Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Air – Pollution – South Africa'

Field surveys and biomonitoring network experiments were conducted in selected areas in South Africa to assess possible air pollution damage to vegetation. During field surveys, atmospheric fluoride was identified as an important pollutant that damaged vegetation in residential areas north of Cape Town. Gaseous air pollutants, including acid deposition and acidic mist, probably play a major role in the development of characteristic air pollution injury symptoms observed on pine trees in the Eastern Transvaal area. The impact of urban air pollution in the Cape Town area was evaluated by exposing bio-indicator plants in a network of eight biomonitoring network stations from June 1985 to May 1988. Sensitive Freesia and Gladiolus cultivars were used to biomonitor atmospheric fluoride, while a green bean cultivar was used as a biomonitor of atmospheric sulphur dioxide and ozone. At one location, bio-indicator plants were simultaneously exposed in a biomonitoring network station (plant cages), open-top chambers (filtered and unfiltered), as well as in open plots. The responses of plants grown under these different conditions were compared. During both the winter and summer seasons, ambient fluoride concentrations were estimated to be particularly high at the Loumar biomonitoring station (eastern side of Cape Town), as compared to that at the other biomonitoring stations. Elevated levels of atmospheric fluoride, as well as sulphur dioxide, appeared to prevail in the vicinity of industries located in the northern suburbs of Cape Town (Bothasig, Table View and Edgemead). Interveinal bleaching, which is characteristic of sulphur dioxide injury, was regularly observed on bean plants exposed at the Bothasig biomonitoring station and was usually determined to be significantly worse at this location than at the other biomonitoring stations. These results were confirmed by the evaluation of foliar sulphur content Ambient pollutant concentrations appeared to be effectively reduced inside filtered open-top chambers, as exemplified by higher biomass production and lower foliar fluoride and sulphur levels in the relevant bio-indicator species, compared to that of plants grown in the open plots. The methodology used during this research provided baseline data of the impact of air pollution on vegetation in South Africa which, in the absence of networks of sophisticated state of the art equipment, can be applied to aid in air pollution control strategies.
Ph. D.

The literature and data describing the environmental effects of air pollution in South Africa were examined, with a focus on the effects that are produced by the use of energy. This examination consisted of three parts: The emissions resulting from the use of the different fuels were calculated, with a complete sectorial and regional breakdown for pollution sources. A review of the data obtained from pollution monitoring programmes conducted in South Africa was completed. It was found that while monitoring is conducted in various regions and urban districts, there are areas with recognised pollution problems, such as townships, where little or no monitoring has been conducted. Often the resulfs of monitoring programmes were not published, or only available in unprocessed form. The literature describing environmental effects related to air pollution was reviewed. The number of studies pertaining to South African environments was found to be limited and tended to focus on certain areas, while neglecting others. Areas requiring further study and research were identified.

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2019.
Background: A recent review on the effects of ambient air pollution on human health in sub-Saharan Africa, specifically calls for an urgent need for more epidemiological studies in developing countries due to a lack of data in these countries. Air pollution information on exposure is important for understanding and addressing its public health impact in developing countries. In many African countries, the spatial distribution of air pollutants has not been quantified even though air pollution is a global public health risk. The main goal of the study was to quantify and compare the seasonal spatial variation of household air pollution in the 4 Western Cape neighbourhoods. Methods: Weekly indoor and outdoor measurements of Particulate Matter (PM2.5), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Carbon monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were conducted at 127 households in four informal settlement areas (Khayelitsha, Marconi-Beam, Masiphumulele and Oudtshoorn) during one month each in summer and winter. PM2.5 measurements were conducted using Mesa Labs GK2.05 (KTL) cyclone with the GilAir Plus Air Sampling Pump, Gases were measured using Passam passive samplers. Statistical analyses were performed using Stata V12. Simple linear regression was used to evaluate the relationship between continuous exposure levels and the respective predictor variables. These include distance to major roads, bus routes, open grills and waste burning sites. Results: The highest average weekly outdoor PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations for summer were recorded in Milnerton (8.76 µg/m3 and 16.32 µg/m3 respectively). However, the highest average concentrations during winter for PM2.5 were recorded in Oudtshoorn (PM2.5: 16.07 µg/m3), whilst the highest NO2, was recorded in Khayelitsha (NO2: 35.69 µg/m3). SO2 levels were consistently low during both seasons. Noordhoek generally recorded the lowest average levels for all pollutants. Winter average weekly concentrations were generally higher than the levels recorded in summer for all pollutants. In a sub-sample of indoor and outdoor measurements, the results were comparable for PM2.5, NO2 and CO. However, the results of Ozone (O3) showed relatively higher (~10 times) outdoor compared to indoor levels. Linear regression modelling results revealed that significant predictors of elevated exposure to PM2.5 were proximity to construction activities and open grills. Analysis demonstrated a clear dose-response relationship with distance, with open grills within 1000m associated with a 0.33 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 to 6.77 µg/m3 at a distance of 25 meters. Results from the linear regression modelling revealed that significant predictors of exposure to NO2 were proximity to rapid transport bus stops, bus routes, taxi routes and major routes. Distance to rapid transport bus stops demonstrated an increase in NO2 between 0.09 µg/m3 (at 1km) to 2.16 µg/m3 (at 50m) during summer. A similar pattern was observed for taxi routes and bus routes displaying an increase of 6.26 μg/m3and 6.82 μg/m3 respectively within the proximity of 1000 meters.
MAUERBERGER Foundation Scholarship

Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2006
Measurement and forecasting of visibility is essential in assessing the extent of visibility degradation (haze) due to air pollution in Cape Town. Rapid impairment in visibility over the years forced the City ofCape Town to initiate the Brown Haze I (BH I) study in September 1997. The main objective of the Brown Haze I Study was to determine the contribution of all major pollutant sources to the brown haze, and to determine other factors that contribute to haze formation. However to date no study has attempted to devise quantitative methods to monitor visibility in Cape Town. This study reports on a new method of measuting visibility using Digital Image Processing. An hourly series of time-stamped images of three scenic vistas was recorded over a period of 8 months (20060318 to 20061031) using three co-located Sanyo E-6311xP-H digital cameras equipped with E-50500D 20 to lOOrnrn Variable-focal Auto Iris Lenses. The cameras were orientated in three directions (approximately due west, north and east). These time- stamped images were archived for subsequent digital image processing. The average image intensities of selected areas of each image were calculated using the histogram function of digital image processing software (PhotoshopTM 7.0), to obtain the inherent and apparent contrast ratios. The inherent and apparent contrast measurements were then used to calculate light extinction coefficient (bex') and the visual range (VR).

Thesis (MTech (Information Technology))--Cape Peninsula University, 2016.
Climate change imposes indisputable burdens on economic development by significantly causing damage to the environment. In the transportation sector, carbon dioxide emissions from vehicles are seen as top environmental pollutants around the world and in South Africa. Despite increasing environmental issues, many people, including business leaders, generally think of environmental issues as disconnected from their everyday business lives and behavioural patterns. The Republic of South Africa as a member of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) encourages any practices and processes that will control, reduce or prevent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. The adoption of telecommuting for travel reduction can impact positively on environmental sustainability by reducing the amount of commuter driving and thus reducing carbon emissions. Telecommuting is an arrangement where an employee works from home or out of office using telecommunication links (internet, email and/or telephone) to reduce commuting to and from the office, enhance productivity in the organisation, and reduce office space requirements. However, despite the well documented benefits of telecommuting, the uptake of telecommuting in South Africa is slow. This study falls under the Green Information Technology research field. The aim of the study is to identify the reasons behind the slow adoption of telecommuting in South African organisations. The study followed embedded multiple-case studies. Qualitative data were collected from nine companies using semi-structured interviews with 19 participants comprising of Information Technology (IT) and Human Resource (HR) managers, telecommuters and non-telecommuters. The companies were selected to be as diverse as possible in the operating sector and both purposive and snowball strategies were used.

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010
Air pollution is a global problem and it can also have a larger impact in developing countries like South-Africa. Mossel Bay was one of the regions in the Western-Cape that was rated to have potentially poor air quality. With above mentioned in mind, the research was done in Bayview. Bayview is a upper income suburb of Mossel-Bay. The suburb is surrounded by industrial activities that increased the possibility of a bad status of the air. This research measured the concentrations of the primary pollutants, SO2, NO2, PM10, O3 en Benzine, as well as the meteorological data for a period of one year as from the 1st October 2008 to the 30th of September 2009. The monitoring was done by using the mobile air quality monitoring station of the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning's that was situated in Mossel Bay. The research also correlated with the human aspects of air quality control and the monitoring results. The quality of life of the Bayview residents was measured by using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire had amongst others, obtained the symptoms of certain air quality related diseases that the 114 respondents have recorded for the responding period of air quality monitoring. Other aspects that were researched were obtaining the social status, exposure, and work exposure and health consciousness of the respondents. Air quality surveys can fail if not put in the context of the perceptions of the affected communities. Therefore the perceptions of the respondents were also tested by a structured questionnaire. Aspects of perceptions that were tested were amongst others, the visual influence of perceptions, exposure, social status and the perception of the hazard. The results of the monitoring station for the period from 1st October 2008 to 30 September 2009, were compared with the proposed standards of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act 39 of 2004) South-African National Ambient Air Quality Standards, as well as the SANS 1929 target values for PM10. There were no exceedences of the measured pollutants against the National Air Quality Standards. The results found that the SANS 1929 standards were also not exceeded for SO2, NO2, O' and C6H6. The concentrations of PM10 equaled the SANS standards of 75pg/m3 on a few occasions. However, the SANS 1929 daily target values of 50pg/m3 were exceeded on a few occasions. Overall though, the air quality status of the research area was within the legislative conditions. Twenty six point three percent (26.3% n = 30) of the respondents did not indicate any symptoms of any air quality related illnesses during the study period.

Bibliography: pages 103-119.
The aims of this study were (a) to examine the profile of hospital admissions for selected respiratory illnesses for two major hospitals in Cape Town, and (b) to analyse the association of such admissions with air pollution indicators and meteorological variables. The first part of the study investigated the admission patterns of coloured and African children under twelve years of age who were diagnosed as suffering from asthma or acute respiratory infections at two major teaching hospitals in Cape Town. Computerized hospital admission records covering the years 1988-1990 from the overnight holding wards of the Red Cross War Memorial Children's Hospital and Tygerberg Hospital were used to determine patterns with respect to diagnosis, gender, race, age and date of admission. During the three year study period, respiratory admissions at both hospitals accounted for 15 078 (47.3%) out of a total of 31 887 admissions. Acute respiratory infections accounted for 63.6% and asthma 37.4 % of these respiratory admissions. Two factors of interest were noted: (1) Considerably more males than females were admitted with both asthma and acute respiratory infections. (2) Asthma admissions to Red Cross Hospital among African children were proportionally much less than those of coloured children when compared to the proportions of admissions for acute respiratory infections. After removal of the seasonal effect, a multiple linear regression model was fitted to the data to determine the individual associations between admissions and ambient environmental variables. Significant associations were found between: (1) acute respiratory infections and oxides of nitrogen, soiling index, and temperature; (2) asthma and oxides of nitrogen (3) total admissions and soiling index, average temperature and minimum temperature (negative). The study concluded that despite generally low levels of air pollution in Cape Town, childhood respiratory admissions to Red Cross War Memorial Children's Hospital and Tygerberg Hospital were statistically significantly associated with some ambient air pollutants as well as temperature. However, given the nature of both the exposure and admissions databases, these results should be treated with caution. More representative site selections for air pollution monitors, as well as searching and controlling for possible confounding factors (i.e. indoor air pollution, parental smoking, overcrowding), would allow a better understanding of the current air pollution problem and the possible effects on the respiratory health of children in metropolitan Cape Town.

