Béraud qui remplacent respectivement Jean-Marc Perez et Danièle Caste. Jean-Marc a participé à la création de la revue en 1988 et l’a accompagnée tout au long de ces 25 ans, d’abord comme membre du comité de rédaction, puis depuis 1999 en tant que responsable de la revue, avec l’appui de Danièle Caste pour la partie édition depuis 2005. Dans quelques semaines Jean-Marc fera valoir ses droits à la retraite et c’est donc une partie de la mémoire de la revue qui nous quitte. La nouvelle équipe de rédaction salue ici le remarquable travail réalisé par la précédente, et la remercie pour l’apprentissage et la transition harmonieuse qu’elle nous a permis de réaliser au cours de l’année 2011. – Changement de site web avec un nouveau site (http://www6.inra.fr/productions-animales/) dans lequel nous proposons un service supplémentaire aux abonnés avec l’accès intégral aux articles des numéros spéciaux et de certains dossiers dès leur parution. En effet, ces numéros à thème n’étaient jusqu’alors disponibles qu’en version papier durant la période de leur vente au numéro. Désormais, les abonnés à la revue peuvent accéder à ces numéros thématiques sur le web endemandant des identifiants de connexion. Les défis que doivent relever les productions animales, la multiplicité des enjeux et les débats suscités par leur nécessaire adaptation et leur développement tant dans les pays du Nord que du Sud, renforcent l’absolue nécessité de diffuser les connaissances. L’objectif de la revue, «diffuser les résultats de la recherche sur les productions animales dans un langage accessible à un large public pour mieux faire connaître les travaux de l’INRA», s’en trouve conforté. L’atout d’une revue comme INRA Productions Animales est de pouvoir le faire en conjuguant rigueur de l’information scientifique et exigence de l’écriture. Avec les membres du comité de rédaction, nous nous efforcerons de continuer à vous proposer des articles de synthèse de qualité issus de travaux originaux et novateurs. Dans un organisme de recherche finalisée comme l’INRA, nous sommes convaincus de la plus-value que représente cette diffusion des connaissances sous forme de synthèses,au-delà de la seule publication d’articles analytiques dans les revues primaires spécialisées. C’est cette ligne éditoriale que nous poursuivrons, en alternant numéros réguliers proposant un éventail d’articles de synthèse issus de travaux récents et numéros à thème sur des questions correspondant à des enjeux majeurs, comme récemment les nouvelles perspectives en «Amélioration génétique», les «Gaz à effet de serre en élevage bovin», et prochainement le «Travail en élevage». Une revue comme INRA Productions Animales n’existe pas sans ses auteurs ni sans ses relecteursarbitres. Qu’ils soient ici chaleureusement remerciés pour leurs contributions régulières et efficaces. Enfin une revue n’existe pas sans ses abonnés. C’est donc vous, par vos abonnements, vos téléchargements d’articles, et par vos messages directs, qui nous aiderez à poursuivre notre tâche éditoriale. Bonne lecture à tous !

A same-but-different dichotomy has recently been encapsulated within the US Food and Drug Administration’s ill-defined concept of “substantial equivalence” (USFDA, FDA). By invoking this concept the genetically modified organism (GMO) industry has escaped the rigors of safety testing that might otherwise apply. The curious concept of “substantial equivalence” grants a presumption of safety to GMO food. This presumption has yet to be earned, and has been used to constrain labelling of both GMO and non-GMO food. It is an idea that well serves corporatism. It enables the claim of difference to secure patent protection, while upholding the contrary claim of sameness to avoid labelling and safety scrutiny. It offers the best of both worlds for corporate food entrepreneurs, and delivers the worst of both worlds to consumers. The term “substantial equivalence” has established its currency within the GMO discourse. As the opportunities for patenting food technologies expand, the GMO recruitment of this concept will likely be a dress rehearsal for the developing debates on the labelling and testing of other techno-foods – including nano-foods and clone-foods. “Substantial Equivalence” “Are the Seven Commandments the same as they used to be, Benjamin?” asks Clover in George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”. By way of response, Benjamin “read out to her what was written on the wall. There was nothing there now except a single Commandment. It ran: ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS”. After this reductionist revelation, further novel and curious events at Manor Farm, “did not seem strange” (Orwell, ch. X). Equality is a concept at the very core of mathematics, but beyond the domain of logic, equality becomes a hotly contested notion – and the domain of food is no exception. A novel food has a regulatory advantage if it can claim to be the same as an established food – a food that has proven its worth over centuries, perhaps even millennia – and