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Journal articles on the topic 'Alligator mississippiensis'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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1

STOUT, JEREMY B. "New early Pleistocene Alligator (Eusuchia: Crocodylia) from Florida bridges a gap in Alligator evolution." Zootaxa 4868, no. 1 (October 23, 2020): 41–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4868.1.3.

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The American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is one of two species of Alligator in the modern world. It is only distantly related to the other extant species (A. sinensis), with much closer relatives known from the geologic past of North America. A disparity exists, though, in the fossil record between A. mississippiensis and its close relative, the late Miocene (?)—early Pliocene A. mefferdi. While A. mississippiensis is known from the mid-Pleistocene and later, few Alligator remains were known from the earliest Pleistocene of North America until the discovery of the Haile 7C and 7G early Pleistocene (Blancan Land Mammal Age) sites from Alachua County, Florida. The Haile alligators exhibit a suite of characters from both A. mississippiensis and A. mefferdi, displaying intermediate morphology in time. The Haile alligators are distinct from either of the aforementioned taxa, and a new species, Alligator hailensis is suggested, bridging an important gap in the evolution of the American Alligator.

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2

Erickson, Gregory M. "Toothlessness in American Alligators, Alligator Mississippiensis." Copeia 1996, no. 3 (August 1, 1996): 739. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1447542.

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3

Riordan, Casey, Jennifer Jacquet, and Becca Franks. "Investigating the welfare and conservation implications of alligator wrestling for American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 13, 2020): e0242106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242106.

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Wildlife tourism attractions (WTA) are popular in the United States, but they may be harmful to the individual animals involved and we question whether they provide benefits to environmental conservation. Most research on the welfare and environmental implications of WTAs focuses on charismatic mammals, with few studies investigating these issues for reptiles. Here we examine alligator wrestling, including its impact on animal welfare and environmental conservation. Using a sample of 94 relevant YouTube videos of alligator wrestling in Florida representing 16 different venues, we coded the environmental and behavioral characteristics evident in each video. We then performed a content analysis of wrestlers’ narration in a subset of 51 videos to analyze the environmental awareness and educational components of alligator wrestling. Our results show systemic welfare harm: 11 venues housed adult alligators together with conspecifics, 96% of alligator wrestling performances facilitated direct contact in the form of physical restraint by one or more human wrestlers, and as many as 96% of the videos did not show a suitable water or waterside features for captive alligators. Furthermore, 12% of performances showed wrestlers flipping alligators onto their backs while 16% showed wrestlers tying alligators’ jaws shut, both of which are known to be acute stressors. Finally, just under half of alligator wrestling commentary (49%) addressed environmental conservation topics, and much of this commentary included contradictory or misleading information that is not likely to benefit alligators in the wild. We argue that alligator wrestling serves no role in promoting positive relationships between humans, animals, and the environment, and instead furthers traditional notions of dominion that undermine welfare and conservation aims.

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4

Codd, Jonathan R., Kayleigh A. R. Rose, Peter G. Tickle, William I. Sellers, Robert J. Brocklehurst, Ruth M. Elsey, and Dane A. Crossley. "A novel accessory respiratory muscle in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis )." Biology Letters 15, no. 7 (July 2019): 20190354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0354.

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The muscles that effect lung ventilation are key to understanding the evolutionary constraints on animal form and function. Here, through electromyography, we demonstrate a newly discovered respiratory function for the iliocostalis muscle in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ). The iliocostalis is active during expiration when breathing on land at 28°C and this activity is mediated through the uncinate processes on the vertebral ribs. There was also an increase in muscle activity during the forced expirations of alarm distress vocalizations. Interestingly, we did not find any respiratory activity in the iliocostalis when the alligators were breathing with their body submerged in water at 18°C, which resulted in a reduced breathing frequency. The iliocostalis is an accessory breathing muscle that alligators are able to recruit in to assist expiration under certain conditions.

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5

Squires, Michiko, Avishka Godahewa, Justin R. Dalaba, Laura A. Brandt, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Have you seen a skinny alligator in South Florida?" EDIS 2019, no. 6 (December 20, 2019): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-uw460-2019.

