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1

Sarbaum, Jeffrey Kent. The effects of price changes on alcohol consumption in alcohol-experienced rats. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998.

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2

National Toxicology Program (U.S.). NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 2,3-dibromo-1-propanol (CAS no. 96-13-9) in F344/N rats and B6C3F mice (dermal studies). Research Triangle Park, NC : U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health: Available for sale from National Technical Information Service, 1993.

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3

Sinaceur, Jamal Eddine. Importance des dérivés réduits de l'oxygène dans l'intoxication alcoolique chez le rat: Rôle de la desferrioxamine. Paris: La Documentation française, 1987.

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4

Dieter, Michael P. NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of a-methylbenzyl alcohol (CAS no. 98-85-1) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies). Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, 1990.

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5

Utter, Dennis. State alcohol related fatality rates. [Washington, D.C.]: National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Advanced Research and Analysis, 2002.

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6

Subramanian, Rajesh. State alcohol related fatality rates 2002. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Advanced Research and Analysis, 2003.

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7

Subramanian, Rajesh. State alcohol related fatality rates 2002. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Advanced Research and Analysis, 2003.

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8

Subramanian, Rajesh. State alcohol related fatality rates, 2003. Washington, D.C: Mathematical Analysis Division, Office of Traffic Records and Analysis, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2005.

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9

Lau, Robyne R. Legislative approaches to increasing Virginia's conviction rate for drug-related DUI. Charlottesville, Va: Virginia Transportation Research Council, 1992.

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10

Roy, Tammy Lynne. Drugs, alcohol and coping style: Their effects on recidivism rates. Sudbury, Ont: Laurentian University, Department of Psychology, 1999.

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11

Cook, Philip J. Are alcohol excise taxes good for us?: Short and long-term effects on mortality rates. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005.

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12

Krizay, John. The fifty billion dollar drain: Alcohol, drugs, and the high cost of insurance. Irvine, Calif: Care Institute, 1986.

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13

McDonnell, Claire M. Rate and equilibrium constants for acid-catalysed reactions of aromatic and non-aromatic enols, alcohols andepoxides. Dublin: University College Dublin, 1996.

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14

Markowitz, Sara. The effects of alcohol policies in reducing entry rates and time spent in foster care. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011.

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15

Mulyo, Gurid Pramintarto Eko. Analysis of GLC4 on alcoholic rats by high performance liquid chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. London: University of Surrey Roehampton, 2000.

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16

Wickizer, Thomas. Analysis of completion rates of clients discharged from drug and alcohol treatment programs in Washington State. Olympia, WA: The Division, 1992.

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17

Wickizer, Thomas M. Analysis of completion rates of clients discharged from drug and alcohol treatment programs in Washington State. Olympia, WA: The Division, 1992.

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18

M, Muthama Thomas, ed. Illicit spirits industry in informal settlements: The case of chang'aa in Mathare valley, Nairobi. Nairobi, Kenya: Institute of Policy Analysis and Research, 2007.

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19

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. Subcommittee on Social Security. Exploring means of achieving higher rates of treatment and rehabilitation among alcoholics and drug addicts receiving federal disability benefits: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Social Security and the Subcommittee on Human Resources of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, second session, February 10, 1994. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1994.

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20

Security, United States Congress House Committee on Ways and Means Subcommittee on Social. Exploring means of achieving higher rates of treatment and rehabilitation among alcoholics and drug addicts receiving federal disability benefits: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Social Security and the Subcommittee on Human Resources of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, second session, February 10, 1994. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1994.

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21

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS' audit and criminal enforcement rates for individual taxpayers across the country : report to the Honorable Harold E. Ford, Jr. and the Honorable Henry A. Waxman, House of Representatives. Washington D.C: The Office, 1998.

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22

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS's efforts to improve compliance with employment tax requirements should be evaluated : report to the Ranking Minority Member, Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C: The Office, 2002.

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23

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Impact of compliance and collection program declines on taxpayers : report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Oversight, Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C: U.S. General Accounting Office, 2002.

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24

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Information on IRS' international tax compliance activities : fact sheet for the Chairman, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1994.

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25

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Ways to simplify the estimated tax penalty calculation : report to the Chairmen and Ranking Minority Members, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate, and Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 1998.

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26

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS' problem-solving days : report to the Chairman, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington 20013): The Office, 1998.

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27

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS' levy of federal payments could generate millions of dollars : report to Congressional Requesters. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): U.S. General Accounting Office, 2000.