thus does not trigger new, perhaps costly and onerous, testing, compliance, and even new and burdensome regulations. On the other hand, such a novel food has an intellectual property (IP) advantage only in terms of its difference. And thus there is an entrenched dissonance for newly technologised foods, between claiming sameness, and claiming difference. The same/different dilemma is erased, so some would have it, by appeal to the curious new dualist doctrine of “substantial equivalence” whereby sameness and difference are claimed simultaneously, thereby creating a win/win for corporatism, and a loss/loss for consumerism. This ground has been pioneered, and to some extent conquered, by the GMO industry. The conquest has ramifications for other cryptic food technologies, that is technologies that are invisible to the consumer and that are not evident to the consumer other than via labelling. Cryptic technologies pertaining to food include GMOs, pesticides, hormone treatments, irradiation and, most recently, manufactured nano-particles introduced into the food production and delivery stream. Genetic modification of plants was reported as early as 1984 by Horsch et al. The case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty resulted in a US Supreme Court decision that upheld the prior decision of the US Court of Customs and Patent Appeal that “the fact that micro-organisms are alive is without legal significance for purposes of the patent law”, and ruled that the “respondent’s micro-organism plainly qualifies as patentable subject matter”. This was a majority decision of nine judges, with four judges dissenting (Burger). It was this Chakrabarty judgement that has seriously opened the Pandora’s box of GMOs because patenting rights makes GMOs an attractive corporate proposition by offering potentially unique monopoly rights over food. The rear guard action against GMOs has most often focussed on health repercussions (Smith, Genetic), food security issues, and also the potential for corporate malfeasance to hide behind a cloak of secrecy citing commercial confidentiality (Smith, Seeds). Others have tilted at the foundational plank on which the economics of the GMO industry sits: “I suggest that the main concern is that we do not want a single molecule of anything we eat to contribute to, or be patented and owned by, a reckless, ruthless chemical organisation” (Grist 22). The GMO industry exhibits bipolar behaviour, invoking the concept of “substantial difference” to claim patent rights by way of “novelty”, and then claiming “substantial equivalence” when dealing with other regulatory authorities including food, drug and pesticide agencies; a case of “having their cake and eating it too” (Engdahl 8). This is a clever slight-of-rhetoric, laying claim to the best of both worlds for corporations, and the worst of both worlds for consumers. Corporations achieve patent protection and no concomitant specific regulatory oversight; while consumers pay the cost of patent monopolization, and are not necessarily apprised, by way of labelling or otherwise, that they are purchasing and eating GMOs, and thereby financing the GMO industry. The lemma of “substantial equivalence” does not bear close scrutiny. It is a fuzzy concept that lacks a tight testable definition. It is exactly this fuzziness that allows lots of wriggle room to keep GMOs out of rigorous testing regimes. Millstone et al. argue that “substantial equivalence is a pseudo-scientific concept because it is a commercial and political judgement masquerading as if it is scientific. It is moreover, inherently anti-scientific because it was created primarily to provide an excuse for not requiring biochemical or toxicological tests. It therefore serves to discourage and inhibit informative scientific research” (526). “Substantial equivalence” grants GMOs the benefit of the doubt regarding safety, and thereby leaves unexamined the ramifications for human consumer health, for farm labourer and food-processor health, for the welfare of farm animals fed a diet of GMO grain, and for the well-being of the ecosystem, both in general and in its particularities. “Substantial equivalence” was introduced into the food discourse by an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report: “safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology: concepts and principles”. It is from this document that the ongoing mantra of assumed safety of GMOs derives: “modern biotechnology … does not inherently lead to foods that are less safe … . Therefore evaluation of foods and food components obtained from organisms developed by the application of the newer techniques does not necessitate a fundamental change in established principles, nor does it require a different standard of safety” (OECD, “Safety” 10). This was at the time, and remains, an act of faith, a pro-corporatist and a post-cautionary approach. The OECD motto reveals where their priorities lean: “for a better world economy” (OECD, “Better”). The term “substantial equivalence” was preceded