Background Many studies investigating the relationship between ambient air pollution and cardiorespiratory outcomes have been conducted in developed countries despite more vulnerable populations in low- and middle-income countries especially in Africa. No studies previous studies have been done in South Africa informal settlements. Aim The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between ambient air pollutant exposure and self-reported cardiorespiratory outcomes amongst adults residing in four informal settlements of the Western Province of South Africa. Methods This cross-sectional study included 572 adults from four informal settlements (Khayelitsha, Marconi Beam, Oudtshoorn and Masiphumele) in the Western Cape, South Africa. The study made use of Land Use Regression to estimate each participant’s exposure to particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter of 2.5µm (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). A questionnaire was adapted from the European Community Respiratory Health Survey and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey questionnaire to collect data on self-reported cardiorespiratory outcomes and specific confounding factors of interest. Results The median age the participants was 39 years (Interquartile Range (IQR): 33 - 45) with 88.5% female. The median NO2 level was 22.4 µg/m3 (IQR: 13.3 - 24.1) and the median PM2.5 level was 10.6 µg/m3 (IQR: 8.7 - 13.1). An increase of 10µg/m3 in annual NO2 level was found to be associated with a 2.9 (95%CI: 1.3 to 6.1) odds of having self-reported chest pain, adjusting for PM2.5 and confounders. No other significant association was found indicating an adverse health effect due to air pollution. Conclusion The study found preliminary circumstantial evidence of an association between annual ambient NO2 exposure and self-reported chest pain (a crude proxy of angina related pain), even at levels below both WHO Air Quality Guidelines and the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards. However, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to the self-reported nature of the outcome measure and the cross-sectional design of the study.

middleincome countries (LMIC) and a major reason for health care visits and hospitalisation. Environmental exposures to indoor air pollution (IAP) or tobacco smoke are important risk factors for childhood respiratory disease. Despite increased electrification, many communities in LMIC rely on alternate fuel sources for household cooking or heating. The impact of antenatal or postnatal exposures on early childhood respiratory disease has not been comprehensively studied in LMIC especially in Africa. The aim of this work was to investigate the impact of IAP and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure on child health and early-life respiratory disease in the Drakenstein Child Health Study (DCHS), a South African birth cohort study. The DCHS investigates the epidemiology and impact of early-life exposures on child health including lung disease. The study is set in a peri-urban poor community in the Western Cape, South Africa. Pregnant women were enrolled from two public primary healthcare clinics, Mbekweni (serving a predominantly black African population) and Newman (predominantly mixed-ancestry population) and 1000 mother-infant pairs longitudinally followed from birth through 1 year of life. The thesis chapters are presented as published manuscripts that describe IAP and ETS exposure in the 2 communities in the DCHS cohort from the antenatal period and the impact of these exposure on child health and lung diseases, LRTI and wheezing illness in the first year of life. To measure exposures comprehensively, two home visits, one in the antenatal period (third trimester) and the second postnatally (between 4 and 6 months of the infant’s life), were conducted to assess the home environment and to measure the most common indoor air pollutants and by-products of combustion. Devices placed in participants’ homes measured exposure to particulate matter (PM10), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). Maternal and infant urine cotinine measures were used to validate self-reported tobacco smoking and exposure. Study staff trained in recognition of LRTI or wheeze documented all episodes, which were categorised according to WHO case definition criteria. Exposure to IAP was comprehensively assessed in over 800 homes antenatally and postnatally providing important South African data on IAP and potential sources of exposure. Tobacco smoke exposure was assessed longitdunially by maternal self-report using validated scales and by measurement of urine cotinine in mothers and infants. Tobacco smoke exposure was found to be highly prevalent with a smoking prevalence of >50% in mixedancestry mothers. Alarmingly, 18% of infants were born with urine cotinine levels in keeping with active smoking, while a further 30% had levels indicating passive smoke exposure. Key findings were despite 92% of homes reporting access to electricity, there was still a reliance on cheaper alternate fuels. Tobacco smoking prevalence amongst pregnant women was high (32%), as was household exposure to tobacco smoke (44%). ETS exposure was associated with low birth weight and antenatal IAP or ETS exposure was significantly associated with increased LRTI. ETS exposure was also associated with wheezing illnesses. A novel finding was that antenatal exposure to toluene, a volatile organic compound, was associated with severe LRTI and hospitalisation. The timing of environmental exposures on the subsequent development of LRTI in infancy has not been well described. An important finding was that antenatal exposures were the main risk factors associated with LRTI, with maternal smoking in pregnancy or PM10 exposure most strongly associated with LRTI. Wheezing illness was associated with both antenatal and postnatal maternal smoking and antenatal maternal smoke exposure and postnatal household member smoking. Both IAP and ETS exposure impacted on both maternal and infant nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage which may be a precursor to the development of LRTI. Environmental exposures therefore had a substantial impact on child health and on LRTI and wheezing illness. The effect on LRTI of antenatal compared with postnatal exposure suggests an in utero developmental lung effect. This study highlights antenatal and early life as a critical period for lung development. Urgent and effective smoking cessation programmes targeting women of child bearing age as well as public health interventions to reduce IAP are required. Woman of childbearing age, pregnant women and children in poor communities represent vulnerable populations at risk for long-term health effects of these exposures.

Thesis (MScEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Air pollution is a major concern III the Cape Metropole. A major contributor to the air pollution problem is road transport. For this reason, a national vehicle emissions study is in progress with the aim of developing a national policy regarding motor vehicle emissions and control. Such a policy could bring about vehicle emission control and regulatory measures, which may have far-reaching social and economic effects. Air pollution models are important tools 10 predicting the effectiveness and the possible secondary effects of such policies. It is therefore essential that these models are fundamentally sound to maintain a high level of prediction accuracy. Complex air pollution models are available, but they require spatial, time-resolved information of emission sources and a vast amount of processing power. It is unlikely that South African cities will have the necessary spatial, time-resolved emission information in the near future. An alternative air pollution model is one that is based on the Gaussian Plume Model. This model, however, relies on gross simplifying assumptions that affect model accuracy. It is proposed that statistical and mathematical analysis techniques will be the most viable approach to modelling air pollution in the Cape Metropole. These techniques make it possible to establish statistical relationships between pollutant emissions, meteorological conditions and pollutant concentrations without gross simplifying assumptions or excessive information requirements. This study investigates two analysis techniques that fall into the aforementioned category, namely, Non-linear Time Series Analysis (specifically, the method of delay co-ordinates) and Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA). During the past two decades, important progress has been made in the field of Non-linear Time Series Analysis. An entire "toolbox" of methods is available to assist in identifying non-linear determinism and to enable the construction of predictive models. It is argued that the dynamics that govern a pollution system are inherently non-linear due to the strong correlation with weather patterns and the complexity of the chemical reactions and physical transport of the pollutants. In addition to this, a statistical technique (the method of surrogate data) showed that a pollution data set, the oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), displayed a degree of non-linearity, albeit that there was a high degree of noise contamination. This suggested that a pollution data set will be amenable to non-linear analysis and, hence, Non-linear Time Series Analysis was applied to the data set. SSA, on the other hand, is a linear data analysis technique that decomposes the time series into statistically independent components. The basis functions, in terms of which the data is decomposed, are data-adaptive which makes it well suited to the analysis of non-linear systems exhibiting anharmonic oscillations. The statistically independent components, into which the data has been decomposed, have limited harmonic content. Consequently, these components are more amenable to prediction than the time series itself. The fact that SSA's ability has been proven in the analysis of short, noisy non-linear signals prompted the use of this technique. The aim of the study was to establish which of these two techniques is best suited to the modelling of air pollution data. To this end, a univariate model to predict NOx concentrations was constructed using each of the techniques. The prediction ability of the respective model was assumed indicative of the accuracy of the model. It was therefore used as the basis against which the two techniques were evaluated. The procedure used to construct the model and to quantify the model accuracy, for both the Non-linear Time Series Analysis model and the SSA model, was consistent so as to allow for unbiased comparison. In both cases, no noise reduction schemes were applied to the data prior to the construction of the model. The accuracy of a 48-hour step-ahead prediction scheme and a lOO-hour step-ahead prediction scheme was used to compare the two techniques. The accuracy of the SSA model was markedly superior to the Non-linear Time Series model. The paramount reason for the superior accuracy of the SSA model is its adept ability to analyse and cope with noisy data sets such as the NOx data set. This observation provides evidence to suggest that Singular Spectrum Analysis is better suited to the modelling of air pollution data. It should therefore be the analysis technique of choice when more advanced, multivariate modelling of air pollution data is carried out. It is recommended that noise reduction schemes, which decontaminate the data without destroying important higher order dynamics, should be researched. The application of an effective noise reduction scheme could lead to an improvement in model accuracy. In addition to this, the univariate SSA model should be extended to a more complex multivariate model that explicitly encompasses variables such as traffic flow and weather patterns. This will explicitly expose the inter-relationships between the variables and will enable sensitivity studies and the evaluation of a multitude of scenarios.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoë vlak van lugbesoedeling in die Kaapse Metropool is kommerwekkend. Voertuie is een van die hoofoorsake, en as gevolg hiervan word 'n landswye ondersoek na voertuigemissie tans onderneem sodat 'n nasionale beleid opgestel kan word ten opsigte van voertuigemissie beheer. Beheermaatreëls van so 'n aard kan verreikende sosiale en ekonomiese uitwerkings tot gevolg hê. Lugbesoedelingsmodelle is van uiterste belang in die voorspelling van die effektiwiteit van moontlike wetgewing. Daarom is dit noodsaaklik dat hierdie modelle akkuraat is om 'n hoë vlak van voorspellingsakkuraatheid te handhaaf. Komplekse modelle is beskikbaar, maar hulle verg tyd-ruimtelike opgeloste inligting van emmissiebronne en baie berekeningsvermoë. Dit is onwaarskynlik dat Suid-Afrika in die nabye toekoms hierdie tydruimtelike inligting van emissiebronne gaan hê. 'n Alternatiewe lugbesoedelingsmodel is dié wat gebaseer is op die "Guassian Plume". Hierdie model berus egter op oorvereenvoudigde veronderstellings wat die akkuraatheid van die model beïnvloed. Daar word voorgestel dat statistiese en wiskundige analises die mees lewensvatbare benadering tot die modellering van lugbesoedeling in die Kaapse Metropool sal wees. Hierdie tegnieke maak dit moontlik om 'n statistiese verwantskap tussen besoedelingsbronne, meteorologiese toestande en besoedeling konsentrasies te bepaal sonder oorvereenvoudigde veronderstellings of oormatige informasie vereistes. Hierdie studie ondersoek twee analise tegnieke wat in die bogenoemde kategorie val, naamlik, Nie-lineêre Tydreeks Analise en Enkelvoudige Spektrale Analise (ESA). Daar is in die afgelope twee dekades belangrike vooruitgang gemaak in die studieveld van Nie-lineêre Tydreeks Analise. 'n Volledige stel metodes is beskikbaar om nie-lineêriteit te identifiseer en voorspellingsmodelle op te stel. Dit word geredeneer dat die dinamika wat 'n besoedelingsisteem beheer nie-lineêr is as gevolg van die sterk verwantskap wat dit toon met weerpatrone asook die kompleksiteit van die chemiese reaksies en die fisiese verplasing van die besoedelingstowwe. Bykomend verskaf 'n statistiese tegniek (die metode van surrogaatdata) bewyse dat 'n lugbesoedelingsdatastel, die okside van Stikstof (NOx), melineêre gedrag toon, alhoewel daar 'n hoë geraasvlak is. Om hierdie rede is die besluit geneem om Nie-lineêre Tydreeks Analise aan te wend tot die datastel. ESA daarenteen, is 'n lineêre data analise tegniek. Dit vereenvoudig die tydreeks tot statistiese onafhanklike komponente. Die basisfunksies, in terme waarvan die data vereenvoudig is, is data-aanpasbaar en dit maak hierdie tegniek gepas vir die analise van nielineêre sisteme. Die statisties onafhanklike komponente het beperkte harmoniese inhoud, met die gevolg dat die komponente aansienlik makliker is om te voorspel as die tydreeks self. ESA se effektiwitiet is ook al bewys in die analise van kort, hoë-graas nie-lineêre seine. Om hierdie redes, is ESA toegepas op die lugbesoedelings data. Die doel van die ondersoek was om vas te stel watter een van die twee tegnieke meer gepas is om lugbesoedelings data te analiseer. Met hierdie doelwit in sig, is 'n enkelvariaat model opgestel om NOx konsentrasies te voorspel met die gebruik van elk van die tegnieke. Die voorspellingsvermoë van die betreklike model is veronderstelom as 'n maatstaf van die model se akkuraatheid te kan dien en dus is dit gebruik om die twee modelle te vergelyk. 'n Konsekwente prosedure is gevolg om beide die modelle te skep om sodoende invloedlose vergelyking te verseker. In albei gevalle was daar geen geraasverminderings-tegnieke toegepas op die data nie. Die akuraatheid van 'n 48-uur voorspellingsmodel en 'n 100-uur voorspellingsmodel was gebruik vir die vergelyking van die twee tegnieke. Daar is bepaal dat die akkuraatheid van die ESA model veel beter as die Nie-lineêre Tydsreeks Analise is. Die hoofrede vir die ESA se hoër akkuraatheid is die model se vermoë om data met hoë geraasvlakke te analiseer. Hierdie ondersoek verskaf oortuigende bewyse dat Enkelvoudige Spektrale Analiese beter gepas is om lugbesoedelingsdata te analiseer en gevolglik moet hierdie tegniek gebruik word as meer gevorderde, multivariaat analises uitgevoer word. Daar word aanbeveel dat geraasverminderings-tegnieke, wat die data kan suiwer sonder om belangrike hoë-orde dinamika uit te wis, ondersoek moet word. Hierdie toepassing van effektiewe geraasverminderings-tegniek sal tot 'n verbetering in model-akkuraatheid lei. Aanvullend hiertoe, moet die enkele ESA model uitgebrei word tot 'n meer komplekse multivariaat model wat veranderlikes soos verkeersvloei en weerpatrone insluit. Dit sal die verhoudings tussen veranderlikes ten toon stel en sal sensitiwiteit-analises en die evaluering van menigte scenarios moontlik maak.