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28

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Audit trends and taxes assessed on large corporations : report to the Commissioner, Internal Revenue Service. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1995.

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29

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Compliance measures and audits of large corporations need improvement : report to the Chairman, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1994.

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30

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: Potential impact of alternative taxes on taxpayers and administrators : report to the Chairmen and ranking minority Members, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate and Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 1998.

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31

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS' efforts to place more emphasis on criminal tax investigations : report to the Commissioner, Internal Revenue Service. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 1997.

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32

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS measures could provide a more balanced picture of audit results and costs : report to the Honorable Rob Portman, Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 1998.

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33

Office, General Accounting. Tax administration: IRS' abatement of assessments in fiscal years 1995-98 : report to the Joint Committee on Taxation. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1999.

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34

Astell, Rebecca L. Influence of ethanol on copper utilization by pregnant and growing rats. 1988.

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35

Tennison, Linda R. The effects of contingency, alcohol, and previous training on behavior variability. 1988.

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36

Wan, Daisy. Effect of dietary ethanol and zinc on vitamin B-6 metabolism in the rat. 1992.

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37

1996 NWT alcohol & drug survey: Rates of use for alcohol, other drugs and tobacco. [Yellowknife, N.W.T.]: Northwest Territories, Bureau of Statistics, 1996.

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38

Gilmore, Sir Ian, and William Gilmore. Alcohol. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0339.

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Alcohol has been used for thousands of years and, indeed, in very different ways. Two thousand years ago, the occupying Romans sipped wine regularly but reasonably moderately, and marvelled at the local English serfs who celebrated bringing in their crops with brief episodes of unrivalled drunkenness. The use of alcohol was not only tolerated but sometimes encouraged by the ruling classes as a way of subjugating the population and dulling their awareness of the conditions in which they had to live and work. The adverse impact of gin consumption was famously recorded by Hogarth’s painting of ‘Gin Lane’ but, at the same time, beer was reckoned a safer alternative to water for fluid intake and was linked to happiness and prosperity in the sister painting of ‘Beer Street’. It was against the ‘pernicious use of strong liquors’ and not beer that the president of the Royal College of Physicians, John Friend, petitioned Parliament in 1726. Some desultory attempts were made by Parliament in the eighteenth century to introduce legislation in order to tax and control alcohol production but they were eventually repealed. It was really the onset of the Industrial Revolution in nineteenth-century England that brought into sharp relief the wasted productivity and lost opportunity from excess consumption. England moved from a rural, relatively disorganized workforce to an urban, more closely scrutinized and supervised one—for instance, in factories, where men needed their wits about them to work heavy machinery, workers that were absent (in body or mind) were noticed. And, in Victorian Britain, there arose a greater social conscience—an awareness, for example, of the harm, through neglect, inflicted on the children of those who spent their wages and their days in an alcoholic stupor. Nonetheless, the per capita consumption of alcohol in the UK at the end of the nineteenth century was greater than it is today. It fell progressively through the first half of the twentieth century, with two marked dips. The first coincided with the introduction of licensing hours restrictions during the First World War, and the second with the economic depression of the 1930s. Following the Second World War, there was a doubling of alcohol consumption between 1950 and the present day, to about 10 l of pure alcohol per capita. There has been a small fall of 9% in the last 5 years; this may be, in part, related to the changing ethnic mix and increasing number of non-drinkers. There has always been a mismatch between the self-reported consumption in lifestyle questionnaires, and the data from customs and excise, with the latter being 40% greater. From the latter, it can be estimated that the average consumption of non-teetotal adults in England is 25 units (0.25 l of pure alcohol) per week, which is well above the recommended limits of 14 units for women, and 21 units for men. Of course, average figures hide population differences, and it is estimated that the heaviest-consuming 10% of the population account for 40% of that drunk. While men continue to drink, on average, about twice the amount that women do, the rate of rise of consumption in women has been steeper. Average consumption is comparable across socio-economic groups but there is evidence of both more teetotallers and more drinking in a harmful way in the poorest group. In 2007, 13% of those aged 11–15 admitted that they had drunk alcohol during the previous week. This figure is falling, but those who do drink are drinking more. The average weekly consumption of pupils who drink is 13 units/week. Binge drinking estimates are unreliable, as they depend on self-reporting in questionnaires. In the UK, they are taken as drinking twice the daily recommended limits of 4 units for men, and 3 units for women, on the heaviest drinking day in the previous week. In 2010, 19% of men, and 12% of women, admitted to binge drinking, with the figures being 24% and 17%, respectively, for those aged 16–24. The preferred venue for drinking in the UK has changed markedly, mainly in response to the availability of cheap supermarket drink. Thirty years ago, the vast majority of alcohol was consumed in pubs and restaurants, whereas, in 2009, the market share of off-licence outlets was 65%. However, drinkers under 24 years of age still drink predominantly away from home. The UK per capita consumption is close to the European average, but consumption has been falling in Mediterranean countries and rising in northern and eastern Europe. Europe has the highest consumption of all continents, but there is undoubtedly massive under-reporting in many countries, particularly because of local unregulated production and consumption. It is estimated that less than 10% of consumption is captured in statistics in parts of Africa.
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39

