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Journal articles on the topic 'Ainu language'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 29 July 2024

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1

Teeter, Jennifer, and Takayuki Okazaki. "Ainu as a Heritage Language of Japan: History, Current State and Future of Ainu Language Policy and Education." Heritage Language Journal 8, no. 2 (2011): 251–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.8.2.5.

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Ainu is the heritage language of the indigenous people of present-day southern Sakhalin, the Kurile Islands, present-day Hokkaidō, and northeastern Honshū (mainland Japan). The UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (2009) considered the Ainu language critically endangered with only 15 speakers remaining. This article scrutinizes UNESCO’s assessment and analyzes the historical and current situation of the Ainu language and its transmission, particularly evaluating government policies related to the transmission of the Ainu language. Analysis in this article will draw upon

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2

Dossova, A., and K. M. Ilyassova. "Study of Ains in Japan by John Batcheler." BULLETIN of the L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University.Political Science. Regional Studies. Oriental Studies. Turkology Series. 142, no. 1 (2023): 271–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.32523/2616-6887/2023-142-1-271-280.

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This article represents the everyday life and work of the British missionary John Batchelor, the founder of Ainu studies. In his mature years, John Batchelor (1854-1944) moved to Japan, where he studied the origins, traditions, religious beliefs, and culture of the Ainu. Born in England, Batchelor professes Christianity, so he decides to go to the Hakodate Anglican Church in Hokkaido, Japan. Having started his missionary activity in this country, John masters the local Japanese and Ainu languages. Thus, a missionary settled in Hokkaido studied the daily life of the Ainu assimilated by the Japa

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3

Hansen, Annette Skovsted. "Re-vitalizing an indigenous language: Dictionaries of Ainu languages in Japan, 1625–2013." Lexicographica 30, no. 1 (2014): 547–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lexi-2014-0017.

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AbstractThe re-vitalization of indigenous languages depends on political and legal support and the implementation of language rights depends on knowledge of vocabulary and grammar structures of the individual languages. Throughout the nineteenth century world, compilers of dictionaries adapted indigenous languages to match standards defined in nation-building and, thereby, enabled latent possibilities for indigenous populations to re-vitalize their languages in connection with the United Nations Year for Indigenous Peoples in 1993, and the first United Nations Decade for Indigenous Peoples, 19

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4

Klimova, O. V. "The interpreters of Ainu language in the lands of Ezo in the 17<sup>th</sup> – 18<sup>th</sup> centuries (based on Japanese archive materials)." Japanese Studies in Russia, no. 4 (January 18, 2024): 53–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.55105/2500-2872-2023-4-53-64.

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This article, based on Japanese sources, discusses the question of how the Ainu language interpreters’ guild was formed, what functions translators performed, and how their status changed in the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries. During this time, Japan pursued the policy of self-isolation, and all contacts with the outside world were closely controlled by the government. However, in the places where contact with foreign culture did occur, interpreters were needed. So, there were interpreters of Chinese, Korean, and Dutch languages. In the island of Hokkaido, where trade with the loca

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5

Nowakowski, Karol, Michal Ptaszynski, Fumito Masui, and Yoshio Momouchi. "Improving Basic Natural Language Processing Tools for the Ainu Language." Information 10, no. 11 (2019): 329. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info10110329.

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Ainu is a critically endangered language spoken by the native inhabitants of northern Japan. This paper describes our research aimed at the development of technology for automatic processing of text in Ainu. In particular, we improved the existing tools for normalizing old transcriptions, word segmentation, and part-of-speech tagging. In the experiments we applied two Ainu language dictionaries from different domains (literary and colloquial) and created a new data set by combining them. The experiments revealed that expanding the lexicon had a positive impact on the overall performance of our

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6

Uzawa, Kanako. "What does Ainu cultural revitalisation mean to Ainu and Wajin youth in the 21st century? Case study of Urespa as a place to learn Ainu culture in the city of Sapporo, Japan." AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples 15, no. 2 (2019): 168–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1177180119846665.