Atmospheric pollution on the South African high veld is perceived as a concern because of the combination of heavy industry and climatic features that prevail in the region. The frequent occurrence of surface inversions (80 - 90 % of days in the winter months), permits the accumulation of pollutants near ground level. Although industrial stacks, and those of power stations in particular, are generally able to emit gaseous and particulate pollutants above the boundary layer, looping and fumigation of plumes may occur under convective conditions. Under such circumstances, the concentration of pollutants at ground level may be high, especially within 4 km of the stack. Since considerable damage to European and North American ecosystems has occurred as a result of atmospheric pollution, concerns were first raised in a report by Tyson, Kruger and Louw in 1988, that similar effects may be taking place on the eastern highveld region of South Africa. The current study was prompted in direct response to these concerns. The first major objective was to establish long-term monitoring sites whereby changes in the pedosphere in response to atmospheric inputs could be detected. The second objective was to characterise the soil collection and to determine whether any impacts are detectable at this early stage. Arnot power station was selected as the focal point of the study as it is a base-load power station, is the most distant from the industrial centres of Witbank, Middelburg and Gauteng and has been in operation for over twenty years. Fifteen sampling sites located in an arc ranging ENE to SE downwind of the power station were selected. Both topsoil and subsoil were sampled at each site. Details of geographical co-ordinates and site features were noted to enable reproducible resampling. Sampling took place in August 1996, but three sites were visited again in October and resampled to test the reproducibility of sampling. Although not statistically comparable, the soils of each site showed similar results for key analyses, which included EC, pH, organic carbon and acid neutralising capacity.

A megacity is generally defined as a city that, together with its suburbs or recognised metropolitan area, has a total population of more than 10 million people. Air pollution in megacities is a major concern due to large increases of populations over the past decades. Increases of air pollution result from more anthropogenic emission sources in megacities, which include energy production, transportation, industrial activities and domestic fuel burning. In the developing parts of Africa, urbanisation is increasing rapidly, with growth rates of populations in cities of up to 5% per annum. The major driving forces for these population increases in African countries can be attributed to population growth, natural disasters and armed ethnic conflicts. In South Africa, 62% of the total population lived in cities in 2010. The rate of urbanisation growth is predicted to be 1.2% per annum. The largest urbanised city in South Africa is the Johannesburg-Pretoria conurbation (referred to as Jhb-Pta megacity) that has more than 10 million inhabitants. Johannesburg is considered to be the central hub of economic activities and -growth in South Africa. The larger conurbation includes all the suburbs of Johannesburg and Pretoria. In South Africa, household combustion and traffic emissions are major sources of pollutants in urbanised areas. The major pollutants emitted from these activities include nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), particular matter (PM) and various organic compounds. The Jhb-Pta megacity is also located relatively close to large industrialised regions in South Africa, i.e. the Mpumalanga Highveld and the Vaal Triangle. Very few air quality modelling studies have been conducted for the Jhb-Pta megacity. According to the knowledge of the author, no literature existed in peer-reviewed publications at the time of the study. An in-depth modelling study was therefore conducted to assess the current state of air quality within the Jhb-Pta megacity. The main objectives were to optimise an existing photochemical box model for the Jhb-Pta megacity and to utilise the model to investigate the photochemical processes in the Jhb-Pta megacity and surrounding areas. In this investigation, ground-based measurements of criteria atmospheric pollutant species representative of the Jhb- Pta megacity were obtained to utilise as input data in the model, as well as to compare to results determined with the model. From the ground-based measurements, the possible contribution of the Jhb-Pta megacity to the NO2 hotspot observed over the South African Highveld from satellite retrievals was also contextualised. Five ground-based monitoring sites were situated strategically within the boundaries of the Jhb- Pta megacity to measure the direct influences of urban air pollution, e.g. traffic emissions, biomass burning and residential pollution. One measurement site was situated outside the modelling domain in order to collect rural background data in close proximity to the Jhb-Pta megacity. All the air quality stations continuously measured the criteria pollutants NOx, SO2 and O3. In addition, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) were measured at four sites. Passive sampling of NOx, SO2 , O3 and BTEX was also conducted in March and April 2010. Active data was obtained for March to May 2009, since no active measurements were available for the same year that passive sampling was performed due to logistical reasons. Meteorological parameters that included temperature, pressure and relative humidity were also measured at the monitoring stations Ground-based measurements provided a good indication of the state of the air quality in the Jhb-Pta megacity. The air quality levels of NO2 , SO2 , O3 and BTEX could be compared to other cities in the world. A distinct diurnal cycle was observed for NO2 at most of the stations. An early morning peak between 6:00 and 9:00 coincided with the time that commuters travel to work, whereas an evening peak between 18:00 and 21:00 could be attributed to traffic emissions and household combustion. Levels of O3, which is a secondary pollutant, peaked between 13:00 and 15:00. This diurnal pattern could be attributed to the photochemical formation of O3 from precursor species NO and VOCs. Toluene was predominantly higher than the other BTEX species. Benzene and xylene concentrations were in the same order, while the lowest levels were measured for ethyl benzene Ground-based measurements also indicated that the NO2 Highveld hotspot, which is well known in the international science community due to its prominence in satellite images, is accompanied by a second hotspot over the Jhb-Pta megacity. Peak NO2 pollution levels in the Jhb-Pta megacity exceeded the maximum daily Highveld values during the morning and evening rush hours. This result is significant for the more than 10 million people living in the Jhb-Pta megacity. Although satellite instruments have been extremely valuable in pointing out global hotspots, a limitation of satellite retrievals due to their specific overpass times has been presented. Chemical processes in the Jhb-Pta megacity were investigated by utilising an existing photochemical box model, i.e. MECCA-MCM. This model was further developed in this study and was termed the MECCA-MCM-UPWIND model. This model included horizontal and vertical mixing processes in the atmosphere. These processes were included to simulate the advection of upwind air masses into the modelling domain, as well as the entrainment from the troposphere resulting from the diurnal mixing layer (ML) height variation. Three processes, i.e. horizontal mixing, vertical mixing and ML height variation, were built into the MECCA-MCM- UPWIND model. The model was tested and evaluated to determine the efficiency of the model to represent atmospheric mixing processes. MECCA-MCM-UPWIND simulated horizontal mixing, vertical entrainment and ML height variations as expected. The input data for the model runs for the Jhb-Pta megacity modelling runs were either obtained from ground-based measurements or literature. Input data included meteorology, emission inventory, ML height and mixing ratios of the atmospheric chemical species. The chemical composition of the air mass entering the Jhb-Pta megacity was determined with MECCA-MCM- UPWIND. The concentrations and diurnal variability of criteria pollutant species were well predicted with the MECCA-MCM-UPWIND model. The day-time chemistry, especially, compared well, while slight under-predictions were observed for the night-time chemistry for most of the species. The differences observed between modelled and measured data could partially be ascribed to uncertainties associated with some of the input data obtained from literature used. The MECCA-MCM-UPWIND model was used to perform sensitivity studies on the influence of different parameters on O3 levels in the Jhb-Pta megacity. Possible scenarios to alter or mitigate pollution were also investigated. The results from the sensitivity analyses showed that O3 mixing ratios decreased within the Jhb-Pta megacity with increasing wind speeds. The contribution of local emissions to the change in the concentration of pollutants is reduced at higher wind speeds. It also indicated that the Mpumalanga Highveld can potentially be a source of NOx in the Jhb-Pta megacity that can lead to the titration of O3 . This also implies that if the air quality of the surrounding area improves, the concentration of the secondary pollutant O 3 will increase in the Jhb-Pta megacity due to the decrease in the titration of O3 . Sensitivity analyses also indicated that the Jhb-Pta megacity is a VOC-limited (or NOx-saturated) regime. Therefore, O3 reduction in the Jhb-Pta megacity will mostly be effective if VOC emissions are reduced. The same effect was observed in various cities world-wide where O3 increased when NOx emissions the Jhb-Pta megacity on the instantaneous production of O 3 was also investigated. A significant increase of approximately 23ppb O3 production was observed when changing from Euro-0 to Euro-3 vehicles with lower emissions of VOCs, NOx and CO. This compares with other modelled sensitivity studies of traffic emissions that also predict that future urban O 3 concentrations will increase in many cities by 2050 due to the reduction in the NOx titration of O3 despite the implementation of O3 control regulations
Thesis (PhD (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Background: The Vaal Triangle is an area generally associated with a number of harmful determinants of health since it houses diverse industrial processes and industrial development in South Africa, hence being categorised as an outdoor air pollution priority area in 2006. Method: A cross-sectional inter-comparative study to the 1990 Vaal Triangle Air Pollution and Health Study (VAPS) was conducted in 2010. The main objectives of this study were to measure the prevalence of upper and lower respiratory illnesses of 10-year-old children in 2010 and compare those findings to the 1990 study, and lastly to identify risk and protective factors for respiratory illnesses in 1990 and in 2010. In addition, the association between exposure factors (risk and protective factors) that are sources of indoor air pollution and factors related to diet and household living conditions and their associations with upper and lower respiratory health illnesses in 1990 and 2010 was determined. Results and Discussion: The prevalence of the respiratory health outcomes in the 1990 study and 2010 study cannot be compared directly since a 1-year prevalence was determined in 1990 and a 6-month prevalence in 2010. Throughout the dissertation this should be kept in mind. The change in prevalence of a respiratory health outcome observed in 1990 and in 2010 is just an indication of the possible change. The 1990 1-year prevalence and the 2-week 2010 prevalence of asthma were the same in the two study populations (i.e. 12%). The 6-month prevalence of sinusitis, bronchitis and pneumonia in 2010 was lower when compared to the yearly prevalence of these illnesses in the 1990 study. On completion of the multivariate analyses, in 1990 study, the use of a gas heater acted as a risk factor for pneumonia (a lower respiratory illness), with a odds ratio of 3.67 (1.15-11.71) and a p-value of 0.03, whilst environmental tobacco smoke within the household was protective of hay fever and sinusitis (upper respiratory illnesses). In the 2010 study, the consumption of chicken and/or fish and fruit at least three times a week was protective of bronchitis (with odds ratios of 0.23 and 0.26 respectively). Conclusion and Recommendations: It is not certain whether the change in the respiratory health status of 10-year-olds living in the Vaal Triangle is real as the prevalence of health outcomes in the two studies cannot be compared directly to one another due to the differences in prevalence time periods in the two studies. Nevertheless, a statistically significant change was observed in the prevalence of sinusitis, earache, bronchitis, and pneumonia between the two study populations. It is imperative to have a study protocol; this ensures all levels of measure are consistent in both studies and leads to a dataset of high quality. There is also a need for more analytical epidemiological studies (i.e. cohort, time-series, case-crossover and panel studies) to be done in South Africa, addressing indoor and outdoor air pollution and respiratory health.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2014
School of Health Systems and Public Health (SHSPH)
unrestricted