W, Cashell Brian, and Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, eds. Alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline excise tax rates adjusted for inflation. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1991.

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40

Brian, Cashell, and Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, eds. Alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline excise tax rates adjusted for inflation. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1992.

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41

Brian, Cashell, and Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service., eds. Alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline excise tax rates adjusted for inflation. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1991.

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42

Brian, Cashell, and Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, eds. Excise tax rates for alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline adjusted for inflation. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1993.

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43

Thomas London, W., Jessica L. Petrick, and Katherine A. McGlynn. Liver Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0033.

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Primary liver cancer is the sixth most frequently occurring cancer in the world and the second most common in terms of cancer deaths. The global burden of liver cancer is borne principally by countries in East Asia and Africa, where 80% of liver cancer arises. Incidence rates of liver cancer, however, have begun to decline in Asia, while rates are increasing in low-rate areas such as Europe and North America. The dominant histology of liver cancer in almost all countries is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The major risk factors for HCC—chronic infection with either hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of foodstuffs, excessive alcohol consumption, and diabetes/obesity/fatty liver disease—all result in chronic inflammation in the liver. HBV infection is preventable by immunization, and HCV infection is largely preventable by public health measures and now is curable with new antiviral therapies.
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44

Bryan, Benjamin R., and Frances R. Levin. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199326075.003.0007.

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Alcohol use disorder tends to have a progressive course with varying outcomes. The rate of onset of a drug’s effects and the rate at which the effects diminish or are lost affect the evolution of a drug use pattern into a substance use disorder. Depression, psychosis, anxiety, and delirium are all common symptoms associated with drug use. Many patients underestimate the amount of alcohol or drugs they use when asked by a physician. Patients with addictive behaviors demonstrate varying degrees of denial. Evidence-based psychotherapeutic interventions for the treatment of substance use disorders include motivational interviewing and cognitive-behavioral therapy. A number of medications are available for treatment of substance use disorders: acamprosate, buprenorphine, bupropion, disulfiram, methadone, naloxone, naltrexone, and varenicline.
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45

Abnet, Christian C., Olof Nyrén, and Hans-Olov Adami. Esophageal Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676827.003.0009.

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Esophageal cancer shows distinct geographic distributions, changing incidence rates, and primary risk factors when examined separately as squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma remains the dominant histologic type in many low- and middle-income countries and occurs frequently, while adenocarcinoma is classified as rare but predominates in Western countries. Tobacco and alcohol are the dominant risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma in Western countries, but not in high-incidence Asian populations, where hot beverages and specific nutritional deficiencies may be important. For adenocarcinoma, tobacco use is causal while alcoholic beverages are not. Rather, obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease are the other dominant identified risk factors. Genetic predisposing factors and somatic mutations are also cell type specific. The differences in esophageal cancer incidence within and between countries, by sex and race, and in known risk factors suggest major strides in understanding the etiology of esophageal cancer is within reach.
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46

Ames, Genevieve, and Roland S. Moore. Substance Use in Specific Settings. Edited by Kenneth J. Sher. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381678.013.014.

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National surveys in the United States and elsewhere reveal a wide range in rates of heavy drinking across occupations, with the highest in construction and lowest in educational industries. Young adults in the military have higher heavy drinking rates than their civilian counterparts, with the highest among Army and Marine personnel. Civilian and military heavy and binge drinking and drinking on the job have been linked to specific kinds of work-related problems of high consequences to employer, employees, and the military. In 1998, the estimated employment-related costs of alcohol abuse in the United States were $135 billion; the projected costs 15 years hence are much higher. Guided by theoretical advances, links between specific environmental factors and undesirable drinking behavior have been identified and explained in the context of work culture. Results of these research endeavors have provided guidelines for research and intervention focused on prevention of alcohol-related problems in the civilian and military workplace.
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47

Wu, Kana, NaNa Keum, Reiko Nishihara, and Edward L. Giovannucci. Cancers of the Colon and Rectum. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0036.