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The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is an effective indicator for restoration of more natural patterns of water levels and flows through the Everglades. The Florida Everglades is a highly modified system, so monitoring health of alligators can inform how different areas of this large ecosystem are doing. Based on an increase in reports of very skinny alligators, biologists and natural resource managers are seeking help from the public to better understand where and when this problem occurs. This fact sheet serves as a guide for citizen scientists on how to score alligator body condition and report sightings of very skinny or unhealthy alligators.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw460

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6

Asa, Cheryl S., Gary D. London, Ronald R. Goellner, Norman Haskell, Glenn Roberts, and Crispen Wilson. "Thermoregulatory Behavior of Captive American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Herpetology 32, no. 2 (June 1998): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1565296.

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7

Novak, Susan S., and Richard A. Seigel. "GRAM-NEGATIVE SEPTICEMIA IN AMERICAN ALLIGATORS (ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS)." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 22, no. 4 (October 1986): 484–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-22.4.484.

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8

Young, Bruce A., James Potter, Joshua Blanchard, Lucas Knoche, and Tatyana Kondrashova. "Cardiac response to stimulation and stress in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Amphibia-Reptilia 41, no. 4 (May 12, 2020): 547–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685381-bja10013.

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Abstract Previous descriptions of the direction (tachycardia versus bradycardia), magnitude, and duration of the cardiac stimulation/stress response of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) have been contradictory. Superficial EKG leads were used to quantify heart rate while presenting a graded series of stimuli to a cohort of 5 sub-adult alligators. Only tachycardic responses were recorded. Stress (manual restraint and transport) induced a nearly 3-fold increase over the resting heart rate (∼17 bpm), which decreased only 7 bpm over 40 minutes in a stimulus-free environment. Lower-level stimulation (i.e., exposure to room light) produced a significantly smaller response than did higher-level stimulation (i.e., physical contact), both responses were transitory, lasting approximately 120 s.

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9

Bickler, P. E., R. G. Spragg, M. T. Hartman, and F. N. White. "Distribution of ventilation in American alligator Alligator mississippiensis." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 249, no. 4 (October 1, 1985): R477—R481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1985.249.4.r477.

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The regional distribution of ventilation in the multicameral lung of spontaneously ventilating alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was studied with 133Xe scintigraphy. Frequent gamma camera images of 133Xe washin and washout were obtained and processed to allow evaluation of regional ventilation. Washin of 133Xe to equilibrium occurred in three to four breaths in anterior, central, and posterior compartments. Washin was most rapid in the posterior compartment and slowest in the anterior. The structure of the lungs and distribution of ventilation of inspired gas is consistent with the rapid radial spread of gas through a parallel arrangement of lung units surrounding the central intrapulmonary bronchus. Washout to equilibrium of 133Xe from all compartments occurred within three to four breaths. This rapid washin and washout of gas to all parts of the lung stands in contrast to the lungs of turtles and snakes, in which the caudal air sacs are relatively poorly ventilated.

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10

Squires, Michiko, Avishka Godahewa, Justin R. Dalaba, Laura A. Brandt, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Have you seen a skinny alligator in south Florida? [trifold brochure]." EDIS 2019, no. 6 (December 20, 2019): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-uw461-2019.

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This is a trifold brochure based on the fact sheet by the same title, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw460 The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is an effective indicator for restoration of more natural patterns of water levels and flows through the Everglades. The Florida Everglades is a highly modified system, so monitoring health of alligators can inform how different areas of this large ecosystem are doing. Based on an increase in reports of very skinny alligators, biologists and natural resource managers are seeking help from the public to better understand where and when this problem occurs. This brochure serves as a guide for citizen scientists on how to score alligator body condition and report sightings of very skinny or unhealthy alligators.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw461

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11

Woodward, Allan R., John H. White, and Stephen B. Linda. "Maximum Size of the Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Herpetology 29, no. 4 (December 1995): 507. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1564733.

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12

Tellez, Marisa, Ali Haghighi, and Melina Lavihim. "Distribution and Abundance ofSebekia mississippiensis(Sebekidae) in the American Alligator,Alligator mississippiensis." Comparative Parasitology 81, no. 2 (July 2014): 232–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1654/4690.1.