False Bay is the largest (circa 1000km²) natural, coastal embayment on the South African coastline and is located between latitudes 34°04'S and 34°23'S and longitudes 18°26'E and 18°52'E at the southern tip of Africa, near Cape Town, South Africa. The semi-enclosed nature of the bay makes it unsuitable as a 'sink' for all the contaminated urban stormwater run-off and the greatly increased pollution loads entering the bay. All pollution point sources entering False Bay were identified and described, and some of these selected for detailed study, the emphasis being on the impact of some individual discharges on the subtidal macrofauna. The similar biotic characteristics of three subtidal study sites in the region of the Steenbras Water Treatment Plant discharge indicate that the general turbidity and lower salinity characteristics of eastern False Bay are more likely to be responsible for the impoverished diversity near the outfall rather than the aluminium content of the discharge. Toxicity experiments on the bivalves Choromytilus meridionalis, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Perna perna using alum and ferric sludge indicate that there are no significant short-term sub-lethal toxic effects on the rocky shore bivalves and that decreased salinities in the immediate region of the outfall (as a result of the freshwater stream input) may have a more deleterious effect. A study of eighteen subtidal sites in False Bay indicated that overall densities of subtidal macro plastic debris were low, but that there are some 'hot spots' where densities are relatively high viz., Kalk Bay, Strandfontein, Mnandi, Monwabisi and Gordon's Bay. Colonising of debris by benthic organisms does occur, mostly on white plastic. Most of the debris consisted of plastic packaging from local land-based sources, indicating that it originates from wind-blown litter left by beachgoers. The highest density at the Sunnycove Control Site occurred in January during the peak holiday season. A longer term (three years) study of the subtidal environment in the vicinity of the Marine Oil Refiners outfall pipe indicated that the lack of subtidal macro fauna is more likely due to the harsh environmental conditions (abrasion and smothering) rather than the pollution impact of the outfall. This is confirmed by the abundant, healthy and diverse community on the nearby wreck of the Clan Stuart (1917) which indicates a stable ecosystem. The complexity of False Bay - its unique topography, bathymetry, meteorology make it difficult to attain a true climatic or average circulation. This lack of a consistent conceptual overview of the False Bay physical circulation is a short-coming that needs to be urgently addressed if the dangers of pollution inputs are to be accurately assessed. An overall management policy for False Bay should be urgently formulated and an officially constituted body with legislative power is needed if holistic management of the bay is to be achieved and such a prime recreational asset preserved for future generations. Bibliography: pages 195-225.

It is widely claimed that at least 80% of the plastic litter entering marine environments comes from land-based sources, yet there is little empirical evidence to support this. Most studies to date predict the flux of litter from land to sea using global models based on a handful of field studies conducted mostly in developed, Northern Hemisphere countries; others use proxies such as per capita waste generation and proportion of mismanaged waste to predict litter loads entering the sea. It thus remains unclear how accurate these predictions are, particularly for African countries where few field studies have been conducted. Due to its rapidly growing human population, Africa is expected to become a much more significant source of litter into the sea. It is therefore important to identify major land-based sources of litter from the continent so as to implement effective mitigation strategies aimed at stopping this leakage of waste plastics into the marine environment. In this thesis I investigate two possible land-based sources of plastic pollution in South Africa. In Chapter 2 I show that stormwater run-off from Cape Town, a large coastal city, is a significant land-based source of litter into Table Bay. By placing nets over three stormwater outlets, each draining a different land-use type in the city, I estimate that some 70-630 tonnes of plastic litter are released as part of urban runoff from Cape Town each year which is a similar order of magnitude as estimates based on run-off litter collected in the 1990s and stranded beach litter. Overall, 40- 78% of litter items by count and 52-64% by mass was plastic, of which most was single-use packaging. Compared to a similar survey of the same three stormwater outlets conducted in 1996, litter densities by count decreased by 50% in two of the three catchments but increased threefold in the commercial/residential area. It is clear that urban run-off is a significant source of litter into Table Bay, but the total amount is considerably less than model predictions that identified South Africa as the 11th worst source of marine plastics from land-based sources globally. While several of South Africa's large cities are on the coast, the largest industrial centre and most densely populated part of the country is inland in the Gauteng Province. Much of this province lies within the catchment of the Orange-Vaal River system, which flows west across the country to eventually drain into the Atlantic Ocean. In Chapter 3 I present the results of two extensive field surveys to assess the amounts of plastic debris transported by the Orange-Vaal River system into the sea. By sampling for micro- and macro-plastics at 33 bridges spanning the lengths of both the Orange and Vaal rivers I show that densities of larger plastic items were highest at sites in the densely populated and highly urbanised upper reaches of the Vaal River, while microfibres were particularly abundant in the arid, sparsely populated lower reaches of the Orange River at the end of the wet season. It therefore appears that the Orange-Vaal River system may be a source of microfibres to the Atlantic Ocean, but most larger plastic items are retained near point sources in the upper reaches of the Vaal River. The Orange-Vaal River system thus does not appear to be a major source of plastics into the Atlantic Ocean and there is considerably less than the 0.095 tonnes·yr-1 predicted to be washed out of the Orange River by global models. I also investigated whether dams retain microplastics and microfibres within their reservoirs by collecting bulk water and neuston net samples from above and below the walls of the five major dams in the Orange-Vaal River system. I present these results in Chapter 4 and show that microplastic and microfibre concentrations were highest in dams on the densely populated Vaal River during dry conditions, whereas the opposite pattern occurred at dams farther downstream or on the sparsely populated Orange River during wet conditions. Overall, microplastic and microfibre densities were similar at sites collected above versus below dam walls and there was no significant correlation between microplastic and microfibre densities at a site and the distance from the site to the dam wall. Dams therefore do not appear to trap floating microplastics and microfibres, although the data were noisy (average CV = 184%) and so provide only a rough estimate of differences in plastic densities among sites. Lastly, in Chapter 5 I summarise the main results from the previous chapters and present recommendations for future research. Combining the findings from Chapters 2 and 3 I make a first, very crude estimate of the amount of plastic entering the sea from land-based sources in South Africa and compare this to the 0.09-0.25 million tonnes predicted by Jambeck et al. (2015) based on national estimates of waste production and management. I conclude that actual plastic emissions are some 1-2 orders of magnitude less than the global model estimate, which concurs with estimates based on beach litter data.

Bibliography: p. 173-182.
The objective of this dissertation was to investigate compressed air energy storage as an alternative generation capacity for the South African electricity industry. In chapter one, an introduction to energy storage, electrical energy storage was introduced as an alternative generation option. Various energy storage technologies were discussed with their characteristics and applications. Compressed air energy storage was identified as a competitive energy storage option to pumped hydro in particular, and a suitable contender for the South African electricity market. In chapter two, the literature review, an in-depth study into compressed air energy storage was conducted. Many aspects of CAES were covered including CAES variants, underground pressurised air storage, projects and pre-feasibility studies, and operational plants. Due to the additional fuelling that certain CAES variants require, a Charge Energy Factor and a Fuel Heat Rate were defined. From the literature review it was seen that to date, only two CAES plants are still in operation. They are both of the conventional CAES type and use fuel-oil or alternatively natural gas for combustion In chapter three, an analysis of Eskom's demand, Eskom's future demand growth was analysed. A prediction in load growth, based on several economic scenarios, was made and the capacity of a suitable CAES plant, to meet this future demand, was determined. Chapter four, underground air storage reservoirs, focused on the aspects and prospects of storing compressed air underground in South Africa. Past underground air storage in South Africa was discussed and unused goldmines were identified as the most convenient and cost effective storage volumes available. The uniqueness of individual underground air storage volumes in mines were discussed as well as techniques necessary for the conversion of existing cavities. Both constant volume and constant pressure systems were investigated and mine cavern conversion costs where estimated per electric energy generated (R/kWh). Two of the most likely CAES turbo-machinery configurations suitable for South Africa were evaluated in chapter five, conceptual designs and cost analysis. The two types of CAES were conventional CAES and CAES with pressurised fluidised bed combustors (CAESIPFBC). Available plant was discussed and future generating capacities of individual CAES turbo-machinery trains were predicted. Costs per kW for CAES plants, excluding the cavern, were estimated through the escalation of costs from other plants and sources.