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Worldwide, colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in men and second in women, with annual estimates of 1.4 million newly diagnosed cases and over 690,000 deaths. Incidence rates relate closely to economic development. Although incidence rates have stabilized at a high level in most economically developed countries, they continue to increase in many traditionally low-risk countries, following the uptake of Western patterns of diet and physical inactivity. In principle, CRC is among the most preventable of all common cancers. Potentially modifiable risk factors include obesity, physical inactivity, high intake of red or processed meat, tobacco smoking, and heavy alcohol use. Several screening tests effectively reduce both the incidence and death rates of CRC through the detection of precancerous lesions and the treatment of early stage cancers. Despite the preventability of CRC, incidence rates over the last twenty years have decreased in only a few countries.
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48

Cournos, Francine, Karen McKinnon, and Milton Wainberg. Epidemiology of Psychiatric Disorders Associated with HIV and AIDS. Edited by Mary Ann Cohen, Jack M. Gorman, Jeffrey M. Jacobson, Paul Volberding, and Scott Letendre. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199392742.003.0003.

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This chapter presents the prevalence of common and severe mental illnesses among people with HIV infection, as well as the prevalence of HIV infection among people with severe mental illness. It begins with a look at population-based studies, which are limited in number, then discusses specific disorders studied in smaller studies with selected populations. While the chapter is largely focused on epidemiology in the United States, selected studies from other regions are cited. Taken together, studies show that people with HIV infection have high rates of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders, although these disorders tend to be milder than they were before effective antiretroviral therapy. The rates of current alcohol- and drug-related disorders mirror those for the general population, but lifetime rates among people with HIV infection are higher, as are rates of depression, anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, bipolar disorder, psychosis and personality disorder. Rates of HIV infection among people with severe mental illness in the U.S. are clearly elevated in comparison to those for the general population. Despite scientific advances, the absence of a strong focus on mental disorders remains a glaring omission in progress on HIV prevention, care, and treatment.
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49

McKay, James R., Henry R. Kranzler, Kyle M. Kampman, Rebecca L. Ashare, and Robert A. Schnoll. Psychopharmacological Treatments for Substance Use Disorders. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780199342211.003.0024.

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The treatment of substance use disorders with medications is well established, although most experts agree that pharmacological interventions must be combined with psychosocial therapies. Many type 1 and type 2 controlled trials have shown that the use of nicotine replacement therapy significantly increases abstinence rates. Non-nicotine treatments, such as bupropion and varenicline, have been found in controlled trials to significantly increase abstinence rates. The treatment of alcohol use disorder can be enhanced by three approved medications with different mechanisms of action: disulfiram, naltrexone, and acamprosate. Methadone maintenance treatment has consistently shown efficacy in the treatment of opioid dependence, and buprenorphine has substantially expanded the options for treating the disorder. Although double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials of several medications have provided initial evidence of efficacy for cocaine use disorder, efficacy has not yet been shown in multisite trials.
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50

Thomas, Stuart D. M. Diagnostic prevalence and comorbidity. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199360574.003.0032.

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Prisons and jails remain a growth industry, with many countries increasing correctional services to cope with the ever-burgeoning inmate population. One longstanding issue is the perceived increase in prevalence of mental disorders that are found in correctional settings compared to the community. Definitions of mental illness and methods of assessment vary substantially. That said, emerging data reflect some consistency in the range of estimated prevalence. Personality disorder (predominantly antisocial personality disorder) is the most common mental disorder among prisoners, accounting for 65% of male and 42% of female prisoners. Estimated rates of psychosis in some settings are as high as 3.7% for males and 4.0% for females, while major depressive disorders are found in up to 10% of male and 12% of female prisoners. Estimated point prevalence rates for alcohol abuse and dependence varied between 18 and 30% for male prisoners and between 10 and 24% for female prisoners; these estimates were between 10 and 48% for males and 30 to 60% for female prisoners with respect to drug dependence and abuse. The rates of almost all disorders are several times higher than those found in the general community, and the rates of comorbidity are exceptionally high. This chapter outlines the best available correctional prevalence of common mental disorders and considers the key assumptions and methodological challenges around ascertaining rates of these different diagnoses.
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