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13

Parrott, Benjamin B., John A. Bowden, Satomi Kohno, Jessica A. Cloy-McCoy, Matthew D. Hale, Jacqueline T. Bangma, Thomas R. Rainwater, Phillip M. Wilkinson, John R. Kucklick, and Louis J. Guillette. "Influence of tissue, age, and environmental quality on DNA methylation in Alligator mississippiensis." REPRODUCTION 147, no. 4 (April 2014): 503–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/rep-13-0498.

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Epigenetic modifications are key mediators of the interactions between the environment and an organism's genome. DNA methylation represents the best-studied epigenetic modification to date and is known to play key roles in regulating transcriptional activity and promoting chromosome stability. Our laboratory has previously demonstrated the utility of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) as a sentinel species to investigate the persistent effects of environmental contaminant exposure on reproductive health. Here, we incorporate a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method to directly measure the total (global) proportion of 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine (5mdC) in ovarian and whole blood DNA from alligators. Global DNA methylation in ovaries was significantly elevated in comparison with that of whole blood. However, DNA methylation appeared similar in juvenile alligators reared under controlled laboratory conditions but originating from three sites with dissimilar environmental qualities, indicating an absence of detectable site-of-origin effects on persistent levels of global 5mdC content. Analyses of tissues across individuals revealed a surprising lack of correlation between global methylation levels in blood and ovary. In addition, global DNA methylation in blood samples from juvenile alligators was elevated compared with those from adults, suggesting that age, as observed in mammals, may negatively influence global DNA methylation levels in alligators. To our knowledge, this is the first study examining global levels of DNA methylation in the American alligator and provides a reference point for future studies examining the interplay of epigenetics and environmental factors in a long-lived sentinel species.

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14

Farmer, C. G., and D. R. Carrier. "Ventilation and gas exchange during treadmill locomotion in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 11 (June 1, 2000): 1671–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.11.1671.

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A number of anatomical characters of crocodilians appear to be inconsistent with their lifestyle as sit-and-wait predators. To address this paradoxical association of characters further, we measured lung ventilation and respiratory gas exchange during walking in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). During exercise, ventilation consisted of low-frequency, large-volume breaths. The alligators hyperventilated severely during walking with respect to their metabolic demands. Air convection requirements were among the highest and estimates of lung P(CO2) were among the lowest known in air-breathing vertebrates. Air convection requirements dropped immediately with cessation of exercise. These observations indicate that the ventilation of alligators is not limited by their locomotor movements. We suggest that the highly specialized ventilatory system of modern crocodilians represents a legacy from cursorial ancestors rather than an adaptation to a lifestyle as amphibious sit-and-wait predators.

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15

Galli, Gina L. J., Janna Crossley, Ruth M. Elsey, Edward M. Dzialowski, Holly A. Shiels, and Dane A. Crossley. "Developmental plasticity of mitochondrial function in American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 311, no. 6 (December 1, 2016): R1164—R1172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00107.2016.

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The effect of hypoxia on cellular metabolism is well documented in adult vertebrates, but information is entirely lacking for embryonic organisms. The effect of hypoxia on embryonic physiology is particularly interesting, as metabolic responses during development may have life-long consequences, due to developmental plasticity. To this end, we investigated the effects of chronic developmental hypoxia on cardiac mitochondrial function in embryonic and juvenile American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis). Alligator eggs were incubated in 21% or 10% oxygen from 20 to 90% of embryonic development. Embryos were either harvested at 90% development or allowed to hatch and then reared in 21% oxygen for 3 yr. Ventricular mitochondria were isolated from embryonic/juvenile alligator hearts. Mitochondrial respiration and enzymatic activities of electron transport chain complexes were measured with a microrespirometer and spectrophotometer, respectively. Developmental hypoxia induced growth restriction and increased relative heart mass, and this phenotype persisted into juvenile life. Embryonic mitochondrial function was not affected by developmental hypoxia, but at the juvenile life stage, animals from hypoxic incubations had lower levels of Leak respiration and higher respiratory control ratios, which is indicative of enhanced mitochondrial efficiency. Our results suggest developmental hypoxia can have life-long consequences for alligator morphology and metabolic function. Further investigations are necessary to reveal the adaptive significance of the enhanced mitochondrial efficiency in the hypoxic phenotype.