Publisher version
The extent of microplastic pollution (< 5 mm) in the southern hemisphere, particularly southern Africa, is largely unknown. This study aimed to evaluate microplastic pollution along the south-eastern coastline of South Africa, looking at whether bays are characterised by higher microplastic densities than open stretches of coastline in both beach sediment and surf-zone water. Microplastic (mean ± standard error) densities in the beach sediment ranged between 688.9 ± 348.2 and 3308 ± 1449 particles·m− 2, while those in the water column varied between 257.9 ± 53.36 and 1215 ± 276.7 particles·m− 3. With few exceptions there were no significant spatial patterns in either the sediment or water column microplastic densities; with little differences in density between bays and the open coast (P > 0.05). These data indicate that the presence of microplastics were not associated with proximity to land-based sources or population density, but rather is governed by water circulation.

The aim of this thesis is to assess the health effects of PM₁₀ air pollution in Reefton which is located on the West Coast of the South Island, New Zealand. Two principle objectives were investigated to achieve the overall aim. Firstly, whether there is a link between PM₁₀ exposure and increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions in Reefton. Secondly, the evaluation of whether PM₁₀ pollution exacerbates selected health symptoms associated with PM₁₀ exposure among study participants during a short term cohort study within Reefton. To address the first research objective, data for respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions were collected and comparisons were made with past-till-present PM₁₀ levels monitored in Reefton. The second research objective was carried out during a four week period in July 2008 in Reefton. A total of 78 people from the general population participated whereby they recorded their daily health status in a symptoms diary. Symptoms monitored included phlegm build-up, coughing, breathing problems, wheezing, throat discomfort, and eye irritation. Associations between PM₁₀ exposure and exacerbation of health symptoms among participants were examined through statistical analysis. Results showed no clear link between PM₁₀ exposure and increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions. The lack of association could be attributed to the limited amount of PM₁₀ data available for comparison, along with the low number of hospital admissions in Reefton due to the towns’ small population. Conversely, several associations were observed between PM₁₀ exposure and specific health symptoms among study participants. Associations were frequently small and positive while several reached statistical significance. In conclusion, PM₁₀ air pollution in Reefton could not be linked with an increase in respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions, however it was associated with the exacerbation of several health symptoms known to be aggravated by exposure to PM₁₀.

This thesis characterizes the mass and chemical composition of the fine particle air pollution over several cities in South Asia and quantifies how major sources impact the observed levels by using Chemical Mass Balance modeling with organic compounds as tracers. During February 1999, as part of the INDOEX program, a study was conducted to measure the size distribution and chemical composition of the fine particles in a remote island in Maldives off the coast of India. We found that the fine particle concentrations were comparable to those found in major cities in the United States, and were surprisingly high for a background site. 10-day backwind trajectories pointed the source region towards the Indian subcontinent; other INDOEX studies confirmed the presence of a thick haze layer over the Indian Ocean and the subcontinent during the time of the experiment. Motivated by these findings, a detailed analysis of ambient PM2.5 was carried out in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chandigarhfour cities located upwind of the island in Maldives. Seasonality of the fine particle concentrations was observed in each of these cities with the highest concentrations occurring during the wintertime and the lowest concentrations during the summer. Size distribution and chemical composition of the fine particle emissions from five Bangladeshi biomass (rice straw, coconut leaves, dried cow dung, synthetic biomass log, and jackfruit wood) and three Asian coals (Bangladeshi, Indian, and Chinese) were characterized and important source signatures were identified. Finally, recently developed chemical tracer techniques were applied to the ambient samples from North India to differentiate between the contributions from the many different source types. The emission profiles and source signatures from the source tests conducted previously along with the ones conducted using the Indian Subcontinent fuels were used as inputs to the model. These results serve several purposes. First, they provide a description of the mass and detailed inorganic and organic chemical characteristics of fine particulate matter conducted for the first time ever in this region. Second, the source apportionment study will help to define the relative importance of those sources that should be included within an air quality control program. Chemical tracer techniques are particularly attractive for application in regions that have not been studied previously because they are able to yield rapid insights into the causes of a local air pollution problem before the completion of an accurate emissions inventory. Third, the source tests results will prove useful in constructing and evaluating regional emission inventory and assessing source impacts on air quality. Fourth, this work has been carried out with collaborations from Georgia Tech and several other Indian research institutions where pollution control personnel in India was trained in the operation of air sampling equipments that were left for continued monitoring, thus contributing to technology transfer and knowledge transfer from the US.

1.1\xWith the emphasis on particulate matter (PM) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from uncontrolled sources, this study focused on the ambient air pollution of e-waste recycling regions and the indoor air quality of urban areas in South China.;1.2\xIn the past decades, severe PM and POPs pollutions were recorded in e-waste recycling regions in China. Since the 2010s, more effective measures, stricter regulations and sophisticated dismantling technologies have been implemented in Guiyu and Qingyuan by local authorities. In this study, total suspended particles (TSP), fine particles (PM2.5), gas phase samples, and indoor settled dust were collected simultaneously in the primary recycling areas as well as reference sites in Guiyu and Qingyuan in August, 2013. The results showed that both PM, PCDD/Fs (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans) , PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in ambient air showed significantly reduced levels in the regions, compared with the former corresponding reports. The changed source patterns of the POPs confirmed the environmental effects of the implementation of stricter regulation and advanced technologies in these years. Nevertheless, the remained uncontrolled e-waste recycling activities in Guiyu, including plastics recycling and circuit board baking, still made significant influence to the air environment and resulted in alarming levels of PCDD/Fs (0.73~2.43 pg I-TEQ/m3) in the recycling areas. While in Qingyuan, high environmental PCBs burden was observed both in informal (1737 pg/m3) and formal recycling areas (1075 pg/m3), which could attribute to the uncontrolled dismantling of PCB-contained transformers. The estimated non-cancer risk for children and adults in the recycling regions were 2.7~25.2 and 1.2~3.2, respectively, and moderate cancer risk were found for the residents living in the recycling regions of Guiyu and the vicinage of the formal recycing factory (CR>10-4). The unacceptable estimated risk for both children and adults suggested unsafe air environments in the two recycling regions.;1.4\xCollectively, our results suggest unsatisfactory air quality in both e-waste recycling regions and common urban areas. The air problems could both attribute to the uncontrolled sources of the related spaces. The obtained results firstly indicated that a long way to solve e-waste issues and more effective measures are needed to control the contaminants release and the exposure to the local residents. Secondly, indoor air quality standard for fine particulate matters as well as associated toxicants such as PAHs is urgently needed to guide common populations and communities.;1.5\xKeywords: Air pollution; E-waste recycling; Urban areas; Indoor air; Ambient air; PM2.5; Persistent organic pollutants; Health risk assessment

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are widespread in aquatic systems, they can bioaccumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms, especially fish as they occupy a position near the top of the aquatic food web. PCBs are among the most toxic substances and have been shown to cause many adverse effects to humans and wildlife. High health risks are associated with populations that follow a diet high in fat content such as fish and shellfish in which PCBs bioaccumulate. Given the importance of industries and the potential health concerns of exposure to PCBs, the lack of information on environmental levels of PCBs in South Africa (SA) is significant and concerning. Less attention has been directed to analysis of PCBs in the South African environments due to high cost and lack of appropriate equipment. This study was the first conducted in order to assess the levels of PCBs in the environment of Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (Port Elizabeth). The research was directed at determining the PCB levels in water, sediments, fish and mussels collected in the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality. The sampling sites, North End Lake (NEL) and Port Elizabeth Harbour (PEH) were selected based on their location and the importance of activities taking place in these areas. In total 456 samples of water (dissolved and particulate phases), sediments, mussels and tissues of fish were analysed. Suitable analytical methods were based on the equipment and materials available at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to quantify PCBs in the samples using the internal standard method. Six indicator congeners (PCB nos. 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180) were chosen because they are mainly present in most PCB mixtures in environmental samples and they are recommended for regular monitoring. These congeners represent about 50% of the total non-dioxin like (NDL) PCBs in food. All these congeners were detected in the samples analysed. The total PCB concentrations in the sediments from the NEL and PEH ranged from 1.60 to 3.06 and from 0.56 to 2.35 ng g-1 dry weight, respectively. The concentrations of total PCBs in Mytilus galloprovincialis ranged from 14.48 to 21.37 ng g-1 wet weight and from 20.84 to 31.34 ng g-1 wet weight in Perna perna. Total PCBs in water ranged from 0.18 to 0.355 ng L-1. The concentrations of total PCBs in the liver, gonads, gills and muscle were 95.69, 57.49, 44.63, 34.14 ng g-1 lipid weight in Cyprinus carpio and 119.73, 59.21, 49.78, 34.63 ng g-1 in Oreochromis mossambicus, respectively. Fish liver was the most contaminated organ due to its high lipid content compared to other parts of fish analysed. The NEL was found to be more contaminated than the PEH. The main potential sources of PCB pollutants in both areas of this study are industrial and municipal discharges. The NEL is surrounded by many industries and serves as a potential pollutant sink due to wastewater and inflow entering into this lake. Four 0.227 kg meals of the edible part of fish (muscle) per month were recommended based on the non-cancer health endpoint and one 0.227 kg meal per month was recommended based on the cancer health endpoint. This research contributed to notify the public and relevant governmental departments on the PCB pollution status of sediments, water and aquatic life in the PEH and NEL.

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2008
The lower Diep River is a major freshwater ecosystem in the Western Cape. The river is surrounded by many possible sources of metal pollution such as an oil refinery, industries, a sewage treatment plant and a landfill site. However, metal contamination levels have not been monitored in this river. The aim of the study was therefore to monitor the degree of metal pollution in the lower Diep River, over a period of one year, and to investigate the use of the sedge Bolboschoenus maritimus, as biomonitor species. Three sampling sites were used. Site I was located in the vicinity of landfill sites and farm areas. Site 2 was located I km upstream from a wetland reserve, surrounded by heavy industrial activity and continuous residential developments. Site 3 was located downstream of the wetland reserve, 2 km from the river mouth. The following metals were investigated: aluminium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc. Water and sediment samples were collected every two months for a period of one year. Plant specimens (roots, leaves and stems) were collected seasonally from site I and site 3. Samples were acid digested and metal analysis was done using an ICP - AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer). Statistical analyses were done to investigate possible differences between the sites, sampling occasions and various plant components.