by the 1992 USFDA concept of “substantial similarity” (Levidow, Murphy and Carr) and was adopted from a prior usage by the US Food and Drug Agency (USFDA) where it was used pertaining to medical devices (Miller). Even GMO proponents accept that “Substantial equivalence is not intended to be a scientific formulation; it is a conceptual tool for food producers and government regulators” (Miller 1043). And there’s the rub – there is no scientific definition of “substantial equivalence”, no scientific test of proof of concept, and nor is there likely to be, since this is a ‘spinmeister’ term. And yet this is the cornerstone on which rests the presumption of safety of GMOs. Absence of evidence is taken to be evidence of absence. History suggests that this is a fraught presumption. By way of contrast, the patenting of GMOs depends on the antithesis of assumed ‘sameness’. Patenting rests on proven, scrutinised, challengeable and robust tests of difference and novelty. Lightfoot et al. report that transgenic plants exhibit “unexpected changes [that] challenge the usual assumptions of GMO equivalence and suggest genomic, proteomic and metanomic characterization of transgenics is advisable” (1). GMO Milk and Contested Labelling Pesticide company Monsanto markets the genetically engineered hormone rBST (recombinant Bovine Somatotropin; also known as: rbST; rBGH, recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone; and the brand name Prosilac) to dairy farmers who inject it into their cows to increase milk production. This product is not approved for use in many jurisdictions, including Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Japan. Even Monsanto accepts that rBST leads to mastitis (inflammation and pus in the udder) and other “cow health problems”, however, it maintains that “these problems did not occur at rates that would prohibit the use of Prosilac” (Monsanto). A European Union study identified an extensive list of health concerns of rBST use (European Commission). The US Dairy Export Council however entertain no doubt. In their background document they ask “is milk from cows treated with rBST safe?” and answer “Absolutely” (USDEC). Meanwhile, Monsanto’s website raises and answers the question: “Is the milk from cows treated with rbST any different from milk from untreated cows? No” (Monsanto). Injecting cows with genetically modified hormones to boost their milk production remains a contested practice, banned in many countries. It is the claimed equivalence that has kept consumers of US dairy products in the dark, shielded rBST dairy farmers from having to declare that their milk production is GMO-enhanced, and has inhibited non-GMO producers from declaring their milk as non-GMO, non rBST, or not hormone enhanced. This is a battle that has simmered, and sometimes raged, for a decade in the US. Finally there is a modest victory for consumers: the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) requires all labels used on milk products to be approved in advance by the department. The standard issued in October 2007 (PDA, “Standards”) signalled to producers that any milk labels claiming rBST-free status would be rejected. This advice was rescinded in January 2008 with new, specific, department-approved textual constructions allowed, and ensuring that any “no rBST” style claim was paired with a PDA-prescribed disclaimer (PDA, “Revised Standards”). However, parsimonious labelling is prohibited: No labeling may contain references such as ‘No Hormones’, ‘Hormone Free’, ‘Free of Hormones’, ‘No BST’, ‘Free of BST’, ‘BST Free’,’No added BST’, or any statement which indicates, implies or could be construed to mean that no natural bovine somatotropin (BST) or synthetic bovine somatotropin (rBST) are contained in or added to the product. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 3) Difference claims are prohibited: In no instance shall any label state or imply that milk from cows not treated with recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST, rbST, RBST or rbst) differs in composition from milk or products made with milk from treated cows, or that rBST is not contained in or added to the product. If a product is represented as, or intended to be represented to consumers as, containing or produced from milk from cows not treated with rBST any labeling information must convey only a difference in farming practices or dairy herd management methods. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 3) The PDA-approved labelling text for non-GMO dairy farmers is specified as follows: ‘From cows not treated with rBST. No significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and non-rBST-treated cows’ or a substantial equivalent. Hereinafter, the first sentence shall be referred to as the ‘Claim’, and the second sentence shall be referred to as the ‘Disclaimer’. (PDA, “Revised Standards” 4) It is onto the non-GMO dairy farmer alone, that the costs of compliance fall. These costs include label preparation and approval, proving non-usage of GMOs, and of creating and maintaining an audit trail. In nearby Ohio a similar consumer versus corporatist pantomime is playing out. This time with the Ohio Department of Agriculture (ODA) calling the shots, and again serving the GMO industry. The ODA prescribed text allowed to non-GMO dairy farmers is “from cows not supplemented with rbST” and this is to be conjoined with the mandatory disclaimer “no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rbST-supplemented and non-rbST supplemented cows” (Curet). These are “emergency rules”: they apply for 90 days, and are proposed as permanent. Once again, the onus is on the non-GMO dairy farmers to document and prove their claims. GMO dairy farmers face no such governmental requirements, including no disclosure requirement, and thus an asymmetric regulatory impost is placed on the non-GMO farmer which opens up new opportunities for administrative demands and technocratic harassment. Levidow et al. argue, somewhat Eurocentrically, that from its 1990s adoption “as the basis for a harmonized science-based approach to risk assessment” (26) the concept of “substantial equivalence” has “been recast in at least three ways” (58). It is true that the GMO debate has evolved differently in the US and Europe, and with other jurisdictions usually adopting intermediate positions, yet the concept persists. Levidow et al. nominate their three recastings as: firstly an “implicit redefinition” by the appending of “extra phrases in official documents”; secondly, “it has been reinterpreted, as risk assessment processes have … required more evidence of safety than before, especially in Europe”; and thirdly, “it has been demoted in the European Union regulatory procedures so that it can no longer be used to justify the claim that a risk assessment is unnecessary” (58). Romeis et al. have proposed a decision tree approach to GMO risks based on cascading tiers of risk assessment. However what remains is that the defects of the concept of “substantial equivalence” persist. Schauzu identified that: such decisions are a matter of “opinion”; that there is “no clear definition of the term ‘substantial’”; that because genetic modification “is aimed at introducing new traits into organisms, the result will always be a different combination of genes and proteins”; and that “there is no general checklist that could be followed by those who are responsible for allowing a product to be placed on the market” (2). Benchmark for Further Food Novelties? The discourse, contestation, and debate about “substantial equivalence” have largely focussed on the introduction of GMOs into food production processes. GM can best be regarded as the test case, and proof of concept, for establishing “substantial equivalence” as a benchmark for evaluating new and forthcoming food technologies. This is of concern, because the concept of “substantial equivalence” is scientific hokum, and yet its persistence, even entrenchment, within regulatory agencies may be a harbinger of forthcoming same-but-different debates for nanotechnology and other future bioengineering. The appeal of “substantial equivalence” has been a brake on the creation of GMO-specific regulations and on rigorous GMO testing. The food nanotechnology industry can be expected to look to the precedent of the GMO debate to head off specific nano-regulations and nano-testing. As cloning becomes economically viable, then this may be another wave of food innovation that muddies the regulatory waters with the confused – and ultimately self-contradictory – concept of “substantial equivalence”. Nanotechnology engineers particles in the size range 1 to 100 nanometres – a nanometre is one billionth of a metre. This is interesting for manufacturers because at this size chemicals behave differently, or as the Australian Office of Nanotechnology expresses it, “new functionalities are obtained” (AON). Globally, government expenditure on nanotechnology research reached US$4.6 billion in 2006 (Roco 3.12). While there are now many patents (ETC Group; Roco), regulation specific to nanoparticles is lacking (Bowman and Hodge; Miller and Senjen). The USFDA advises that nano-manufacturers “must show a reasonable assurance of safety … or substantial equivalence” (FDA). A recent inventory of nano-products already on the market identified 580 products. Of these 11.4% were categorised as “Food and Beverage” (WWICS). This is at a time when public confidence in regulatory bodies is declining (HRA). In an Australian consumer survey on nanotechnology, 65% of respondents indicated they were concerned about “unknown and long term side effects”, and 71% agreed that it is important “to know if products are made with nanotechnology” (MARS 22). Cloned animals are currently more expensive to produce than traditional animal progeny. In the course of 678 pages, the USFDA Animal Cloning: A Draft Risk Assessment has not a single mention of “substantial equivalence”. However the Federation of Animal Science Societies (FASS) in its single page “Statement in Support of USFDA’s Risk Assessment Conclusion That Food from Cloned Animals Is Safe for Human Consumption” states that “FASS endorses the use of this comparative evaluation process as the foundation of establishing substantial equivalence of any food being evaluated. It must be emphasized that it is the food product itself that should be the focus of the evaluation rather than the technology used to generate cloned animals” (FASS 1). Contrary to the FASS derogation of the importance of process in food production, for consumers both the process and provenance of production is an important and integral aspect of a food product’s value and identity. Some consumers will legitimately insist that their Kalamata olives are from Greece, or their balsamic vinegar is from Modena. It was the British public’s growing awareness that their sugar was being produced by slave labour that enabled the boycotting of the product, and ultimately the outlawing of slavery (Hochschild). When consumers boycott Nestle, because of past or present marketing practices, or boycott produce of USA because of, for example, US foreign policy or animal welfare concerns, they are distinguishing the food based on the narrative of the food, the production process and/or production context which are a part of the identity of the food. Consumers attribute value to food based on production process and provenance information (Paull). Products produced by slave labour, by child labour, by political prisoners, by means of torture, theft, immoral, unethical or unsustainable practices are different from their alternatives. The process of production is a part of the identity of a product and consumers are increasingly interested in food narrative. It requires vigilance to ensure that these narratives are delivered with the product to the consumer, and are neither lost nor suppressed. Throughout the GM debate, the organic sector has successfully skirted the “substantial equivalence” debate by excluding GMOs from the certified organic food production process. This GMO-exclusion from the organic food stream is the one reprieve available to consumers worldwide who are keen to avoid GMOs in their diet. The organic industry carries the expectation of providing food produced without artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and by extension, without GMOs. Most recently, the Soil Association, the leading organic certifier in the UK, claims to be the first organisation in the world to exclude manufactured nonoparticles from their products (Soil Association). There has been the call that engineered nanoparticles be excluded from organic standards worldwide, given that there is no mandatory safety testing and no compulsory labelling in place (Paull and Lyons). The twisted rhetoric of oxymorons does not make the ideal foundation for policy. Setting food policy on the shifting sands of “substantial equivalence” seems foolhardy when we consider the potentially profound ramifications of globally mass marketing a dysfunctional food. If there is a 2×2 matrix of terms – “substantial equivalence”, substantial difference, insubstantial equivalence, insubstantial difference – while only one corner of this matrix is engaged for food policy, and while the elements remain matters of opinion rather than being testable by science, or by some other regime, then the public is the dupe, and potentially the victim. “Substantial equivalence” has served the GMO corporates well and the public poorly, and this asymmetry is slated to escalate if nano-food and clone-food are also folded into the “substantial equivalence” paradigm. Only in Orwellian Newspeak is war peace, or is same different. It is time to jettison the pseudo-scientific doctrine of “substantial equivalence”, as a convenient oxymoron, and embrace full disclosure of provenance, process and difference, so that consumers are not collateral in a continuing asymmetric knowledge war. References Australian Office of Nanotechnology (AON). 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Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007.Romeis, Jorg, Detlef Bartsch, Franz Bigler, Marco Candolfi, Marco Gielkins, et al. “Assessment of Risk of Insect-Resistant Transgenic Crops to Nontarget Arthropods.” Nature Biotechnology 26.2 (Feb. 2008): 203-208.Schauzu, Marianna. “The Concept of Substantial Equivalence in Safety Assessment of Food Derived from Genetically Modified Organisms.” AgBiotechNet 2 (Apr. 2000): 1-4.Soil Association. “Soil Association First Organisation in the World to Ban Nanoparticles – Potentially Toxic Beauty Products That Get Right under Your Skin.” London: Soil Association, 17 Jan. 2008. 24 Apr. 2008 < http://www.soilassociation.org/web/sa/saweb.nsf/848d689047 cb466780256a6b00298980/42308d944a3088a6802573d100351790!OpenDocument >.Smith, Jeffrey. Genetic Roulette: The Documented Health Risks of Genetically Engineered Foods. Fairfield, Iowa: Yes! Books, 2007.———. Seeds of Deception. Melbourne: Scribe, 2004.U.S. Dairy Export Council (USDEC). 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