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16

Brown, Daniel R., Laurie A. Zacher, and Dwayne A. Carbonneau. "SEROPREVALENCE OF MYCOPLASMA ALLIGATORIS AMONG FREE-RANGING ALLIGATORS (ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS) IN FLORIDA—2003." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36, no. 2 (June 2005): 340–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/04-029.1.

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17

Ibrahim, Sayed A., James W. Avery, Paul J. Weldon, and James W. Wheeler. "Age-Class Differences in Lipids from the Paracloacal Glands of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 53, no. 3-4 (April 1, 1998): 201–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-1998-3-410.

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Abstract The paracloacal gland secretions of immature and adult American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) from Louisiana were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate age-class differences in lipid composition. The secretions of both immature and adult alligators contain saturated C14 and C16 free fatty acids and decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tetradecyl, and hexadecyl acetates. Compounds observed only in immature alligators include dodecanoic acid, C12 and C14 alcohols, C10-C14 butanoates, an array of C8-C18 3-methylbutanoates, C12- C15 hexanoates, C12 and C14 octanoates, a C12 decanoate, C10-C14 dodecanoates, C10- C16 tetradecanoates, C12 and C14 hexadecanoates, a C12 octadecanoate, and a diterpene hydrocarbon identified as (E ,E )- 7,11,15-trimethyl-3-methylenehexadeca-1,6,10,14-tetraene (β-springene). Compounds observed only in adults include several C7-C16 free fatty acids and certain C10- C18 acetates. The age-class differences we observe in the paracloacal gland lipids of alligators from Louisiana are similar to those previously reported for alligators from Texas.

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18

Foreyt, William J., Charles W. Leathers, and E. Norbert Smith. "Trichoderma sp. Infection in the Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Herpetology 19, no. 4 (December 1985): 530. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1564208.

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19

Jacobsen, T., and J. A. Kushlan. "Growth dynamics in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Zoology 219, no. 2 (October 1989): 309–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1989.tb02583.x.

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20

VLIET, KENT A. "Social Displays of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." American Zoologist 29, no. 3 (August 1989): 1019–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/29.3.1019.

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21

J. Nickum, Mary, Michael Masser, Robert Reigh, and John G. Nickum. "Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)Aquaculture in the United States." Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture 26, no. 1 (August 14, 2017): 86–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2017.1355350.

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22

Wood, Ashley, Masahiro Ogawa, Ralph J. Portier, Mark Schexnayder, Mark Shirley, and Jack N. Losso. "Biochemical properties of alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) bone collagen." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 151, no. 3 (November 2008): 246–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2008.05.015.

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23

Farmer, C. G., and D. R. Carrier. "Pelvic aspiration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 11 (June 1, 2000): 1679–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.11.1679.

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The pelvis of crocodilians is highly derived in that the pubic bones are isolated from the acetabulum and are attached to the ischia via moveable joints. We examined the possible role of this unusual morphology in lung ventilation by measuring ventilation, abdominal pressure and the electrical activity of several abdominal and pelvic muscles in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). We found that the activity of two pelvic muscles, the ischiopubis and ischiotruncus muscles, was correlated with inspiration; these muscles rotate the pubes ventrally and thereby increase abdominal volume. During expiration, contraction of the rectus abdominis and transversus abdominis rotates the pubes dorsally. We suggest that this mechanism facilitates diaphragmatic breathing by creating space for caudal displacement of the viscera during inspiration. Because birds also use a dorso-ventral movement of the pelvis to effect ventilation, some form of pelvic aspiration may be plesiomorphic for archosaurs.

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24

Weldon, P. J., A. Shafagati, and J. W. Wheeler. "Notes: Lipids in the Gular Gland Secretion of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 42, no. 11-12 (December 1, 1987): 1345–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-1987-11-1234.

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Lipids from the gular glands of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) were examined by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. C14, C16, and C18 fatty acids, squalene, and α-tocopherol (vitamin E) were detected in nearly all samples. Cholesterol was detected clearly in several samples.

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25

Unlu, Isik, Wayne L. Kramer, Alma F. Roy, and Lane D. Foil. "Detection of West Nile Virus RNA in Mosquitoes and Identification of Mosquito Blood Meals Collected at Alligator Farms in Louisiana." Journal of Medical Entomology 47, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 625–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/47.4.625.