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Environmental Management in the Faculty of Applied Science at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology
Greywater is domestic wastewater from daily kitchen, laundry, bath, shower, hand washing practices and does not include wastewater from the toilet. Greywater from informal settlement has been identified as important environmental pollution sources. Inadequate sanitation and poor drainage in informal settlements result in greywater being stagnant at the base of communal taps. This water has a potential to cause health problems to those who come in contact with it. Studies of greywater quality in informal settlements in South Africa tend to concentrate on physico-chemical analysis and microbial indicator organisms. In order to adequately manage greywater in informal settlements there is a need to understand the microbial pathogens present in such water. Therefore this study is aimed at determining the level of microbial contamination of stagnant greywater in the RR Section of Khayelitsha, Western Cape. Six sampling sites were identified and sampling of stagnant greywater was conducted twice a month (from January to May 2013) from the base of six communal taps, which served as the sampling sites. The microbial enumeration techniques employed in this study were the Most Probable Number (MPN) techniques, the Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) technique and the Flow Cytometric (FCM) technique. The API 20E and the RapID™ ONE systems were used to identify possible pathogenic Gram-negative microorganisms, while possible pathogenic Gram-positive microorganisms were identified with the BBL Crystal™ Gram Positive (GP) Identification (ID) system. The highest MPN counts were 1.6 x 108 microorganisms/100mℓ recorded at Site A (weeks 3 and 5) as well as at Site B (week 5). The corresponding highest faecal coliform count was 4.7 x 106 microorganisms/100mℓ obtained at Site B (week 5). The highest E. coli count observed was 1.8 x 106 microorganisms/100mℓ recorded at Site A (week 5) and Site F (week 5). In comparison, the highest HPC count was 2.9 x105 microorganisms/mℓ recorded at Site C in week 4. The results obtained by the MPN and HPC techniques were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the water quality standards by Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) (1996a; 1996b) and the SABS (2011). The highest total FCM and viable FCM counts were 3.4 x 107 microorganisms/mℓ and 3.1 x 107 microorganisms/mℓ, respectively recorded at Site A in week 5. The FCM technique displayed significantly (p < 0.05) higher results than both the MPN and HPC techniques, which highlighted its reliability in obtaining more accurate enumeration results. The RapID™ ONE and the API 20E identification systems mostly identified Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, K. oxytoca, Acinetobacter baumannii/calcoaceticus and Enterobacter cloacae, while the organisms more commonly identified by the BBL Crystal™ Gram Positive (GP) Identification (ID) system, were the Corynebacterium species, and Bacillus cereus. The presence of these organisms raises health concern to the community of RR Section, as some are known to cause waterborne diseases, while others are known to cause nosocomial infections.

This dissertation focuses on the marine pollution awareness training needs of newly recruited SAN employees. It uses Training Needs Analysis (TNA) as a tool to gain a better understanding of what knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) recruits should have about the marine environment and if their level of competency meets the requirement to effectively and efficiently contribute to the sustainable use of the maritime environment in which they will be deployed. Ultimately, their individual and collective abilities will be a determining factor in the strategic intent of the SAN to be unchallenged at sea. The absence therefore of a Marine Pollution Awareness Training Programme (MPTAP) within the Basic Military Training (BMT) curriculum of new recruits at SAS SALDANHA Naval Gymnasium necessitated a TNA. Based on prior research on training conducted by subject matter experts both internal and external to the SAN it was decided to conduct a TNA on the KSA‟s required in terms of marine pollution awareness amongst newly recruited members. The literature provided discusses education, training, development of employees and focuses then on the role and importance of TNA‟s. Information was gathered from various subject matter experts, archival records, policy documents, internet-based resources and newly recruited naval learners consisting of a sample of 25 new recruits. Theory was used to determine the KSA expected from naval employees in terms of marine pollution awareness. Data obtained from each of the research resources was coded and grouped in order to establish themes. This allowed the researcher to determine what KSA‟s recruits should have about the marine environment and if their level of competency meets the requirement to effectively and efficiently contribute to the sustainable use of the maritime environment in which they will be deployed. The researcher therefore found that first priority in terms of KSA‟s should be given to a basic legal understanding of the regulatory framework that is applicable on marine pollution. This understanding will form the foundation for recruits to have the ability to know “what to do when” during observed transgressions. The legal understanding in combination with the Sector Education Training Authority (SETA) unit standards will help new recruits to be skilful when applying safe working practices thereby ensuring their own and others' safety. Ultimately, a basic but well entrenched knowledge about marine pollution together with applied skills on how to use the knowledge should influence the attitude of new recruits in a positive manner. The researcher concluded that there is a need on the macro, meso and micro level for a MPATP amongst new recruits at SAS SALDANHA. It is recommended that since this research appears to establish the first empirical confirmation of the training need amongst new recruits, it will require further research in terms of curriculum design, curriculum implementation and the evaluation thereof. It would therefore be in the best interest of the SAN to ensure the integration of a MPATP into the planning phase of future BMT Curriculum‟s. It would also be advisable to communicate this intent with all the relevant stakeholders in order to ensure alignment with governmental organisations as well as the private sector where these new recruits can be employed based on their newly acquired competencies.

Air pollution is becoming an increasing problem in Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, it claims the lives of more than 712,000 people, which is more than the number of lives claimed by unsafe water and malnutrition. However, there is a lack of data on the topic in this region. I therefore designed my study to contribute to the small but growing literature on air pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa. My study looks at the relationship between local seasonal variations and air pollution levels. I am focusing on fine particles (PM2.5) because of their impacts on public health. My study revealed that average air pollution levels in Gabon meet the World Health Organization standards (WHO). However, daily variations suggest PM2.5 levels that exceed the recommended levels, which can be harmful to human health. I therefore recommend addressing pollution sources as a way of reducing overall pollution levels in the country.

Thesis (MScAgric (Soil Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
Two–thirds of South Africa, including more than 280 towns and settlements are largely dependent on groundwater for their drinking water supply and development. However, groundwater resources in South Africa are limited both in terms of quantity and quality, especially in the semi–arid parts of the country (Sililo et al., 2001, p. i). Therefore, the importance of protecting groundwater resources from pollution has been recognized. The first objective of this research was to investigate the attenuation capacity of a selection of soil horizons and materials representing major types of diagnostic horizons and materials in the South African soil classification in order to validate their chemical attenuation ratings as provisionally specified by Sililo et al. (2001, p. 4.6). The second objective was to assess the pollutant attenuation capacity of South African soil horizons and materials as well as describe the diagnostic value of key chemical properties of soils for conveying information on their contaminant transport/attenuation potential. The third objective was to investigate whether it is possible to apply acid/base priming using H2SO4 and Ca(OH)2 to a bulk quantity of soil in order to reduce the mobility of contaminants.

Bibliography: pages 134-147.
Pollution control regulations directed at the land-based factories of the Southern African fish processing industry do not appear to promote the required level of investment in pollution control systems. Two self-administered mail-questionnaires comprising undisguised fixed-alternative and open-ended questions were constructed to survey the opinions and viewpoints of a census consisting of twenty-seven senior managers responsible for making pollution control investments in the demersal and pelagic sectors of the fish processing industry. The first questionnaire was directed at establishing the relative importance of factors that influence waste and pollution control investment decisions as well as the perceptions and preferences of managers with regard to various pollution control policy options. Descriptive statistics such as the modal class were used to summarize the distribution of opinions and viewpoints within the research population. Rank ordered preference data was analyzed using a multidimensional unfolding computer algorithm. This structural multivariate statistical method is a special case of non-metric multidimensional scaling that generates perceptual maps which can aid in the discovery of the hidden structure underlying multidimensional decisions. Investments in waste and pollution control do not appear to have a high priority when compared to other strategic investments that the fish processing industry managers may make. The relative importance of factors that could influence the managers of the industry to invest in waste control equipment appear to be determined by the perceived financial returns that can be expected from such investments. Findings suggest that pollution control legislation is rendered ineffective due to inadequate enforcement. However, it appears that existing legislation needs to be rationalized in order to facilitate compliance. The most favoured pollution control instruments were those that lowered the cost of legally mandated expenses such as subsidies and income tax allowances. These were followed by permit systems which specified the allowable characteristics of discharges while allowing individual companies freedom of choice as to the method of achieving compliance. The second questionnaire was used to verify the researcher's interpretation of the findings and preliminary conclusions drawn from the replies to the first questionnaire.

Chemical pollution of freshwater is a worldwide environmental problem
eutrophication, heavy metals and salinity are amongst the most widely used indicators of pollution. The aim of this study was to assess the status of nutrients, heavy metals and salinity, and the seasonal variation int he Bottelary River.

The study aimed at exploring curriculum responses to community-based air pollution. This was done through an analysis of educator and learner perceptions of community-based air pollution and an examination of how the curriculum (teaching and learning content) responds to local air pollution. The key forms of the study - (what are the perceptions of educators and learners to community-based air pollution and how do educators and learners respond to community-based air pollution within the formal curriculum). Ethnography as a qualitative methodology was adopted in the study. This methodological tool created spaces to understand curriculum responsiveness in the context of wider social and political power relations in the South Durban Basin. Ethnography suited the study since it was a unique example of educators and learners in real situations and lived experiences, and enabled a clearer understanding of the theory and praxis of curriculum. The primary research methodology used in order to gather data to answer the research questions was observation, participant observation and interviewing of educators and learners. This study was conducted with educators and learners in the Further Education and Training phase (Grade 10), within the Human and Social Sciences in the year 2006 . Curriculum responses to community-based air pollution in Geography and Life Orientation were investigated. Learners were traced from previous primary schools in the area and who were in Grade 10. It was found that all participants in the study were knowledgeable and well informed about air pollution through consistent exposure to local air pollution. Collectively, they presented a sense of enduring struggle against community-based air pollution. They have been part of the struggle for clean air for many years and reside in the South Durban Basin. Participants display perspicuity in respect of how air pollution infects and affects them . Attempts at including community-based air pollution into the curriculum have been sporadic and at times incidental from learners' point of view . On the other hand, educators' responses were very constructive and established . Furthermore with reference to curriculum response to the subjects Geography and Life Orientation, both educators and learners responses were similar in that they displayed sophisticated accounts of knowledge of community-based air pollution. There was a deep sense of understanding of content and related to lived experiences. It was also found that educators and learners choose to live optimistically amidst the air pollution at Valley Secondary. Issues of class, poverty and powerlessness emerge from the data - these govern the lives of educators and learners. Participants in the study provided several motivations for Environmental Education to be included as a separate subject for future curriculum initiatives by the Department of Education. The recommendations included a strong need for responsive teaching to community-based air pollution. Learners should also be guided on how they should handle air pollution incidents. Recommendations in respect of re-organising the existent Environmental Club at Valley Secondary School also emerged. There is a clear sense that schools in the area should mobilise against the cooperate giants. Recommendations were provided for Curriculum Planners , Policy, and Policy Makers at the level of the Department of Education for the inclusion of Environmental Education as a separate subject rather than a devolved input.
Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2007.

M.Sc.
The evaluation of population exposure to air pollution is a fundamental reason for management and control of regional air quality. The purpose of this study was to determine the exposure of the local population to PM-10 emissions from sources within the Vaal Triangle using a Geographic Information System (GIS). The emission inventory compiled by van Nierop for the calendar year of 1992 (van Nierop, 1994) was used as input data for these calculations. The Industrial Source Complex Short Term Model (ISCST) was applied for dispersion calculations of annual PM-10 emissions. The ReGIS package was applied to determine the applicability of GIS as a management tool. Annual average PM-10 concentration contours were calculated for the different air pollution source groups within the Vaal Triangle. The combined source group resulted in the highest population exposure from annual average PM-10 concentrations. Population exposure from high- (> 200 m), medium- (10 to 200 m) and low- (< 10 m) elevation air pollution source groups were determined. The medium-elevation source group resulted in high population exposure followed by the low-elevation source group. The high-elevation source group had very low population exposure as a result. The population exposures from all the industrial sources within the Vaal Triangle were calculated and found to be very high. Annual average PM-10 concentrations from domestic fuel combustion sources were surprisingly low, resulting in low population exposure. ReGIS was found to be inadequate for the task and is not recommended for further use. Despite this, GIS was found to be a powerful decision-making tool and other GIS software packages should be explored for future research.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. September 2016.
Numerous studies on the sources, transport and fates of criteria air pollutants and greenhouse gases have been done in southern Africa. However, debate on the priority pollutants and areas of concern continue despite a growing national air quality monitoring network. This study attempts a novel approach to characterise sources and ambient air quality over major industrial and urban areas using a single suite of instrumentation to provide information to improve management of air quality. Over 200 hours of data were collected from an airborne platform. Another 5 ground-based campaigns characterised sources and areas out of reach of the aircraft. The central aim of this study is to prioritise sources and areas of concern with regards to air quality management, using a mobile platform. This complements other modelling and spatial assessments and provides in situ validation for many contemporary debates. The specific aims were to characterise major anthropogenic sources; estimate the state of air quality; investigate the vertical distribution of pollutants; and prioritise sources and areas of concern for effective air quality management in South Africa. The research has delivered many original contributions to the body of knowledge of air quality over South Africa. These findings can be divided into spatial and temporal relationships between sources and receptors, characterising source contributions and understanding the contribution of atmospheric emissions. High resolution measurements show that spatial scales of prominent atmospheric plumes are much smaller than current remote sensing estimates.This underscores the difficulty of accurately assessing environments with diverse, clustered sources and complex meteorology through modelling studies and satellite based remote sensing. The current conceptual model of absolute stable layers is biased because of limited data availability where a limited number of levels are reported. At least 60 levels should be reported in soundings to study absolutely stable layers. The inclusion of the standard reporting levels, (850 hPa, 700 hPa, 500 hPa and 300 hPa), further biases the detection of atmospheric stable layers. The number of observed persistent levels change in number and character when these are omitted from the analysis. Numerous vertical profiles further show that the thermodynamic model of stability as the main driver of stratification is oversimplified, especially close to source regions where different pollutants are observed to peak at different levels unrelated to absolutely stable layers. This suggests that the original buoyancy which is governed by the release temperature, exit velocity and height are important drivers for the stratification of pollutants. The overall conclusion is made that a small team with a set of regular instrumentation can prioritise pollutants and areas of concern on a national scale. This method could be valuable for countries with limited resources and infrastructures and could be used in combination with modelling and satellite based remote sensing to assess priorities. The ability to obtain in situ data of a large number of variables over vast areas in a short time may offsets the caveats associated with mobile measurements and a limited sample volume.
LG2017

Although a vast number of air quality investigations have been conducted on the Mpumalanga Highveld previously, there has been limited attempt to integrate available datasets from the different methods of air quality monitoring (satellite, insitu and ground-based observations) and modelling. This study compares modelled, satellite and measured data to determine the most accurate estimate of ground level sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) concentrations. The main value of the project comes from the ‘improvement’ of modelled concentration fields using measurements. Measurements only provide information on air quality at isolated places (for example monitoring stations) or at isolated times (aircraft measurements and satellite observations). Dispersion models predict concentrations continually over a wide area. However, models have inherent inaccuracies based on the assumptions made in developing the model and the variability in the input parameters supplied. These can be accounted for or are part of the inherent variability of the model results. This study assists in the refinement of modelled outputs as well as the verification of satellite data using ground-based measured data as a point of reference. In the wake of increasing governance on air pollution, industry has been compelled to account for their impacts on the environment. This study aids industry by proposing a method to quantify their impacts on the environment and possibly on human health. Three datasets from 2003 (modelled, measured and satellite) were integrated using a geographic information system in order to analyse and interrogate the data and produce an integrated set of data, maps of potentially sensitive ecosystems and maps of potential exposure to poor air quality of sensitive population groupings. The results of the study have shown that although the concentration value for the NO2 iv tropospheric column is greater than the values observed on the ground there is a good correlation between measured observations and SCIAMACHY retrievals. The sample size was too small to indicate a statistically significant bias. The results from the validation of the CALPUFF model indicate with respect to SO2 predictions that themodel is only reliable for 62% of the time within the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s model performance guideline of acceptance i.e. predictions within a factor of 2, and for NO2 the predictions are reliable for only 50% of the time. There is also no constant value by which the model under or over predicts. The cumulative distribution function graphs illustrate that the CALPUFF model predicts the highest values from the bulk of the distribution rather that the tail of the distribution where the extremes lie. This could possibly account for the large variance between measured and modelled outputs. The results of identifying areas of potential harm from SO2 emissions reveal that hotspots for high to very high risk to human health occur around all power stations. Generally the category of high risk around power stations seems to be located in areas with population agglomerations between 0-1 000 per km2 and 2001- 5000 per km2. Several high risk areas for potential harm to ecosystems from SO2 emissions can be seen on the Highveld with a large spatial extent around Kendal, Matla and Kriel power station. Approximately 871 wetlands fall within the high risk areas. The vegetation risk map indicates a high risk to several grassland and bushveld types. Model results for this study indicate no potential risk to human health from emissions of NO and subsequent conversion to NO2 in the atmosphere.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, August 2015.
Petrol and diesel fumes are known to be anthropogenic sources of air pollutants that have a negative impact on both environmental and human health. In developing countries, attendants are still employed to pump fuel for customers. In South Africa gas pump attendants refuel vehicles with various octane unleaded petrol, lead replacement petrol (LRP) and diesel on a daily basis. Attendants are particularly at risk to adverse health effects associated with inhalation of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Of increasing concern in recent years are the volatile organic compounds (VOCs), with particular reference to the six aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and three isomeric xylenes), namely the BTEX.

M.Sc. (Environmental Management)
With the rapid expansion of the industries in South Africa, environmental problems including air pollution have been increasing. Among industries that cause air pollution is the iron and steel industry. Air pollution impacts negatively on the environment and therefore the measures implemented to improve air quality by this industry were investigated. The purpose of this thesis was to critically analyse the air pollution control measures implemented by the iron and steel industry in South Africa and to find out what they are doing to address the problem of air pollution, as well as their processes in involving and encouraging community involvement with regard to environmental issues. The key findings from this study were that the South African iron and steel companies are doing their best in trying to control the problem of air pollution. Some of them do not only rely on the South African legislation, they also do self-regulation by monitoring and controlling the air pollution problems even if not strictly required to by legislation. The iron and steel industry does also involve communities, through participation in public environmental forums. Air pollution has always been an issue in South Africa, but due to a lack of enabling legislation in the country, many people were not aware of their environmental rights. Now that the South African Constitution highlights the rights of people to an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing, people are becoming more aware and have started taking the issue of air pollution in a very serious light. With the new environmental legislation including the National Environmental Management Act 108 of 1009 and the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Bill (Draft 1, April 2003), most of the issues relating to air pollution will be dealt with in a better and more enforceable way.

The promulgation of the minimum emission standards for the list of activities resulting in significant air pollution under the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No.39 of 2004) introduces a command – and – control regulation, in which the listed activities are required to obtain atmospheric emission licenses prior to operation. Under this regime, the listed activities are required to demonstrate compliance with the concentration-based minimum emission standards incorporated into their license, by conducting emission monitoring. Effective emission monitoring is dependent on the systematic implementation of a number of processes, procedures and protocols for emissions sampling, analysis and reporting. This study focused on development of a system for emissions monitoring, by establishment of the best practice on sampling procedures; criteria for emission measurement methods selection; quality assurance and quality control procedures; as well as data handling, reporting and compliance assessment procedures. The study recommends a model of emissions compliance monitoring system for South Africa, comprising of processes and procedures required for the acquisition of good quality, credible data to support effective implementation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015.
Chemical Engineering
Unrestricted

M. Tech. Environmental Health
Particulate Matter (PM) is a complex, heterogeneous mixture of smoke, soot, dust, salt, acids, and metals. Particulate Matter varies in concentration, size, chemical composition, surface area and sources of origin. Given the known ambient particulate pollution problem, the potential health risks posed by PM to the population of eMbalenhle are unknown. eMbalenhle (the study area) is a township located in Mpumalanga Province, about 12 km from Secunda. The area is surrounded by industries, power stations and mines, all of which are recognised emitters of PM. The main aim of this study was to assess the health risks posed by ambient PM10 exposure to the population of eMbalenhle.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Geography, Archaeology, and Environmental Studies University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2015.
An imaging DOAS instrument, along with in situ trace-gas and aerosol instrumentation was deployed on board a research aircraft over the Highveld region of South Africa, to make regional-scale measurements of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The presence of a “hotspot” of NO2 over the Highveld is confirmed. Case-study estimates of NO2 emission flux were made downwind of a power station (10 tons.hr−1), a petrochemical plant (36 tons.hr−1) and the entire Highveld region (395 tons.hr−1). Vertical profile measurements were used to develop scenarios for a radiative transfer sensitivity study. From this, suitable air-mass factors for the DOAS measurements were determined. Comparisons between the airborne DOAS and satellite instruments show a good agreement where the spatial scales of the satellite ground pixels and the features in the two-dimensional trace-gas distribution are matched. A long-term record of satellite data was analysed. Analysis of radiative transfer revealed a possible artefact in the adjacent positive and negative trends evident on the Highveld. A correction to the satellite record for a seasonal bias was made, and found to be important over biomass burning regions in Angola and Zambia. Spatial features in a seasonal model of the satellite record are shown to correspond with known urban, industrial and biomass burning sources in the region. Signatures of soil emissions are also detected.

The deteriorating air quality in Cape Town (CT) is a threat to the social and economic development of the city. Although previous studies have shown that most of the pollutants are emitted in the city, it is not clear how the transport of pollutants from neighbouring cities may contribute to the pollution. This thesis studies the transport of atmospheric nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitric acid (HNO3) pollutants over South Africa and examines the role of pollutant transport from the Mpumalanga Highveld on pollution in CT. The study analysed observation data (2001 - 2008) from the CT air quality network and from regional climate model simulation (2001 - 2004) over South Africa. The model simulations account for the influences of complex topography, atmospheric conditions, and atmospheric chemistry on transport of the pollutants over South Africa. Flux budget analysis was used to examine whether the city is a net source or sink for NOx and HNO3. The results show that north-easterly flow transports pollutants (NOx and HNO3) at low level (i.e., surface to 850 hPa) from the Mpumalanga Highveld towards CT. In April, a tongue of high concentration of HNO3 extends from the Mpumalanga Highveld to CT, along the southern coast. The flux budget analysis shows that CT can be a net sink for NOx and HNO3 during extreme pollution events. The study infers that, apart from the local emission of the pollutants in CT, the accumulation of pollutants transported from other areas may contribute to pollution in the city.
Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2017.
The Highveld is identified as an air pollution ‘hotspot’ area where pollutant concentrations are elevated due to the high density of industrial and non-industrial air pollution sources. To enhance air quality across the Highveld, it was declared a priority area to manage and monitor pollutants to reduce their negative impact on the environment and society. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate ambient air pollution across the Highveld Priority Area (HPA), using ground-level SO2, NOx and surface O3 concentrations, meteorological parameters and Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) atmosphere products, for January to December 2011, to develop new modelling techniques to aid in the management of air pollution. Results show the annual mean trace gas concentrations of SO2, NOx and surface O3 were 12.14, 14.75 and 28.77 ppb, respectively. SO2 and NOx concentrations were highest during winter at an average of 17.56 and 20.96 ppb, where surface O3 concentrations were highest during spring at an average of 32.82 ppb. Diurnal patterns of SO2 and surface O3 were similar, where a midday peak occurred. NOx concentrations instead showed peaks during traffic hours. Ambient air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind speed and rainfall levels peaked during summer. Atmospheric pressure was relatively stable throughout the year. Winds typically ranged from N to E up to April and from S to NW from May. Very little variation in SO2 and NOx concentrations was explainable by meteorology, 4 to 29 % and 5 to 23 %, while the influence of meteorology on surface O3 concentrations was more significant, 23 to 53 %. Spatial multiple regression statistical models using a cross validation approach for model validation were made over a number of temporal scales. The model fitting and validation processes indicated that the models were not a good fit as only up to 69, 74 and 58 % of SO2, NOx and surface O3 concentrations with high root means square error (RMSE) values of up to 22.10, 15.56 and 18.59 ppb, respectively, could be explained by the models. This process revealed the potential to model pollutants across the HPA, and as a pilot study future work can be based on this study. It is clear that spatial modelling for pollution estimation and management is necessary as seen by the frequent exceedances of the national and international ambient air quality standards.
XL2017

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. 14 August 2015
Soweto is identified as an air pollution hot spot area which is characteristic of poor air quality where ambient air pollutant concentrations frequently exceed the South African Ambient Air Quality Standards. Urban greening programmes are seen as a way for cities to work towards reducing air pollution, offsetting greenhouse gas emissions and improve ambient air quality. The City of Johannesburg embarked on the Greening Soweto project in 2006 where many degraded open spaces were transformed into urban green parks and 6000 trees were planted. The urban parks and trees are believed to serve several environmental benefits; one of which includes the improvement in local ambient air quality. The aim of this research was to assess and compare the local ambient air quality situation at two different urban park types in close proximity, Thokoza Park (older trees) and Petrus Molefe Eco-Park (young trees), in Soweto and establish whether the air pollutants measured at the urban parks were lower compared to the urban background conditions. Furthermore, this study assessed whether the ambient concentrations of the selected criteria air pollutants were within the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Three ambient air quality monitoring campaigns were conducted during the spring (October) and winter (June and July) seasons of 2013 and 2014 with the use of a mobile air quality monitoring station. The findings of this research suggest that urban trees in Thokoza Park and Petrus Molefe Eco-Park has the greatest potential to improve air quality in Soweto mainly through changes in local meteorological conditions, specifically for temperature and wind fields, rather than direct removal of air pollutants. Differences in the concentrations of the air pollutants at the different sites showed a strong relationship with changes in temperature, wind speed and direction and emission source types. A significant difference in air pollutant concentrations between the two urban park types was only found for particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) and CO2. In general, lower air pollutant concentrations were recorded at the urban parks compared to the urban background site, particularly during the spring season. This study also suggests that the urban trees could represent a potential O3 sink during the spring and winter seasons and for NOx during the spring season. Exceedances of the South African Ambient Air Quality Standards at the two urban parks were only observed for PM10 and PM2.5 during the winter season of 2014. PM10 and PM2.5 and NOx were identified to be air pollutants of concern at the urban parks in comparison to other criteria air pollutants assessed in this study. Maximum daily concentrations of 255 μg/m3 for PM10 and 126 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and a maximum hourly concentration of 92 ppb for NOx were recorded at the parks during winter season

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg for the Degree of Master of Science.
Recent research has highlighted the lack of information on elevated absolutely stable layers per se throughout the troposphere over the southern African subcontinent. Hence a climatology of elevated absolutely stable layers is derived for each of four predominant synoptic circulation types over Southern Africa; namely semi-permanent continental anticyclones, transient mid-latitude ridging anticyclones, westerly wave baroclinic disturbances and barotropic quasi-stationary easterly waves. The horizontal and vertical structures as well as the temporal persistence of elevated absolutely stable layers are analysed using radiosonde data from nine South African aerological stations from the period 1986-1993. In addition, a climatology is derived for the mid-winter stability maximum, during the month of July from 1989-1993, in order to gain greater insights into the influence of anticyclonic circulation on the elevated absolutely stable layers. Four non-surface stable layers are identified over the country, at approximately the 800 hPa, 700 hPa, 500 hPa and 300 hPa levels. The lower of these layer occurs only over the coastal regions. All of the discontinuities exhibit a high degree of persistence and appear to be rapidly reconstructed subsequent to synoptic scale disturbances. The presence of these layers has obvious implications for local as well as global pollution transport, since stable discontinuities trap pollutants below their bases and act as upper air boundaries. As a consequence, global-scale transport of aerosols and trace gases in the free air is controlled to a large degree by these discontinuities. Greater insights into the mechanisms controlling such large-scale transport are essential in ascertaining southern Africa's contribution to greenhouse gas concentrations. Moreover, the persistence and strength of the discontinuities have implications for rainfall over the subcontinent, with the lower layers in particular acting as a vertical boundary to turbulence and mixing, and thus hindering the development of convective precipitation.
AC 2018

There is increasing recognition of the links between air pollution and human health. Epidemiological studies have shown that there are numerous air pollutants that are associated with indoor energy use and with the production processes of industries, and most represent some sort of health implication. However, in-depth and fundamental knowledge of the health impact relationship of most pollutants is limited. This research evaluates the socio-economic and spatial aspects of the health implications of air pollution in Richards Bay (located 200 km north of Durban), KwaZulu-Natal. The research explores community perceptions and complaints relating to human health impacts emanating from air pollution in Richards Bay. The research is informed by a multi-conceptual framework (political economy incorporating political ecology, place perspectives and environmental justice) which influenced the methods chosen in conducting the research. Standard quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in the study to generate data relating to the research objectives. The process of triangulation which is the use of multiple methods that cuts across the qualitativequantitative divide was used. The various sources of information validate and clarify data by deepening and widening an understanding of the main issues under examination. The research was implemented in various communities in Richards Bay that reflect socioeconomic differences, which contributes significantly to ascertain whether health impacts are differentially experienced by different socio-economic groups. Furthermore, the research cross-tabulated experiences, perceptions and coping strategies of different socio-economic groups in the area, especially in relation to upper, middle and lower income clusters. The spatial aspect of the research (mapping of key social and health variables) is a major contribution of this research, which draws from the field of medical geography. Information on the main residential areas was illicitied from documents providing background details on Richards Bay. A purposive sampling approach was adopted to identify the seven communities, namely, Alton, Aquadene/ Brackenham, Arboretum, Meer-en-See, Empangeni Rail, Nseleni and Umhlathuze. Simple random point sampling was used to identify the households within the communities. The number of households in each community was determined using proportionate sampling. Four hundred and seventy nine housholds (479) were interviewed which was deemed to be a statistically relevant sampling size at a 95% confidence level. The study findings indicate that the lower income areas (Nseleni, Empangeni Rail and Umhlathuze) and the middle income areas (Aquadene/ Brackenham and Arboretum) have a more youthful population with a significant number being children, while the upper income areas (Alton and Meer en See) have a more elderly population. A similar trend was also found in relation to household size. There are clearly major variations in household income and employment types in Richards Bay, linked in part to the geographical location of communities based on economic and racial groups. Lower earning respondents were located mostly in the lower status areas which were classified as predominantly African populated areas as per the historical race classification and apartheid segregated areas. More than half of the respondents indicated that industrial smoke was the cause of their present health conditions. Other stated reasons were wide ranging and therefore there was no discernible pattern that emerged in relation to the causes for poor health experienced by the affected household member. However, the data did show that more respondents living in middle/ upper income areas identified causes. Reported health conditions include allergies (30.9%), coughing (29.8%), wheezing (25.5%), chest pains (18.4%) and asthmatic bronchitis/ asthma (17.7%). With regards to health care, the findings from the study show that the economically better off communities (Alton, Aquadene/ Brackenham, Arboretum and Meer en See) used the private, more expensive health care sector while generally households in lower income areas tend to rely on public or traditional health care facilities. An interesting finding was that most respondents rate their general health status as either excellent, good (more respondents from the middle/ upper income areas than the lower income areas) or satisfactory (more respondents from Umhlathuze). A large majority of the respondents reported air pollution as the main problem that is associated with industries in Richards Bay while the health impacts of pollutants from the industries manufacturing processes was the second main cause. The areas deemed to be the most polluted were generally in or in close proximity to the industrial area or the port area. Lower income areas tendered to be most polluted, according to respondents residing in these areas or who lived in similar low income areas. The majority of respondents were found to be living in dwellings/ households made from dwellings constructed with brick and asbestos, brick and zinc, stone and other traditional materials which is indicative of housing in the poorer communities who live in informal dwellings/ households and may be a causal contributing factor of the poor health status of these communities. The participatory mapping exercise conducted during the focus group discussion revealed that participants identified the industrial areas (including the port and surrounds) as the most polluted areas. Areas outside Richards Bay were considered to be the least polluted areas. The research findings indicate that there are a complex mix of socio-economic, environmental and spatial dynamics that influence air pollution and health impacts. Thus, health issues in the context of widespread air pollution concerns are linked to social, political and environmental aspects that require urgent attention. Air pollution and health impacts remain major concerns in many parts of the world, especially in areas of high levels of industrial development such as Richards Bay. The results of this research, therefore supports the findings of other researchers who reveal that communities/ neighborhoods of lower income status are most likely to bear the brunt of negative impacts and that air pollution from indoor uses of energy, behavioral factors such as cigarette smoking and industrial processes contribute to an individual’s/ community’s quality of life.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.