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This article illustrates living experiences of Ainu cultural practices by the students of Urespa. Urespa is a self-motivated, non-profit social initiative or association founded in 2010 by Professor Honda Yuko at Sapporo University with the aim of bringing Ainu and Wajin students together in a curriculum-based environment to co-learn the Ainu language and Ainu cultural practices. In the Ainu language, urespa means “growing together”. The article draws on the author’s fieldwork with Urespa in Sapporo, Hokkaido, in 2016 in focusing on a new way of practising Ainu culture in an urban setting in t

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7

Akulov, Alexander. "Prefixation Ability Index (PAI) as a powerful typological tool of historical linguistics." Lingua Posnaniensis 57, no. 1 (2015): 7–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/linpo-2015-0001.

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Abstract At present there are many odd hypotheses about the genetic affiliation of certain languages. Most such hypotheses are invented without any serious examination of the structural differences between the languages being compared. The PAI method was inspired by ideas of A. P. Volodin, who noticed that there were two types of languages, one type has prefixation and the other does not. Actually, there is no sharp divide between the two types, it is more precise to use a coefficient (i.e. PAI) rather than simply ask “does a language allow prefixation?” The PAI theory supposed there was corre

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Izutsu, Mitsuko Narita, and Katsunobu Izutsu. "Inclusivity and non-solidarity." Pragmatics and Society 3, no. 1 (2012): 149–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ps.3.1.06izu.

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Some languages use first person inclusive plurals for second person reference. Such usage has often been associated with the notions of solidarity or lesser social distance. However, this line of explanation cannot provide an adequate account for the use of inclusives for second person honorific reference in Ainu, an indigenous language of Japan. Members of an Ainu-speaking community or family have traditionally expressed loyalty or deference to their leader (village or family holder), rather than friendship or companionship. The present paper argues that the usage of first person inclusives f

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9

Maruyama, Hiroshi. "Revitalisation of Ainu Culture and Protection of their Right to Culture: Learning from Norwegian Sami Experiences." Yearbook of Polar Law Online 5, no. 1 (2013): 547–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22116427-91000136.

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Abstract The Ainu people in Japan have been deprived of their land, culture and language in the wake of the ruthless assimilation policy of Japan and their forcible relocation of them from the Kurile Islands and Sakhalin to Hokkaido. In June 2008, the Ainu were ultimately recognized as indigenous people by the Japanese Government, but their right to culture is not protected by the Japanese legal system. In fact, the Ainu still suffer from the losses of their traditional culture and moreover, are excluded from the decision making process in matters affecting them. Nevertheless, the Ainu have be

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10

Chekunkova, Ekaterina S. "Ainu in modern Japanese society: the problem of returning the remains of ancestors." RUDN Journal of World History 13, no. 1 (2021): 96–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8127-2021-13-1-96-113.

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The article is devoted to the issue of repatriation of Ainu ancestral remains, collected by Japanese researchers in the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries. It is the most crucial current issue for many Ainu people who are trying to regain the language, the distinct culture, and identity. The article analyzes the positions of the Japanese Government, the Hokkaido Ainu Association and Ainu rights activist groups and movements. The article examines the contradictions that arose in Japanese society concerning the process of repatriation. Discussions in Japanese society during this problem we

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11

Sjoberg, Katarina, and Josef Kreiner. "European Studies on Ainu Language and Culture." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1, no. 2 (1995): 426. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3034720.

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12

Maher, John C., and Josef Kreiner. "European Studies on Ainu Language and Culture." Monumenta Nipponica 49, no. 3 (1994): 385. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2385459.

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13

DeChicchis, Joseph. "The current state of the Ainu language." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 16, no. 1-2 (1995): 103–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1995.9994595.

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14

Bugaeva, Anna. "Ainu applicatives in typological perspective." Studies in Language 34, no. 4 (2010): 749–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.34.4.01bug.

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This paper explores the polyfunctionality, grammaticalization, and typological relevance of applicatives in Ainu. Applicatives are derived by the valency-increasing prefixes which are generally defined here as instrumental e-, dative ko-, and locative o-. The referential range of the respective constructions stretches over several semantic roles and the exact role is attributed to the interaction between the semantics of the prefix and verb. The typologically unusual properties of Ainu applicatives include the ability of e- applicatives to add the roles of Theme and Content, the ability of the

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15

Lim, S. C. "On Sacred Girdles and Matrilineal Descent in Ainu Society." Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 48, no. 3 (2020): 117–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.17746/1563-0110.2020.48.3.117-123.

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This study examines a mysterious item of the Ainu women’s undergarment—the upsor kut, or chakh chanki, which, in ethnographic collections and scholarly texts, is described as a “belt of modesty”. A comparative and historical analysis of Ainu women’s girdles from Hokkaido and Sakhalin was carried out. They are displayed in very small numbers at museums of Russia, Japan, and the UK. These artifacts are rare, as women had to preserve their upsor kut (chakhchanki) from being seen by strangers, especially males. They became a part of late 19th to early 20th century ethnographic collections, because

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16

Janhunen, Juha A. "Ainu Internal Reconstruction: on the Origin and Typological Context of the Affiliative Form." International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics 2, no. 2 (2020): 181–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/25898833-12340031.

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Abstract This paper discusses the history and prehistory of the so-called affiliative form in Ainu, also known as the “possessive” or “concrete” form of nominals. In earlier research, this form has been understood as belonging to the sphere of suffixal morphology, complicated by the impact of vowel harmony and/or nominal classes. This paper shows, however, that the marking of the affiliative form actually involves a trace of the original stem-final vowel otherwise lost in the language, followed by a recently grammaticalized separate particle. This means that Ainu must have undergone a general

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17

Klimov, V. Yu. "A Brief List of Japanese Writings About the Ainu Lands and Russia Until 1799." Russian Japanology Review 6, no. 1 (2023): 88–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.55105/2658-6444-2023-1-88-100.

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In 1799, the Russian-American Company (RAC) was founded in Saint Petersburg for the development by Russian merchants and hunters of the Northern Pacific lands. In the same year, Japan’s government made a strategic decision to include the eastern Ainu lands (higashi ezochi), and subsequently the western and northern Ainu lands (nishi ezochi, kita ezochi), into its direct control and to start their economic development. By this year, the Japanese had collected enough information about the Ainu and their lands, about the advance of Russians along the Kuril Islands in the southern direction, about

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18

McCawley, James D. "A Japanese and Ainu linguistic feast." Journal of Linguistics 29, no. 2 (1993): 469–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022226700000402.

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19

Lee, Sean, and Toshikazu Hasegawa. "Evolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time." PLoS ONE 8, no. 4 (2013): e62243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062243.

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20

Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. ": European Studies on Ainu Language and Culture . Josef Kreiner." American Anthropologist 97, no. 3 (1995): 610–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.1995.97.3.02a00500.

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21

Kupchik, John. "Anna Bugaeva: Handbook of the Ainu Language." Journal of Japanese Linguistics 40, no. 1 (2024): 113–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jjl-2024-2007.

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22

Refsing, Kirsten. "Ainu Spirits Singing: The Living World of Chiri Yukie’s by Ainu Shin’yōshū (review)." Journal of Japanese Studies 39, no. 1 (2013): 216–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jjs.2013.0009.

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23

England, Nora C. "Joshua A. Fishman (ed.), Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2001. Pp. xvi, 503. Pb $24.95." Language in Society 32, no. 1 (2002): 109–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404503221059.

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This volume revisits, as its title states, the theory and practice of reversing language shift (RLS) first proposed by Fishman in 1991. A dozen of the original case studies are reanalyzed and several more are added, producing a rich source of detail on some of the specific situations of language shift and efforts to reverse it. Fishman contributes introductory and concluding chapters as well as one of the case studies (Yiddish); other authors cover Navajo, New York Puerto Rican Spanish, Québec French, Otomí, Quechua, Irish, Frisian, Basque, Catalán, Oko, Andamanese, Ainu, Hebrew, immigrant lan

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24

Bugaeva, Anna. "On the exclusively borderline case-marking in Ainu." Voprosy Jazykoznanija, no. 5 (2022): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/0373-658x.2022.5.131-150.

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This paper argues that the system of marking case relations in Ainu represents a typical example of borderline case-marking since arguments are unmarked and it is difficult to distinguish case markers from adverbs. For instance, dative, instrumental, comitative, and other cases are marked by postpositional adverbs, which can occur without respective NPs and some can even take indexing. It is shown that such an unusual zero anaphora-like behavior of adverbial “case” postpositions can be explained by their relatedness to respective transitive verbs out of which they have not yet fully grammatica

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25

Nowakowski, Karol, Michal Ptaszynski, and Fumito Masui. "MiNgMatch—A Fast N-gram Model for Word Segmentation of the Ainu Language." Information 10, no. 10 (2019): 317. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info10100317.

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Word segmentation is an essential task in automatic language processing for languages where there are no explicit word boundary markers, or where space-delimited orthographic words are too coarse-grained. In this paper we introduce the MiNgMatch Segmenter—a fast word segmentation algorithm, which reduces the problem of identifying word boundaries to finding the shortest sequence of lexical n-grams matching the input text. In order to validate our method in a low-resource scenario involving extremely sparse data, we tested it with a small corpus of text in the critically endangered language of

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26

Majewicz, Alfred F. "Japonica w Archiwaliach po Bronisławie Piłsudskim w Bibliotece PAU i PAN w Krakowie (9). Fujihiko Sekiba i jego przesyłka." Rocznik Biblioteki Naukowej PAU i PAN 65 (2020): 115–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/25440500rbn.20.008.14167.

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Japonica in the Archives Left after Bronisław Piłsudski in the Cracow PAU-PAN Academic Library (9). Fujihiko Sekiba’s Mailing (Letter and Book) Sent to Bronisław Piłsudski and its Situational Context The present material constitutes the ninth installment of the series introducing Japanese documents preserved with Bronisław Piłsudski’s archives in the Academic Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences and Lettres (PAU) and Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN) in Cracow and includes photocopies of a letter in German (with its envelope indicating the addressee and the sender in Japanese, its decipher

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27

Strelnikov, I. A., and E. V. Minakova. "THE ROLE AND ADAPTATION OF LOANWORDS IN JAPANESE." Vestnik of Khabarovsk State University of Economics and Law, no. 2(112) (May 31, 2023): 177–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.38161/2618-9526-2023-2-177-185.

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The article is devoted to the origin, causes and degree of development of loanwords into the Japanese language from other languages throughout the history of the formation of the cultural identity of the Japanese nation. The first and most ancient loanwords are words and phrases from the ancient language of the Ainu peoples. The original Japanese language wago, a significant cultural layer of words of Chinese origin kango, foreign loanwords gairaigo and wasei gairaigo are described. Direct and indirect loanwords came from the Dutch, German, Swedish, Russian languages. The lexical layer of the

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28

Street, John C., and Kirsten Refsing. "The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect." Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 21, no. 2 (1987): 184. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/489315.

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29

Patrie, James, and Kirsten Refsing. "The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect." Journal of Japanese Studies 15, no. 1 (1989): 339. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/132441.

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30

Refsing, Kirsten. "Lost Aryans? John Batchelor and the Colonization of the Ainu Language." Interventions 2, no. 1 (2000): 21–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/136980100360779.

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31

Spiker, Christina. "Indigenous Shôjo." Journal of Anime and Manga Studies 1 (October 11, 2020): 138–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.21900/j.jams.v1.502.

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Little scholarly attention has been given to the visual representations of the Ainu people in popular culture, even though media images have a significant role in forging stereotypes of indigeneity. This article investigates the role of representation in creating an accessible version of indigenous culture repackaged for Japanese audiences. Before the recent mainstream success of manga/anime Golden Kamuy (2014–), two female heroines from the arcade fighting game Samurai Spirits (Samurai supirittsu)—Nakoruru and her sister Rimururu—formed a dominant expression of Ainu identity in visual culture

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32

Sidwell, Paul J. "Review of Vovin (1993): A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu." Diachronica 13, no. 1 (1996): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/dia.13.1.12sid.

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33

MATSUBARA, Ken'nosuke. "Interpretation of Some Place Names Originated from AINU Language in San-nohe Region." Annals of The Tohoku Geographycal Asocciation 40, no. 3 (1988): 190–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.5190/tga1948.40.190.

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34

Sato-Rossberg, Nana. "Conflict and dialogue: Bronisław Piłsudski's ethnography and translation of Ainu oral narratives." Translation Studies 5, no. 1 (2012): 48–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14781700.2012.628813.

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35

Heinrich, Patrick. "Waves of Language Diversity Loss in Japan: An Ecological and Theoretical Account." Journal on Asian Linguistic Anthropology 3, no. 1 (2021): 33–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.47298/jala.v3-i1-a2.

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Linguistic diversity has seen two large waves of the loss of linguistic diversity across history. The first wave occurred with the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies, a process that started 11,000 years ago with the Neolithic revolution when agrarian societies colonized territories of hunter-gatherer communities. The second wave started with the establishment of modern nation states and the creation and diffusion of national languages. It is in the latter setting that the vast majority of language endangerment cases are set today. Endangered languages are predominantly r

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36

Orlandi, Giorgio (Georg). "The State of the Art of the Genetic Relationship of Japonic: non-Altaic Comparisons and the Fate of Linguistic Isolates." International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics 2, no. 2 (2020): 286–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/25898833-12340033.

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Abstract Some lesser-known long range theories besides Altaic are discussed in the present article, before special attention is given to the two non-distant hypotheses which purport to substantiate the genetic relationship between Japonic and Ainu as well as between Japonic and Korean. Other assumptions about Japonic, such as Japanese as a ‘mixed language’, are also evaluated and critically assessed. Furthermore, the reasons why Japanese was linked to such a panoply of linguistic families are also taken in consideration, and a discussion about the fate of “linguistic isolates” is also offered.

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37

江, 仁杰. "A Study of Relationships and Usages of Verbs and Personal Affixes in Ainu Language." Modern Linguistics 03, no. 01 (2015): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.12677/ml.2015.31003.

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Ptaszynski, Michal, and Yoshio Momouchi. "Part-of-speech tagger for Ainu language based on higher order Hidden Markov Model." Expert Systems with Applications 39, no. 14 (2012): 11576–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.04.031.

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Ishihara, Tadayoshi. "Compilation of Japanese-Berber dictionary." Impact 2023, no. 1 (2023): 32–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.21820/23987073.2023.1.32.

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'Berber' refers to a minority ethnic group originating in North Africa and to a group of languages also known as the Amazigh languages. Berber is also called Tamazight and is one of a set of minority languages reported to be in decline. Professor Tadayoshi Ishihara, Department of Humanities, which is part of the Faculty of Letters at Soka University, Japan, is working to compile a Japanese-Berber dictionary with a view to highlighting the existence of the Berber script in Japan. Variations in vocabulary are a factor behind the lack of existing lexicon. There is no such dictionary that deals wi

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40

Nikitina, Tatiana, and Anna Bugaeva. "Logophoric speech is not indirect: towards a syntactic approach to reported speech constructions." Linguistics 59, no. 3 (2021): 609–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ling-2021-0067.

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Abstract The distinction between direct and indirect speech has long been known not to reflect the crosslinguistic diversity of speech reporting strategies. Yet prominent typological approaches remain firmly grounded in that traditional distinction and look to place language-specific strategies on a universal continuum, treating them as deviations from the “direct” and “indirect” ideals. We argue that despite their methodological attractiveness, continuum approaches do not provide a solid basis for crosslinguistic comparison. We aim to present an alternative by exploring the syntax of logophor

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41

Kondo, Shiaki, та Heather Anne Swanson. "鮭鱒論 (salmon trout theory) and the politics of non-Western academic terms". Sociological Review 68, № 2 (2020): 435–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0038026120905492.

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This article probes how scholars might give nuanced attention to the power-laden dynamics of knowledge practices within non-Western settings at the same time that they seek to become more alert to the challenges of Anglophone academic domination. This inquiry arises from our focus on 鮭鱒論 ( sake masu ron), a Japanese term that can be translated as salmon trout theory. While 鮭鱒論 holds unique insights for the growing fields of the environmental humanities, multispecies anthropology, and other forms of more-than-human scholarship, it is fundamentally tied to Japanese colonial projects and the marg

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42

Senuma, Hajime, and Akiko Aizawa. "Computational Complexity of Natural Morphology Revisited." Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 12 (2024): 743–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00665.

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Abstract This paper revisits a classical, yet fundamental, discussion of theoretical computational linguistics: the computational complexity of natural languages. Past studies have revealed that syntax, as observed in Swiss-German, is not weakly context-free. Concerning morphology, Culy (1985) employed a construction in Bambara to show that morphology is not weakly context-free; however, Manaster-Ramer (1988) pointed out that the Bambara case can be problematic because the wordhood of the construction is reliant on special tonal behaviors, and it is ambiguous whether the behaviors belong to th

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Savage, Theresa, and Michael Longo. "Legal Frameworks for the Protection of Ainu Language and Culture in Japan: International and European Perspectives." Japanese Studies 33, no. 1 (2013): 101–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10371397.2013.782098.

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44

Maruyama, Hiroshi. "Japan's Policies Towards the Ainu Language and Culture with Special Reference to North Fennoscandian Sami Policies." Acta Borealia 31, no. 2 (2014): 152–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08003831.2014.967980.

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Sari, Ida Ayu Laksmita, and I. Nyoman Darma Putra. "Narrative on Nature Conservation: A Comparative Study of the Folktales of Bali Aga and Ainu." KEMANUSIAAN The Asian Journal of Humanities 27, no. 2 (2020): 59–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21315/kajh2020.27.2.4.

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46

Ito, Kinko. "The Fabric of Indigeneity: Ainu Identity, Gender, and Settler Colonialism in Japan by ann-elise lewallen." Journal of Japanese Studies 44, no. 2 (2018): 469–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jjs.2018.0064.

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47

Albedil, Margarita F. "“If One Human Mind Has Come up with Something, Then Another Can Unravel It”. On the Centenary of the Birth of Yu.V. Knorozov." Chelovek 33, no. 5 (2022): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s023620070022796-2.

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The article deals with the scientific heritage of the great Russian scientist Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov (1922–1999). He is best known as the decipherer of the script of the ancient Maya Indians, who created one of the most distinctive civilizations of pre-Columbian America. This landmark discovery brought the scientist well-deserved glory and fame. Now his name is forever inscribed in the annals of domestic and world science. But the range of Knorozov&apos;s scientific interests and research was not limited to this topic. The scientist fearlessly took on difficult tasks, he believed that

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MIZUNO, Makiko. "INTERPRETING IN CRIMINAL CASES IN JAPAN: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE PROSPECTS." Comparative Legilinguistics 36 (January 25, 2019): 25–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/cl.2018.36.2.

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In the extant literature in Japan, the description of criminal cases involving foreigners goes back to around the fifth century; however, detailed depictions of language problems requiring legal interpreters started to appear in the Edo period (1603–1868). The cases of an Italian missionary who entered Japan illegally in 1709 and the robbery of Ainu graves by British consular officers in 1865 presented communication difficulties between the interrogator and accused in criminal procedures. This is common even today. This paper introduces the history of legal interpreting with reference to high

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Takeuchi, Lone. "Kirsten Refsing: The Ainu language: the morphology and syntax of the Shizunai dialect. 301 pp. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1986." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 51, no. 1 (1988): 177–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x00020826.

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Bowles, Gordon T. "The Ainu Language. By Kirsten Refsing. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1986. xx, 331 pp. Diagrams, Maps, Danish Summary, Index. N.p." Journal of Asian Studies 46, no. 3 (1987): 671–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2056937.

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