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Abstract Since 2001, alligator farms in the United States have sustained substantial economic losses because of West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Once an initial infection is introduced into captive alligators, WNV can spread among animals by contaminative transmission. Some outbreaks have been linked to feeding on infected meat or the introduction of infected hatchlings, but the initial source of WNV infection has been uncertain in other outbreaks. We conducted a study to identify species composition and presence of WNV in mosquito populations associated with alligator farms in Louisiana. A second objective of this study was to identify the origin of mosquito blood meals collected at commercial alligator farms. Mosquitoes were collected from 2004 to 2006, using Centers for Disease Control light traps, gravid traps, backpack aspirators, and resting boxes. We collected a total of 58,975 mosquitoes representing 24 species. WNV was detected in 41 pools of females from 11 mosquito species: Anopheles crucians, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Coquillettidia perturbans, Culex coronator, Culex erraticus, Culex nigripalpus, Culex quinquefasciatus, Mansonia titillans, Aedes sollicitans, Psorophora columbiae, and Uranotaenia lowii. The blood meal origins of 213 field-collected mosquitoes were identified based on cytochrome B sequence identity. Alligator blood was detected in 21 mosquitoes representing six species of mosquitoes, including Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus. Our results showed that mosquitoes of species that are known to be competent vectors of WNV fed regularly on captive alligators. Therefore, mosquitoes probably are important in the role of transmission of WNV at alligator farms.

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26

Rizac, Raluca Ioana, Teodoru Soare, Emilia Ciobotaru-Pîrvu, and Manuella Militaru. "Systemic Granulomatous Pathology in Two Captive Alligator Mississippiensis." Acta Veterinaria 69, no. 3 (September 1, 2019): 348–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/acve-2019-0029.

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Abstract The literature in this field cites various ubiquitous fungal and bacterial microorganisms as etiologic agents in severely stressed captive alligators and crocodiles. This study reports two cases of Alligator mississippiensis with bacterial and fungal disease. Two adult American alligators have been submitted for post-mortem investigations. Necropsy, cytology (MGG), and histopathology investigations (HE, HEA, PAS, Gram, Giemsa, Ziehl Neelsen) were carried out. Pleural and pericardial swabs were subjected to microbiological examination. The main lesions detected involved the lower respiratory system and were characterized by thoracic serosanguineous effusions, pleural and pulmonary nodules (1 – 80 mm), accompanied by edema. Similar nodules observed also in the liver, spleen and myocardium, suggested a systemic disease. Additionally, cutaneous, gingival and gastrointestinal erosions and ulcers were found. Cytoarchitecture findings in the major organs revealed lymphoid depletion, multifocal to coalescing necrotic areas with coccoid aggregates and rod shaped bacteria intermixing fungal structures, boarded by heterogeneous inflammatory infiltrates, composed by epithelioid macrophages, lymphocytes and heterophils. The microbiological examination revealed the presence of Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, Serratia marcescens, Pantoea agglomerans, Proteus vulgaris, haemolitic and non-haemolitic E. coli, Citrobacter freundii, Rhizopus/Absidia from pleural and pericardial cavities, concluding that death occurred following a bacterial and fungal pneumonia, with secondary spreading of microorganisms. Along with the low immune response, severe stress was the main possible cause, as a result of environmental temperature changes during the winter, as well as other husbandry issues.

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Passek, Kelly M., and James C. Gillingham. "Absence of Kin Discrimination in Hatchling American Alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." Copeia 1999, no. 3 (August 2, 1999): 831. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1447624.

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28

Jagoe, C. H., B. Arnold-Hill, G. M. Yanochko, P. V. Winger, and I. L. Brisbin Jr. "Mercury in alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in the southeastern United States." Science of The Total Environment 213, no. 1-3 (June 1998): 255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0048-9697(98)00098-9.

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29

Saalfeld, David T., Warren C. Conway, and Gary E. Calkins. "Food Habits of American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in East Texas." Southeastern Naturalist 10, no. 4 (December 2011): 659–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1656/058.010.0406.

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30

Govett, Pamela D., Craig A. Harms, April J. Johnson, Kenneth S. Latimer, James F. X. Wellehan, Michael H. Fatzinger, L. Shane Christian, Terra R. Kelly, and Gregory A. Lewbart. "Lymphoid Follicular Cloacal Inflammation Associated with a Novel Herpesvirus in Juvenile Alligators (Alligator Mississippiensis)." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 17, no. 5 (September 2005): 474–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104063870501700513.

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Multifocal hyperemic nodules and plaques associated with the cloacal mucosa of juvenile alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis) at a public aquarium were investigated. Grossly, pale pink to dark red multifocal, circular lesions of varying degrees of severity were identified on the cloacal and, in males, phallus mucosa. Cloacal mucosa biopsies were obtained from 2 of the alligators. These samples were examined histologically and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using consensus primers targeting a conserved region of the herpesvirus polymerase gene. Microscopically, the lesions were characterized as submucosal lymphoid follicles with hyperemia and hemorrhage. No inclusion bodies were observed. Minimal to no anisokaryosis was present, and no etiologic agents were identified. Through PCR, a band consistent in size with herpesvirus was observed. Tissues showing similar clinical, histopathologic, and PCR findings were collected from animals at an alligator farm several months later. Sequencing of the PCR amplicon resulted in a 180-base pair sequence that shared 85% sequence identity with tortoise herpesvirus-1.

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31

Packard, M. J., and G. C. Packard. "Mobilization of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium by embryonic alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 257, no. 6 (December 1, 1989): R1541—R1547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1989.257.6.r1541.

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The yolk of an alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) egg contains approximately 115 mg of Ca, 180 mg of P, and 17 mg of Mg at oviposition. This compartment is the primary (or sole) source of P and Mg for the forming embryo. Both of these elements are depleted rapidly from the yolk once the embryo enters the growth phase of development. The yolk also is an important source of Ca for the embryo, particularly during the first two-thirds of incubation. During the last trimester of development, however, the embryo supplements Ca from the yolk with Ca mobilized from the eggshell. Indeed, more Ca is withdrawn from the eggshell during the last 2 wk of incubation than can be used by the embryo in skeletogenesis. The excess Ca is stored in the yolk, thereby causing net transfer of Ca to shift from withdrawal from the yolk to deposition in the yolk. Consequently, the residual yolk in the hatchling alligator contains a substantial reserve of Ca to support skeletal growth during the neonatal period. The pattern of mobilization and deposition of Ca during embryogenesis in alligators is similar to that characterizing avian embryos, but is distinct from that characterizing embryos of all other oviparous reptiles.

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32

Merchant, Mark, Dusty Savage, Amos Cooper, Monique Slaughter, Joshuah S. Perkin, and Christopher M. Murray. "Nest Attendance Patterns in the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Copeia 106, no. 3 (October 2018): 421–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1643/ch-17-709.

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33

Beresford, W. A. "Fibrous trabeculae in the liver of alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger 175, no. 4 (August 1993): 357–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0940-9602(11)80041-5.

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34

Finger, John W., Scott M. Goetz, Meghan D. Kelley, L. M. Horne, Sara Piccolomini, Ruth M. Elsey, and Mary T. Mendonça. "American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Serum Inhibits Pitviper Venom Metalloproteinases." Journal of Herpetology 54, no. 2 (March 11, 2020): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1670/19-027.

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35

Bishop, Barney M., Melanie L. Juba, Megan C. Devine, Stephanie M. Barksdale, Carlos Alberto Rodriguez, Myung C. Chung, Paul S. Russo, Kent A. Vliet, Joel M. Schnur, and Monique L. van Hoek. "Bioprospecting the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Host Defense Peptidome." PLOS ONE 10, no. 2 (February 11, 2015): e0117394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117394.

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Moore, Brandon C., Mari Carmen Uribe-Aranzábal, Ashley S. P. Boggs, and Louis J. Guillette. "Developmental morphology of the neonatal alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) ovary." Journal of Morphology 269, no. 3 (2008): 302–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10583.

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McDonald, M. M., and H. W. Taylor. "Egg Yolk Serositis in an American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24, no. 4 (October 1988): 700–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-24.4.700.

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38

Lau, C. H., E. R. Snook, A. K. Swinford, and L. K. Bryan. "Achlya sp. Dermatitis in an American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Comparative Pathology 175 (February 2020): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2019.12.002.

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39

Nilsen, Frances M., Brittany L. Kassim, J. Patrick Delaney, Ted R. Lange, Arnold M. Brunell, Louis J. Guillette, Stephen E. Long, and Tracey B. Schock. "Trace element biodistribution in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis)." Chemosphere 181 (August 2017): 343–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.102.

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40

Liu, Victor H. "Chinese Alligators." Reptiles & Amphibians 20, no. 4 (December 1, 2013): 172–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.17161/randa.v20i4.13965.

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I present previously unpublished data on the breeding habits and related conservation efforts on behalf of the endangered endemic Chinese Alligator (Alligator sinensis) collected through interviews and observations conducted at the Changxing Nature Reserve & Breeding Center for Chinese Alligators. The objective of this study was to provide additional material to supplement that presented in the most current and comprehensive English-language literature on the species. Conservation efforts on behalf of the Chinese Alligator are hindered by heavily polluting industries, such as coal-fired power plants and battery plants, which affect all local fauna. In addition, captive population satistics at Changxing and Xuancheng breeding centers have changed since 2010. Additional observations of the Chinese Alligator include nesting behaviors, ovipositioning, and temperature and humidity conditions in nests. I observed experiments comparing temperature-dependent sex determination to that in the closely related American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). I provide information on reintroduction efforts by both Chinese captive breeding centers in different wild zones and discuss definitioono of "wild," with which Chinese Alligator reintroduction efforts do not conform. Further species conservation efforts should be facilitated by a master plan and studbook, implemented to maximize genetic variation and minimize the effects of inbreeding depression in captive populations with few founders.

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KULESA, P. M., G. C. CRUYWAGEN, S. R. LUBKIN, P. K. MAINI, J. SNEYD, and J. D. MURRAY. "MODELLING THE SPATIAL PATTERNING OF THE TEETH PRIMORDIA IN THE LOWER JAW OF Alligator mississippiensis." Journal of Biological Systems 03, no. 04 (December 1995): 975–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218339095000873.

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We propose a model mechanism for the initiation and spatial positioning of teeth primordia in the alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Detailed embryological studies12–14 have shown that jaw growth plays a crucial role in the developmental patterning of the tooth initiation process. The development of the spatial pattern occurs on a timescale comparable to jaw growth. Based on biological data we develop a dynamic patterning mechanism, which crucially includes domain growth. The mechanism can reproduce the spatial pattern development of the first seven teeth primordia in the lower jaw of A. mississippiensis. The results for the precise spatio-temporal sequence compare well with experiment.

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Sakaguchi, K., J. G. Nevarez, and F. Del Piero. "Salmonella Enterica Serovar Pomona Infection in Farmed Juvenile American Alligators (Alligator Mississippiensis)." Veterinary Pathology 54, no. 2 (November 24, 2016): 316–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0300985816677149.

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A fatal epizootic of salmonellosis occurred in farmed juvenile American alligators in Louisiana. Six animals were examined. Gross lesions included severe fibrinonecrotizing enterocolitis, necrotizing splenitis, coelomic effusion, and perivisceral and pulmonary edema. Microscopic examination revealed severe necrotizing enterocolitis and splenitis with intralesional bacteria and pneumocyte necrosis with fibrin thrombi. Salmonella enterica serovar Pomona was isolated from intestine and lung. Clinical salmonellosis is a rare finding in reptiles and salmonellosis caused by S. Pomona is not previously reported in American alligators. Since S. Pomona is a commonly isolated Salmonella serotype from patients with reptile-associated salmonellosis in the United States, and since alligator meat is consumed and the skin is exported to numerous countries, risk of human and animal infection should be considered.

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43

Blob, R. W., and A. A. Biewener. "Mechanics of limb bone loading during terrestrial locomotion in the green iguana (Iguana iguana) and American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 204, no. 6 (March 15, 2001): 1099–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.6.1099.

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In vivo measurements of strain in the femur and tibia of Iguana iguana (Linnaeus) and Alligator mississippiensis (Daudin) have indicated three ways in which limb bone loading in these species differs from patterns observed in most birds and mammals: (i) the limb bones of I. iguana and A. mississippiensis experience substantial torsion, (ii) the limb bones of I. iguana and A. mississippiensis have higher safety factors than those of birds or mammals, and (iii) load magnitudes in the limb bones of A. mississippiensis do not decrease uniformly with the use of a more upright posture. To verify these patterns, and to evaluate the ground and muscle forces that produce them, we collected three-dimensional kinematic and ground reaction force data from subadult I. iguana and A. mississippiensis using a force platform and high-speed video. The results of these force/kinematic studies generally confirm the loading regimes inferred from in vivo strain measurements. The ground reaction force applies a torsional moment to the femur and tibia in both species; for the femur, this moment augments the moment applied by the caudofemoralis muscle, suggesting large torsional stresses. In most cases, safety factors in bending calculated from force/video data are lower than those determined from strain data, but are as high or higher than the safety factors of bird and mammal limb bones in bending. Finally, correlations between limb posture and calculated stress magnitudes in the femur of I. iguana confirm patterns observed during direct bone strain recordings from A. mississippiensis: in more upright steps, tensile stresses on the anterior cortex decrease, but peak compressive stresses on the dorsal cortex increase. Equilibrium analyses indicate that bone stress increases as posture becomes more upright in saurians because the ankle and knee extensor muscles exert greater forces during upright locomotion. If this pattern of increased bone stress with the use of a more upright posture is typical of taxa using non-parasagittal kinematics, then similar increases in load magnitudes were probably experienced by lineages that underwent evolutionary shifts to a non-sprawling posture. High limb bone safety factors and small body size in these lineages could have helped to accommodate such increases in limb bone stress.

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Bailleul, Alida M., and Casey M. Holliday. "Joint histology in Alligator mississippiensis challenges the identification of synovial joints in fossil archosaurs and inferences of cranial kinesis." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1851 (March 22, 2017): 20170038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0038.

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Archosaurs, like all vertebrates, have different types of joints that allow or restrict cranial kinesis, such as synovial joints and fibrous joints. In general, synovial joints are more kinetic than fibrous joints, because the former possess a fluid-filled cavity and articular cartilage that facilitate movement. Even though there is a considerable lack of data on the microstructure and the structure–function relationships in the joints of extant archosaurs, many functional inferences of cranial kinesis in fossil archosaurs have hinged on the assumption that elongated condylar joints are (i) synovial and/or (ii) kinetic. Cranial joint microstructure was investigated in an ontogenetic series of American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis . All the presumably synovial, condylar joints found within the head of the American alligator (the jaw joint, otic joint and laterosphenoid–postorbital (LS–PO) joint) were studied by means of paraffin histology and undecalcified histology paired with micro-computed tomography data to better visualize three-dimensional morphology. Results show that among the three condylar joints of A. mississippiensis , the jaw joint was synovial as expected, but the otherwise immobile otic and LS–PO joints lacked a synovial cavity. Therefore, condylar morphology does not always imply the presence of a synovial articulation nor mobility. These findings reveal an undocumented diversity in the joint structure of alligators and show that crocodylians and birds build novel, kinetic cranial joints differently. This complicates accurate identification of synovial joints and functional inferences of cranial kinesis in fossil archosaurs and tetrapods in general.

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Eversole, Cord B., Scott E. Henke, Benjamin L. Turner, Selma N. Glasscock, Randy L. Powell, David B. Wester, and Bart M. Ballard. "A Theoretical Population and Harvest Model for American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Herpetological Monographs 32, no. 1 (December 2018): 22–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1655/herpmonographs-d-17-00005.

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46

Nevarez, Javier G., Christine R. Lattin, Michael Romero, Brian Stacy, and Noel Kinler. "Assessment of Corticosterone Levels in American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) with Dermatitis." Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 21, no. 2 (June 1, 2011): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5818/1529-9651-21.2.76.

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47

Scott, Timothy P., and Paul J. Weldon. "Chemoreception in the feeding behaviour of adult American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." Animal Behaviour 39, no. 2 (February 1990): 398–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80887-5.

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48

Hamlin, Heather J., Russell H. Lowers, Lori C. Albergotti, Michael W. McCoy, Jessica Mutz, and Louis J. Guillette. "Environmental Influence on Yolk Steroids in American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)1." Biology of Reproduction 83, no. 5 (November 1, 2010): 736–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.110.085142.

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49

Elsey, