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HALLAERT, JEAN-JACQUES. "The future of Aid for Trade: challenges and options." World Trade Review 12, no. 4 (April 16, 2013): 653–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745612000730.
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AbstractThe Aid for Trade Initiative needs to be revamped. This article describes the challenges the Initiative faces and describes the pros and cons of possible reforms. The Aid for Trade Initiative succeeded in mobilizing quickly a large amount of financial resources. However, because the Doha Round talks stalled, the aid mobilized could not support the implementation of a multilateral agreement. Instead, it was spent on various projects, some of them not clearly related to trade. This affected developing countries confidence in the Initiative. To make matters worse, in the midst of a fiscal crisis that threatens development budgets, the Initiative had difficulties showing convincing results. In order to preserve resource mobilization, the WTO is expanding the scope of the Initiative to new areas only remotely related to trade and the trade and development nexus. This is unlikely to build confidence. The WTO should rather narrow the scope of the Initiative in order to make it more focused and efficient.
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Hoekstra, Ruth, and Georg Koopmann. "Aid for Trade and the Liberalization of Trade." Journal of World Trade 46, Issue 2 (April 1, 2012): 327–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2012011.
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The Aid for Trade (AfT) initiative has gained much popularity since its launch at the World Trade Organization (WTO)'s Ministerial Conference in 2005, and there are ongoing discussions on its effectiveness and potential to improve the integration of developing countries (DCs) into the world economy. This article contributes to the debate by analysing AfT in a political economy context. We find that the delivery of AfT is a precondition for trade reform and trade-enhancing rule-making in DCs and may cushion adjustment problems to trade liberalization. Accordingly, AfT can be a catalyst of trade reforms domestically and internationally.
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Kang, Ziwei. "A Study of the Impact of Chinese Aid to Cambodia on Bilateral Trade." Highlights in Business, Economics and Management 17 (August 31, 2023): 218–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/hbem.v17i.11181.
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Since the "Belt and Road" initiative was put forward, the scale of China's foreign aid has grown rapidly and the scope of radiation has been expanding. Foreign aid has become one of the tools of China's foreign relations that cannot be ignored, and it is especially important to study the bilateral trade effects brought by foreign aid. This paper mainly selects the impact of China's aid to Cambodia on bilateral trade for research. This study adopts the trade gravity model, introduces GDP and population size as control variables, and conducts regression analysis on the amount of China's aid to Cambodia and bilateral trade over the years, and concludes that China's aid to Cambodia helps to promote bilateral trade.
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Illy, Ousseni, and Gabrielle Marceau. "Global Administrative Law Perspective of the WTO Aid for Trade Initiative." International Organizations Law Review 6, no. 2 (2009): 479–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157237409x477662.
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AbstractThe emerging Global Administrative Law (GAL) study has brought into the legal frontlines the need to hold global governance bodies more accountable for their rulings and activities, and how these institutions are adapting their actions to better respond to new global challenges as their legitimacy depends on their effectiveness in coping with them. The legitimacy challenge has become a pressing issue, forcing international organizations to open up their decision-making processes and to set up review mechanisms to oversee their actions. The recent WTO Aid for Trade (AFT) Initiative belongs to this new category of global action/forums that want to respond to legitimacy and accountability challenges. This innovative movement has provided the WTO Director General with the responsibility to launch and institutionalize an initiative to allow poorer countries to derive more benefit from the Multilateral Trading System. It has brought together a wide range of stakeholders including international aid-donor states, beneficiary states, international financial and development institutions, regional banks and regional institutions, private sector, NGOs etc. to discuss and shape the best way to achieve this aim. This article tries to assess the AFT Initiative against the principles advocated by GAL, in particular those related to participation, transparency, accountability and review.
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Ijjo, Alex Thomas, and Isaac M. B. Shinyekwa. "Foreign Aid and Trade Capacity Development Recent Evidence from Uganda." Journal of Sustainable Development 9, no. 3 (May 30, 2016): 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n3p39.
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Endemic supply side constraints including fluctuating output levels, deficient trade infrastructure, rampant non-tariff barriers and incapacity to ensure international quality standards continue to thwart the gainful participation of many Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in an increasingly liberal global trade environment. At its 2005 Hong Kong Ministerial Conference, the World Trade Organization launched its Aid for Trade (AFT) initiative aimed at coordinating global financial support for strengthening trade capacity in Least Developed Countries (LDCs). This paper examined the effect of foreign aid, particularly Official Development Assistance, on Uganda’s external trade and its AFT component in strengthening the country’s trade capacity. Using time series Error Correction Modelling and the World Bank’s World Development Indicators and official national statistics, the paper finds small but positive aid influence on Uganda’s exports and imports and generally close alignment between aid and national priorities. However, given general aid volatility but more especially following the anti-homosexuality legislation and gross corruption allegations in the case of Uganda, the paper advises that external aid be treated as a supplement rather than a substitute for domestic financial resource mobilization in trade capacity development.
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Álamo, Olga Falgueras del. "Green Trade and Trade Greener: The Wto Trade and Environmental Sustainability Structured Discussions." Global Trade and Customs Journal 19, Issue 2 (February 1, 2024): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2024005.
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The initiative on Trade and Environmental Sustainability Structured Discussions (TESSD) was launched in 2020, as part of an ambitious WTO package to gain worldwide relevance on the conversation on trade and environment. It has been portrayed as a non-negotiating initiative, conceived to encourage discussion and transparency over a wide number of topics. In its three years of existence, it has gained popularity and its discussions became more technical and focused; it is expected to deliver a Ministerial Declaration in the forthcoming thirteenth WTO Ministerial Conference. This paper questions whether the WTO acquis is suitable to deal with what we consider the two main aspects of sustainable trade: trade facilitation of sustainable goods and services (a ‘trade greener’ standpoint), and trade that remedies the externalities caused by trade and production (the ‘green trade’ approach). We also argue that the current WTO initiatives on sustainable trade are not mature enough to support the green transition at an organization that needs to balance trade liberalization with environment protection. WTO and environment, TESSD, sustainable trade, WTO reform, green trade, environmental goods and services, subsidies, trade-related climate measures, circular economy, MC13, COP 28
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Rueda-Junquera, Fernando, and Mariola Gozalo-Delgado. "Los resultados de la Iniciativa de la Ayuda para el Comercio en América Latina: Una primera valoración." Studies of Applied Economics 30, no. 3 (June 7, 2020): 861. http://dx.doi.org/10.25115/eea.v30i3.3608.
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In the current context of budgetary adjustments on the part of numerous donors, there is an increasing public pressure in favour of the accountability for the use of the resources devoted to official development assistance. That is why it is necessary to measure and evaluate the results of the projects and programmes financed by that assistance. The goal of this article is to offer a first assessment of the results of the Initiative of Aid for Trade for the case of Latin America. To achieve this goal, a double quantitative and qualitative approach is applied, involving the use of the Enabling Trade Index and the case stories of aid for trade projects and programmes.
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Benziane, Yakoub, Siong Hook Law, Anitha Rosland, and Muhammad Daaniyall Abd Rahman. "Aid for trade initiative 16 years on: lessons learnt from the empirical literature and recommendations for future directions." Journal of International Trade Law and Policy 21, no. 1 (February 4, 2022): 79–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jitlp-05-2021-0025.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present a review of empirical evidence on the effectiveness of Aid for Trade (AfT) inflows and recommend new areas of interest concerning the initiative other than its effect on trade performance. Design/methodology/approach This paper reviews a sample of 55 studies over the past 11 years. Besides, this paper categorised the reviewed empirical studies into three groups: the works concentrating on the trade performance effect; the works focusing on other economic factors effect; and the works concerning the allocation effect of these inflows. This paper also offers a detailed analysis of the multiple empirical methods, sources of data, coverage of the countries and forms of AfT inflows used in the reviewed literature. Findings Key findings indicated that AfT has overall produced a successful impact as reported by most studies. Moreover, it has been highlighted that the effectiveness of AfT may differ relying on multiple indicators: the category of AfT disbursements; income of the recipient country; the recipient country's geographical region; the amount of aggregate AfT as well as its main categories; the policy regulation and institutional quality of the recipient country; and the degree of liberalisation in the recipient country. Originality/value This paper is special in that it is the first to publish a comprehensive narrative analysis of 55 empirical pieces of evidence on the effectiveness of AfT over the past 11 years. It is also the first paper to review the previous literature regarding the effectiveness of AfT inflows on other non-trade outcomes, as well as trade outcomes in one single study. The outcome of the survey reveals new areas of interest in the effectiveness of AfT aside from trade performance.
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Medvedeva, Marina B., Lyubov I. Homyakova, and Alekhsandta D. Zvereva. "The “Aid for Trade” initiative as a tool for promoting international development." Banking Services, no. 7 (2021): 8–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.36992/2075-1915_2021_7_8.
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Bjelic, Predrag, and Ivana Popovic-Petrovic. "Aid for development of international trade." Medjunarodni problemi 64, no. 3 (2012): 359–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/medjp1203359b.
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The development of international trade was very impressive in the second half of 20th century. But even with these great development opportunities that growth of international trade can bring the small number of developed economies had succeeded to ripe benefits from it in order to develop their economies and reduce poverty. Even with the establishment of the World Trade Organization it was apparent that developing countries need assistance in order to integrate fully in international trade system. The Aid for Trade, which is a part of Official Development Assistance focusing on trade, has an aim to help developing countries build their trade capacity and the transport infrastructure so they can use trade as a powerful engine for economic growth. This paper set out to describe this new programme of trade aid developed under the auspices of WTO, as a multilateral project, to point out the readiness of donor countries and aims of beneficiary countries. But we will explore the linkages of Aid for Trade programme with bilateral and regional aid initiatives in the area of trade.
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de Melo, Jaime, and Laurent Wagner. "Aid for Trade and the Trade Facilitation Agreement: What They Can Do for LDCs." Journal of World Trade 50, Issue 6 (December 1, 2016): 935–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2016038.
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The Aid for Trade (AFT) initiative, launched in 2005 to help developing and especially the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) integrate the rules of the World Trade System adopted in the Uruguay Round turned out to be more about mobilizing support for the stalled Doha Round negotiations. A decade later, a broadened AFT agenda has eluded effective evaluation. The recently concluded Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) provides an ideal opportunity to narrow the scope of AFT activities to heed the call for ‘Managing for Development Results’ (MfDR). The article reviews the evidence on trade costs distinguishing between LDCs and Landlocked LDCS (LLDCs). The article also includes new estimates of time in transit for international parcel data that is measured relatively accurately. New estimates provide support for allocating a greater share of AFT funds towards LDCs and particularly towards LLDCs, both groups showing higher trade costs than comparators and less progress in reducing trade costs since 1995. On average, time in customs for imports and exports are also significantly higher for both groups than for their respective comparators. LDCs and LLDCs have systematically lower scores for the components in the new Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Trade Facilitation Indicator (TFI). These new estimates suggest that a successful implementation of the TFA, defined as moving halfway towards the frontier value of the TFI for the respective country grouping could reduce trade costs for imports of LDCs by 2.5% and by 4.5% for LLDCs. Even though there is more to trade costs than customs management, monitoring implementation of the TFA would be part of the Istanbul Program of Action (IPoA) and a stepping stone towards the concrete trade performance targets that have lacked in AFT activities so far.
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Navarro-Pabsdorf, R. Margarita, Concepción Martínez-Alcalá, and Encarnación Moral-Pajares. "Can International Trade Help Africa’s Least Developed Countries Achieve SDG-1?" Sustainability 12, no. 11 (June 1, 2020): 4470. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12114470.
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In order to reduce poverty and achieve Goal 1 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, countries’ foreign trade flows must be a driving force for productive activity, as proposed by the WTO-led (World Trade Organization) Aid for Trade initiative. This work analyzes the evolution of international trade in goods and services between Africa’s Least Developed Countries and customers and suppliers from other countries between 2005 and 2015, based on the information provided by UNCTAD and the World Bank. The results confirm a greater degree of trade openness and especially an increase in service imports. Overall, the data show that the purchases made in the international market have a greater marginal effect on GDP than sales, leading to the conclusion that changes in trade policy are needed, at both international and national level. Actions should be aimed at ensuring that the growing integration of these economies in the world trade system does not result in continued deficits in the trade balance but, on the contrary, does contribute to GDP growth and poverty reduction.
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Gnangnon, Sèna Kimm. "Has the WTO’s Aid for Trade Initiative Delivered on Its Promise of Greater Mobilization of Development Aid in Favor of the Trade Sector in Developing Countries?" International Trade Journal 33, no. 6 (May 24, 2019): 519–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2019.1614499.
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Kravchenko, Mariia, Daniela C. A. Pigosso, and Tim C. McAloone. "A Trade-Off Navigation Framework as a Decision Support for Conflicting Sustainability Indicators within Circular Economy Implementation in the Manufacturing Industry." Sustainability 13, no. 1 (December 31, 2020): 314. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13010314.
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Integration of sustainability criteria from a triple bottom line perspective is considered a challenge for manufacturing actors, who are engaged in developing sustainability-oriented initiatives. The earlier in the development process the criteria are integrated and sustainability potential is evaluated, the more opportunities exist to introduce improvements and select an initiative with a highest sustainability potential. The challenge does not only lie in understanding what sustainability criteria to use to assess sustainability performance, but in managing conflicting results, known as trade-offs. Trade-offs are situations characterized by conflicts between the desired objectives, where it is impossible to satisfy all criteria simultaneously. Although sustainability trade-offs are common, there is a gap in the existing approaches for sustainability measurements to support trade-off dialogue and decision-making. If trade-offs are not acknowledged, there is a risk of accepting an initiative leading to sub-optimizations or higher impacts. Therefore, this study proposes a framework to support trade-off analysis in the early development stages of sustainability-oriented initiatives. The trade-off navigation framework relies on input data and a structured guidance, with the twofold objective: (i) help making trade-offs explicit, and (ii) provide a structured approach to support trade-off analysis and acceptability in a transparent manner. The purpose is to encourage a dynamic decision process and reinforce the knowledge of decision-makers about potential risks and opportunities behind their choices. Using a case of a product development involving CE principles, this paper discusses how a trade-off navigation framework was applied and evaluated by industrial and academic experts, leading to its improvement and identification of strengths and limitations.
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Taylor, Peter Leigh, Douglas L. Murray, and Laura T. Raynolds. "Keeping trade fair: governance challenges in the fair trade coffee initiative." Sustainable Development 13, no. 3 (2005): 199–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sd.278.
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Hoekman, Bernard, and Simeon Djankov. "The European Union's Mediterranean Free Trade Initiative." World Economy 19, no. 4 (July 1996): 387–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.1996.tb00686.x.
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Vieira, Victor Carneiro Corrêa. "From Third World Theory to Belt and Road Initiative: International Aid as a Chinese Foreign Policy Tool." Contexto Internacional 41, no. 3 (December 2019): 529–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-8529.2019410300003.
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Abstract In 1946, Mao Zedong began to elaborate his theory of the Third World from the perception that there would be an ‘intermediate zone’ of countries between the two superpowers. From there, he concluded that Africa, Latin America, and Asia, except for Japan, would compose the revolutionary forces capable of defeating imperialism, colonialism, and hegemonism. The start of international aid from the People’s Republic of China to developing countries dates back to the period immediately after the Bandung Conference of 1955, extending to the present. Through a bibliographical and documentary analysis, the article starts with the following research question: What role did domestic and international factors play in China’s foreign aid drivers over the years? To answer the question, the evolution of Chinese international assistance was studied from Mao to the Belt and Road Initiative, which is the complete expression of the country’s ‘quaternity’ model of co-operation, combining aid, trade, investment, and technical assistance.
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Wu, Tianbo, Dan Zhou, Hao Cheng, Keqiu Zhang, and Yihao Jiang. "Research on the Policy Effects and Impact Mechanisms of the Belt and Road Initiative on China’s Forest Products Trade." Sustainability 15, no. 12 (June 14, 2023): 9527. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15129527.
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The Belt and Road Initiative, as an important measure for China in terms of opening up and participating in international economic and trade cooperation, has become a new driving force for the sustainable development of China’s forest products trade. This paper takes the Belt and Road Initiative as a policy event and evaluates its policy effects on the development of China’s forest products trade from the causal level through the difference-in-differences model (DID), explores the policy effect in detail from the perspectives of product heterogeneity and regional heterogeneity, and clarifies the specific impact mechanism. The main results are as follows: (1) there is a significant policy promotion effect of the Belt and Road Initiative on the growth of the bilateral trade scale of forest products between China and the countries along the route. (2) In terms of product structure, the policy promotion effect of the Belt and Road Initiative is mainly manifested in processed wood products. (3) In terms of regional distribution, the policy promotion effects of the Belt and Road Initiative are mainly concentrated in Europe, Africa, and Asia. (4) The “logistics performance, political partnership with China, and Internet penetration” of trading countries play a significant positive mediating role in the policy effects of the Belt and Road Initiative. Therefore, in view of the significant role of the Belt and Road Initiative in promoting the development of bilateral forest products trade, China should promote more countries to participate in the joint construction of the Belt and Road and tap new momentum for the development of the forest products trade by focusing on key countries, priority areas, and key products.
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Carter, Craig R., Lutz Kaufmann, and David J. Ketchen. "Expect the unexpected: toward a theory of the unintended consequences of sustainable supply chain management." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 40, no. 12 (September 1, 2020): 1857–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijopm-05-2020-0326.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to develop a theorization of the unintended consequences of sustainable supply chain management (SSCM).Design/methodology/approachThe authors integrate extant theory of unintended consequences, sustainable supply chain management and paradox theory to develop a typology of the unintended consequences of SSCM initiatives and a conceptual model of the antecedents of these unintended consequences.FindingsThe authors advance a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive typology of the unintended consequences of SSCM initiatives. These unintended consequences include trade-offs as well as synergies in the form of positive spillover. The authors’ conceptual model identifies multiple levels of stakeholders, multiple performance dimensions, multiple time horizons and the interplay with social construction as antecedents to the unintended consequences of SSCM initiatives.Practical implicationsThe authors’ typology suggests that managers must move beyond simply assessing whether the intended consequences of an SSCM initiative have been achieved. Managers must also, to the extent they can, assess the potential for unintended consequences to arise. The authors’ typology provides an initial roadmap for managers to continue, discontinue or further consider an SSCM initiative, based on the resulting unintended consequences. The authors’ theorization also provides guidance about how managers can more successfully bring SSCM initiatives to fruition and start cycles of learning.Originality/valueThere largely has been a focus in the operations and supply chain management literature on trade-offs between economic performance on the one hand and social or environmental performance on the other. The authors advocate that this focus needs to shift to interactions within and between social and environmental performance. Further, trade-offs are only one type of unintended consequence. By developing a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive typology, the authors introduce a much clearer conceptualization of the unintended consequences of an SSCM initiative and a much better understanding of how to manage SSCM initiatives, both prior to and postimplementation.
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Ma, Liwen, Ali Mohsin, and Haseeb Muhammad. "Bilateral Trade Between China and Other Countries." Journal of Comparative Asian Development 19, no. 1 (May 19, 2022): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/jcad.303675.
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The purpose of this study is to analyze the performance of one belt, one road in member countries in the effects of bilateral trade. The sample for this study includes 67 countries along the route for the period between 2013 and 2018. The study employs the Difference-in-Differences model in a panel data setting to do an analysis. A Parallel Trend Test is employed to test for Difference-in-Differences between the variables investigated. The results show that the “Belt and Road” initiative has had a positive impact on the bilateral trade between China and the “Belt and Road' countries along the route. China and the 67 countries along the route with different transaction potentials have different room for development. This paper focuses specifically on bilateral trade and analyses the influence of new initiative in this effort. It tests the moderating roles of new initiative in the relationship between “before 2015” and “after 2015”, concluding that new initiative enhances the effect of bilateral trade.
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Osakwe, Patrick N., and Hakim Ben Hammouda. "Financing Development in Africa: Trends, Issues, and Challenges in the Context of the Aid for Trade Initiative." Journal of World Trade 44, Issue 3 (June 1, 2010): 687–723. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2010025.
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In the context of the Aid for Trade initiative, the mobilization of domestic and external finance is critical to the success in obtaining resources to finance the investment needed to meet the laudable objectives in the Millennium Declaration. This article presents the new trends in financing development in Africa and aims to discuss the challenges facing the continent in this area. The challenges arising from the increase of resources are important but not insurmountable. The countries need to allocate these resources to the productive sectors in order to improve their competitiveness and better integrate the international economy.
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Hynes, William, and Patrick Holden. "What future for the Global Aid for Trade Initiative? Towards an assessment of its achievements and limitations." Development Policy Review 34, no. 4 (June 9, 2016): 593–619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12165.
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Lux, Michael. "EU Initiative on Modernization of Trade Defence Instruments." Global Trade and Customs Journal 7, Issue 11/12 (November 1, 2012): 507–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2012061.
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Wallis, Emma, Mark Stuart, and Ian Greenwood. "‘Learners of the workplace unite!’." Work, Employment and Society 19, no. 2 (June 2005): 283–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0950017005053174.
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The statutory rights conferred on trade union learning representatives (ULRs) under the 2002 Employment Act represent a significant development for the British trade union movement.This article presents an initial empirical assessment of the ULR initiative, drawing from original quantitative and qualitative data on ULR activity. Our findings suggest that while ULRs have been successful in promoting and facilitating employee-centred learning opportunities, the development of their role is potentially constrained by their evolving relationships with employers and their insertion into broader trade structures. Nonetheless, there are signs that the initiative has the potential to contribute to the recruitment of new trade union members.
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Chen, Shih-Chih, Jianing Hou, and De Xiao. "“One Belt, One Road” Initiative to Stimulate Trade in China: A Counter-Factual Analysis." Sustainability 10, no. 9 (September 11, 2018): 3242. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10093242.
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This research implements the panel data control method to evaluate the stimulative effects of the “One Belt, One Road” initiative on trade performance in China. We constructed a counterfactual of China’s trade surplus by exploiting the unobservable common factors that create observable trade balances among other countries. We also modified the traditional control group selection by extending it to the Elastic-Net method. This study found the following: (i) China’s annual trade surplus increased sharply by 10.69% on average since 2015. In contrast, analysis of the counterfactual showed that the net exports of China would have remained constant without the stimulation of the “One Belt, One Road” initiative; (ii) These results are robust to exports growth rates and checking by various control group selections; (iii) Although the analysis shows return to an average trading balance, we should not underestimate the benefits of the initiative in the long run.
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Lee, Hongshik, and Minseok Park. "Aid for trade, labor market flexibility with implication for Korea." Journal of Korea Trade 22, no. 2 (June 4, 2018): 121–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jkt-01-2018-0002.
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PurposeThe existing literature on aid for trade (AfT) tends to support the effectiveness of AfT in improving trade capacities and enhancing the export performance of recipient countries. While aid directed at trade-related infrastructure (e.g. ports and roads) is reported to drive the overall effect of AfT, the increasing importance of labor market flexibility and informal labor in export environment has been largely overlooked. The purpose of this paper is to test two hypotheses regarding the relationship between labor market flexibility, exports and AfT. First, flexible labor regulation promotes exports by reducing adjustment costs related to the export process. Second, for informal labor-intensive export sectors, AfT effectiveness may be compromised by the contraction of the informal sector due to labor deregulation as it deteriorates comparative advantage that supports recipients’ export competitiveness.Design/methodology/approachSince first introduced by Tinbergen (1962), the gravity model has been widely used to analyze bilateral trade, and its usefulness has been verified in several prominent empirical studies (e.g. Anderson and van Wincoop, 2003; Helpman et al., 2008). However, despite the empirically successful framework of the gravity model, the standard gravity equation may not be appropriate for estimating the effect of AfT in the paper. The main interest lies in whether aggregate AfT flows enhance the export “performance” of individual recipients, that is, whether they improve the recipients’ total exports rather than their bilateral exports. For this purpose, the authors took aggregated approach to the gravity model from Anderson and van Wincoop (2003).FindingsThe findings suggest that while both AfT and labor market flexibility are positively associated with higher export levels, the export-promoting effect of AfT is marginally reduced by the contraction of informal workforce. These findings, however, only hold for export sectors that heavily rely on informal labor force, that is, primary commodities and resource/labor-intensive goods. The authors also find that these effects are stronger in low-income countries, indicating that the AfT initiative has been effective where it is needed the most.Originality/valueThis paper is the first attempt to analyze the relationship between AfT and exports with consideration of labor market flexibility. Using the data for 85 recipient countries, the authors test the following hypotheses. First, labor market flexibility promotes exports by reducing adjustment costs related to the exporting process. Second, the contraction of the informal sector due to labor deregulation deteriorates developing countries’ comparative advantage in certain export sectors. Hence, while both AfT and labor market flexibility are expected to enhance the export volume of developing countries, the loss from weaker comparative advantage in a form of smaller informal labor force can exceed the gains from AfT in certain sectors.
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Krzymowski, Adam. "Energy Transformation and the UAE Green Economy: Trade Exchange and Relations with Three Seas Initiative Countries." Energies 15, no. 22 (November 10, 2022): 8410. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15228410.
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In 2015, on the initiative of Poland and Croatia, the Three Seas Initiative (3SI) was adopted, combining economic and political cooperation between 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, located between the three seas of the Adriatic, the Baltic, and the Black Sea. Since then, there has been a dynamic relationship between these countries and the United Arab Emirates. Consequently, most 3SI states have signed economic cooperation agreements, establishing the Joint Economic Committees (JEC). Therefore, this manuscript aims to answer the research question to what extent the visits at the highest level support the trade exchange between the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the 3SI countries. Another question is, what are the cooperation prospects related to the energy transformation and initiatives on the green economy for sustainable development? To find the answer, the author implemented quantitative methods together with case studies. The results show that regular top-level visits support trade. At the same time, the study demonstrates a strategic potential for energy transformation.
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Montoya, Miguel Angel, Daniel Lemus, and Evodio Kaltenecker. "The Geopolitical Factor of Belt and Road Initiative in Latin America." Latin American Journal of Trade Policy 2, no. 5 (February 1, 2020): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.5354/0719-9368.2019.56349.
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In the context of Chinese growing influence in Latin America, the purpose of this paper is to analyze how geopolitical factors impact the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) implementation within the region. Specifically, this paper illuminates how Brazil and Mexico, the two largest economies in Latin America, have different predispositions towards their relationships with China. Through the review of secondary sources, this paper sets the background to analyze the geopolitical factor of the BRI in Latin America, which is complemented by the use of international databases to contrast how the US factor has molded the relationships between these countries. Finally, a comparative case study method is used to illustrate how geopolitics have influenced the Chinese investment possibilities in both economies. Although China's presence in Latin America through investments, trade, loans, and official development aid, has grown, we conclude that the United States influence is still a relevant factor to understand the differences between bilateral relationships amongst Brazil-China, and Mexico-China. This particular finding emphasizes the importance of geopolitics on BRI’s implementation in Latin America.
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Erne, Roland, and Markus Blaser. "Direct democracy and trade union action." Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 24, no. 2 (April 8, 2018): 217–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1024258918764079.
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Until recently, the political influence of trade unions primarily relied on ties to labour-friendly political parties. Since the 1990s, however, party-union relations have deteriorated, forcing unions to consider complementary political strategies. This article reviews different direct democratic instruments at local, national and EU levels. We distinguish popular consultations initiated by government from above from citizens’ initiatives initiated from below and discuss corresponding trade union experiences in Germany, Italy, Ireland, Slovenia and Switzerland. We also analyse the successful right2water European Citizens Initiative (ECI) of the European Federation of Public Service Unions and the failed fair transport ECI of the European Transport Workers’ Federation at EU level. Whereas unions have successfully used direct democratic instruments to (i) defend social achievements or (ii) as a lever to extract policy concessions, direct democracy is also challenging. Successful direct democratic campaigns require unions that are able to mobilise their own rank-and-file and to inspire larger sections of society.
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Tantri, Malini L., and C. Nalin Kumar. "Facets of Trade Facilitation." China Report 54, no. 3 (July 2, 2018): 285–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009445518779166.
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The theoretical underpinnings of trade facilitation (TF) would suggest a ‘balanced growth’ approach to expedite trade. However, taking the example of China and India, in this article, we explore how selective measures are capable of addressing issues related to TF. Both the economies offer very innovative interventions to address issues corresponding to TF, especially embedded in the way institutions are coordinated and integrated. As against the conventional idea that TF has to be initiated and carried forward only by the government, the ‘One Touch’ initiative in China provides a role for public–private partnership on issues pertaining to TF. This clearly demonstrates how, besides generating demand for trade-logistics services, the private sector itself can act as a source of supply to such services. The operation of Grapenet in India highlights the need to focus on sector-specific TF requirements along with meeting multilateral obligations. The One Touch initiative has to be appreciated as it was brought about in a context of the limited evolution of the information technology (IT) platform in China, and Grapenet has to be appreciated specifically because it brought a paperless integrated system in an agricultural context in India, where this sector’s preparedness for TF is less than that of the manufacturing sector.
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Hatef, Azeta, and Luwei Rose Luqiu. "Where does Afghanistan fit in China’s grand project? A content analysis of Afghan and Chinese news coverage of the One Belt, One Road initiative." International Communication Gazette 80, no. 6 (December 13, 2017): 551–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1748048517747495.
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One Belt, One Road is a political and economic initiative developed by China to revive ancient trade routes in an effort to encourage international trade. One Belt, One Road will increase China’s economic reach but also promises to improve the political and economic standards of countries involved in the program. The initiative holds transformative opportunities for Afghanistan, as the country continues to experience political and economic instability. One Belt, One Road, though is met with differing perspectives, where critics of the initiative point toward China’s exploitative desires. Through content analysis of China’s People’s Daily and Global Times as well as Afghanistan’s Khaama Press, this article suggests China and Afghanistan’s involvement in the One Belt, One Road initiative is rooted in vastly different interests.
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Tong, Sarah Y., and Yi Zheng. "The Belt and Road Initiative and China's Trade Development." China: An International Journal 17, no. 4 (November 2019): 50–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/chn.2019.0041.
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Roy, Martin, and Juan A. Marchetti. "The TISA Initiative: An Overview of Market Access Issues." Journal of World Trade 48, Issue 4 (August 1, 2014): 683–728. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2014022.
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The plurilateral negotiations on a Trade in Services Agreement ( TISA) have attracted much attention in trade policy circles. Policy and economic implications are intensely debated given the number and economic importance of participants. This article aims to provide insights into the market access issues arising in such negotiations. Should TISA negotiations result in participants exchanging the best commitments they have so far undertaken in their preferential trade agreements (PTAs) - a reasonable starting point -,TISA market access commitments would go well beyond commitments under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and services offers tabled in the Doha Round. While this would be in itself a significant outcome (especially in terms of predictability and stability), we also highlight, however, that the real economic benefits would be reduced by the fact that a number of participants have already exchanged significant concessions amongst themselves through bilateral PTAs. Further, and more importantly, exchanging 'best PTA' commitments would not meet the participants' most important export interests. These have often remained unaddressed in many of the previous bilateral negotiations or involve countries not currently participating in TISA. Addressing better these export interests would require going beyond an exchange of 'best PTA' commitments among TISA participants - with the more difficult policy and negotiating decisions that this implies - and/or seeking to expand the group of participants. We also discuss the different forms that such a plurilateral agreement may take vis-à-vis the WTO framework.
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Mshomba, Richard E. "Trade is Not the Enemy – Nor is it a “Magic Bullet”." Journal of African Development 12, no. 2 (October 1, 2010): 27–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jafrideve.12.2.0027.
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Abstract Trade is an important tool for economic growth. Trade steers countries toward an efficient use of resources, an infusion of new technologies, and greater competition. But economic growth is not automatic. Even when trade leads to economic growth, it does not necessarily translate into real economic development. For that to happen, trade must be fostered in conjunction with other development-enhancing initiatives. This paper focuses on the link between trade and development, the role of domestic policies in agriculture, regional economic integration, and the potential impact of aid.
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Kemper, Laura, and Lena Partzsch. "Saving Water while Doing Business: Corporate Agenda-Setting and Water Sustainability." Water 11, no. 2 (February 9, 2019): 297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11020297.
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Organic and fair trade campaigns bring water sustainability onto public agendas, such as for example in the cotton/textile sector. Armedangels, a German company, advertises its t-shirts by arguing that their production requires only 1/10th of the water required in conventional production. This article studies the ambitions of such corporate agenda-setters. Methodologically, we develop a framework that contains six criteria and nine indicators, which allow us to code and assess the certification standards. In addition, we conducted semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and participatory observations in order to better understand whose agendas certification is promulgating. The criteria encompass the social and environmental dimensions of water sustainability. Our cases include Naturland (a private organic standard), the European Union (EU) Organic Regulation (a public organic standard), the Fairtrade Labeling Organization (FLO) (a fair trade initiative), and the Fair for Life (FFL) standard (an organic and fair trade standard). Our study also looks at the Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) and Cotton made in Africa (CmiA), which are two multi-stakeholder initiatives that operate on the conventional market in cooperation with non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The findings demonstrate that organic and fair trade companies rightly present themselves as water policy entrepreneurs. However, crucial aspects of water sustainability remain hidden. In particular, there is a cleavage between the environmental agendas of organic movements and NGOs that are represented in certification and the urgent social water problems in the Global South.
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Van der Elst, Herman. "Collective foreign aid and development prospects for sub-Saharan Africa." New Contree 72 (July 30, 2015): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/nc.v72i0.182.
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Since the end of the Second World War in 1945, the states of sub-Saharan Africa have been subjected to a seemingly irreversible spiral of poverty as well as social, political and economic unpredictability, causing continued underdevelopment. This underdevelopment occurred despite the fact that a total of $568 billion of bilateral and multilateral foreign aid have been channelled to the region during the abovementioned period. This channelling of foreign aid coincided with, and was motivated by decolonisation in the post-Second World War dispensation, the Cold War dispensation, the energy crisis of the 1970s, the post-Cold War dispensation, and the era of trade bloc formation and expansion (global developmental time frames).The most recent so-called “big push” initiative to kick start development in the region was the adoption and implementation of the (pro-poor) eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by the United Nations (UN) in 2000. This initiative was supported by the adoption of the G8, Gleneagles commitment on aid and debt relief in 2005. From a global perspective, the MDGs seem to be successful in poverty reduction efforts in specifically Asia and South America. There is, however, consensus amongst most academics and thinkers that the MDGs will not be met in sub-Saharan Africa before the target date of 2015. The reality is that the levels of underdevelopment remain high and are even escalating. In terms of relevance and scholarly contribution, this article seeks to analytically describe and explain the presumed failure of collective foreign aid, and suggests ways and means to stimulate development in sub-Saharan Africa in the years to come.
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Alhussam, Mohammed Ismail, Jifan Ren, Hongxing Yao, and Omar Abu Risha. "Food Trade Network and Food Security: From the Perspective of Belt and Road Initiative." Agriculture 13, no. 8 (August 7, 2023): 1571. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081571.
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In recent times, there has been a growing interest in the role of food trade in achieving food security. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between food trade and food security within the context of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This study employs complex networks alongside the quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) regression method on trade data of 46 countries under BRI for the period 2008 to 2018. The resulting complex network showed an enhancement in the food trade relationships and food security levels after BRI, indicating a mutually positive effect. In addition, the closeness centrality measure showed a strong correlation with food security, indicating that food trade has positive spillovers on food security in the proximate countries. Using geographical distance as an instrumental variable, the QAP regression model proved the positive effects of food trade on food security. More investment in trade infrastructure is recommended to reduce the negative effect of geographical distance on food security.
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Dumor, Koffi, and Li Yao. "Estimating China’s Trade with Its Partner Countries within the Belt and Road Initiative Using Neural Network Analysis." Sustainability 11, no. 5 (March 8, 2019): 1449. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11051449.
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The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) under the auspices of the Chinese government was created as a regional integration and development model between China and her trade partners. Arguments have been raised as to whether this initiative will be beneficial to participating countries in the long run. We set to examine how to estimate this trade initiative by comparing the relative estimation powers of the traditional gravity model with the neural network analysis using detailed bilateral trade exports data from 1990 to 2017. The results show that neural networks are better than the gravity model approach in learning and clarifying international trade estimation. The neural networks with fixed country effects showed a more accurate estimation compared to a baseline model with country-year fixed effects, as in the OLS estimator and Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood. On the other hand, the analysis indicated that more than 50% of the 6 participating East African countries in the BRI were able to attain their predicted targets. Kenya achieved an 80% (4 of 5) target. Drawing from the lessons of the BRI and the use of neural network model, it will serve as an important reference point by which other international trade interventions could be measured and compared.
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Nepali, Binita. "Opportunities and Challenges in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal (BBIN) Initiative for Nepal." Prashasan: The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration 55, no. 1 (July 5, 2023): 71–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/prashasan.v55i1.56441.
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In simple term, sub-regionalism refers to cooperation and integration among a group of countries within a larger region. Over the past few years, there has been a shift towards sub-regional groupings within the larger multilateral, regional grouping. One such sub-regional grouping in South Asia is Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal (BBIN). BBIN, formed in 2014, aims to foster greater cooperation among the member countries on various issues, including trade, transportation, energy, and the environment. The paper attempts to study how Nepal's participation in the BBIN can result in a much-needed resolution to Nepal's connectivity-related issues. The sub-regional cooperation promises to ease Nepal's connectivity issues and aid in the country's economic integration with the rest of the world. To reap these benefits, Nepal needs to be free from political issues and work on implementing high-priority infrastructure and connectivity projects. Nevertheless, Nepal should not be overly optimistic given its own capacity constraints on implementing big connectivity projects and the fact that such regional arrangements haven't offered Nepal with many benefits in the past.
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Thompson, Gary, Ricardo Aḿon, and Philip L. Martin. "Agricultural Development and Emigration: Rhetoric and Reality." International Migration Review 20, no. 3 (September 1986): 575–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791838602000302.
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The untested premise of trade liberalizing U.S. development programs such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative is that commodity trade can substitute for international labor migration. Analysis of U.S. tomato producing regions in Sinaloa, Mexico and Florida suggests that the effect of trade liberalization of international labor migration is uncertain.
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Yean Tham, Siew, Andrew Kam Jia Yi, and Tee Beng Ann. "U.S.–China Trade War: Potential Trade and Investment Spillovers into Malaysia." Asian Economic Papers 18, no. 3 (December 2019): 117–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/asep_a_00729.
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This study examines the potential impact of the current trade war between the United States and China on Malaysia's trade and investment. For solar exports, the immediate impact from 2017 to 2018 shows that gross and domestic exports to the United States have fallen but re-exports have increased, and Malaysia's exports and re-exports to China have increased. Excluding solar, the increase in gross exports to the United States is borne by re-exports. The possibility of increased investment, as firms relocate from China, is high given the growing presence of China's investment in Malaysia since the announcement of the Belt and Road Initiative.
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Solmecke, Ulrike. "Multinational Enterprises and the 'One Belt, One road' Initiative: Sustainable Development and Innovation in a Post-Crisis Global Environment." Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 34, no. 2 (March 22, 2017): 9–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.22439/cjas.v34i2.5304.
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By initiating the development of a gigantic international trade network across
Asia, Europe and Africa, with several trade corridors that will span around 60
countries, China intends to stimulate substantial economic growth. Already in
the first phase, focused on building an adequate infrastructure, multinational
enterprises will play a vital role in developing the so-called New Silk Road
or the 'One Belt, One Road' initiative. This article inquires into the environmental impacts that a venture of this magnitude will entail and discusses the potential of the available voluntary and mandatory governance instruments to lead the key economic actors to take sustainability criteria into account.
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Wong, Christopher S. "Regulating Currency Manipulation: Political, Legal and Economic Barriers to Reform." Journal of World Trade 51, Issue 4 (August 1, 2017): 691–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2017027.
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The current international legal framework for trade is not designed to explicitly address the issue of currency manipulation. This oversight in the framework has contributed to the proliferation of nations employing currency manipulation as a mechanism to aid their export competitiveness. This article adds to the current debate surrounding currency manipulation by analysing a number of proposed reforms to the current international legal framework aimed at addressing the issue. These reform proposals will be evaluated against a number of political and legal challenges that face any reform initiative. By examining the broader political and diplomatic considerations that would underpin any attempt at reform, the article concludes that there are significant barriers to preventing the practice of currency manipulation.
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Singh, Surendar, and Utkarsh K. Mishra. "Reliance on Non-tariff Measures for Self-Reliant India: An Analysis of India’s New Trade Policy Orientation." Global Trade and Customs Journal 17, Issue 10 (October 1, 2022): 441–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2022063.
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With the introduction of the Self-Reliant India initiative, the Government of India (GOI) has underlined the importance of trade policy instruments to augment the capabilities of the domestic manufacturing sector. It has used both tariffs and non-tariff measures (NTMs) but NTMs have emerged as an important instrument of India’s trade strategy under the Self-Reliant India initiative. This article analyses selected NTMs i.e., import monitoring mechanism, quality standards (QSs), and changes in Rules of Origin (RoO) to understand the broader orientation of India’s trade policy. Findings demonstrate that the introduction of these NTMs are aimed at fostering a strong ecosystem for NTMs to restrict imports thereby extending protection to the domestic industry from international competition. It also reflects that India’s broad trade policy orientation is gradually moving towards a protectionist regime under the ‘self-reliant’ agenda. Trade policy, Non-Tariff measures, Non-Tariff Barriers, Import monitoring system, Quality standards, Rules of origin, Self-Reliant, etc.
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Fan, Sha. "Does the Belt and Road Initiative Promote Bilateral Trade? An Empirical Analysis of China and the Belt and Road Countries." Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies 15, no. 2 (May 2023): 190–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09749101231167453.
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The development of trade is an essential element of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and a significant effort by China to promote inter-regional economic development. Using Chinese trade data from 190 countries and regions worldwide from 1993 to 2021, this article quantitatively analyzes (a) if and to what extent the BRI has promoted bilateral trade development, (b) how trade with China has contributed to the country’s economic growth and (c) what commodity and regional heterogeneity exist in these effects. The empirical results show that the BRI significantly increases China’s trade with the countries of the Belt and Road Initiative and countries along the Belt and Road route and significantly increases imports and exports in all five commodity categories—primary goods, resource-intensive manufactured goods, low-tech, medium-tech, and high-tech manufactured goods. Meanwhile, the trade volume with China substantially contributes to the economic development of the trading countries. However, Asia, Europe, and Africa show different characteristics in all three aspects mentioned above. These results show that the BRI not only benefits China’s international trade but also promotes the trade development of the involved countries. It clarifies the crucial role this open, inclusive inter-regional economic cooperation plays in global trade growth when facing the escalating anti-globalization sentiment.
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Huang, Xueying, Yuanjun Han, Xuhong Gong, and Xiangyan Liu. "Does the belt and road initiative stimulate China’s inbound tourist market? An empirical study using the gravity model with a DID method." Tourism Economics 26, no. 2 (August 13, 2019): 299–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354816619867577.
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This study examines the influence of the Belt and Road Initiative on China’s inbound tourist market, generated from countries and regions along the Belt and Road, using a gravity model with a difference-in-differences method. Panel data for 2008–2016 indicate that the Belt and Road Initiative has direct and significant positive effects on Chinese international tourist-generating markets, but the annual treatment effects are only partly significantly positive. We also examined the heterogeneous effects and mechanism of the Belt and Road Initiative on the inbound tourist market by grouping countries according to the levels of trade openness with China and economic development. The heterogeneous effect tests reveal that China’s international tourist origin countries with low levels of trade openness with China and high levels of economic development benefit from the Belt and Road Initiative. The findings of this study provide policy guidance on expansion for China’s inbound tourism market.
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Li, Enkang, Mengqiu Lu, and Yu Chen. "Analysis of China’s Importance in “Belt and Road Initiative” Trade Based on a Gravity Model." Sustainability 12, no. 17 (August 21, 2020): 6808. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12176808.
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This study used a gravity model to analyze the importance of China within the “Belt and Road Initiative” (BRI) trade pattern based on different regression methods, including pooled ordinary least squares (POLS), fixed effects (FE), and the Heckman two-step calculation. The results show that from 2000 to 2018, China’s position in the BRI trade pattern constantly rose in both exports and imports. After removing zero trade flow, POLS and FE analyses showed GDP and a common language had more influence on national exports than population or common religion. The Heckman two-step results with zero trade flows are similar to the other regression results, showing that both a country’s economic aggregate of a country and a common language between two countries were important during trade exchanges. China is one of Eurasia’s most attractive trading partners; while China provides more goods for BRI countries to export, it also provides a huge market for other BRI countries’ goods while promoting their economic development. Thus, China plays a very important role in the BRI trade pattern. Its huge export/import growth potential is a key economic foundation for further promoting Eurasia’s economic and trade integration.
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HOEKMAN, BERNARD, WILL MARTIN, and AADITYA MATTOO. "Conclude Doha: it matters!" World Trade Review 9, no. 3 (June 25, 2010): 505–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745610000297.
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AbstractThe Doha Round must be concluded not because it will produce dramatic liberalization but because it will create greater security of market access. Its conclusion would strengthen, symbolically and substantively, the WTO's valuable role in restraining protectionism. What is on the table would constrain the scope for tariff protection in all goods, ban agricultural export subsidies in the industrial countries and sharply reduce the scope for distorting domestic support – by 70% in the EU and 60% in the US. Average farm tariffs that exporters face would fall to 12% (from 14.5%) and the tariffs on exports of manufactures to less than 2.5% (from about 3%). There are also environmental benefits to be captured, in particular disciplining the use of subsidies that encourage over-fishing and lowering tariffs on technologies that can help mitigate global warming. An agreement to facilitate trade by cutting red tape will further expand trade opportunities. Greater market access for the least-developed countries will result from the ‘duty free and quota free’ proposal and their ability to take advantage of new opportunities will be enhanced by the Doha-related ‘aid for trade’ initiative. Finally, concluding Doha would create space for multilateral cooperation on critical policy matters that lie outside the Doha Agenda, most urgently the trade policy implications of climate change mitigation.
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Wang, Xiao, Jinming Shi, Jia Li, Yu Chen, Jianxu Liu, and Songsak Sriboonchitta. "Analysis on Trade Competition and Complementarity of High-Quality Agricultural Products in Countries along the Belt and Road Initiative." Sustainability 15, no. 8 (April 14, 2023): 6671. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15086671.
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The Belt and Road Initiative was proposed by China in 2013 as a response to sluggish global economic growth. With most countries along the Belt and Road being developing countries, it is crucial to strengthen trade cooperation in agricultural products. However, the current literature lacks an analysis of the competitiveness and complementarity of agricultural products in these countries. This study aims to fill this gap by showing that the Belt and Road Initiative has reduced agricultural export competitiveness and increased agricultural trade complementarity. Several factors influence the similarity and complementarity of agricultural exports in participating countries along the Belt and Road, including geographical distance, level of economic development, free trade agreements, degree of country openness, exchange rates, cultural differences, share of agricultural value added, and level of infrastructure. The detailed analysis shows that the Belt and Road Initiative has significantly improved the quality of the agricultural exports of participating countries. The results of this paper provide a theoretical basis for the high-quality development of agricultural products in participating countries along the Belt and Road.
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Shreck, Aimee. "Resistance, redistribution, and power in the Fair Trade banana initiative." Agriculture and Human Values 22, no. 1 (March 2005): 17–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10460-004-7227-y.
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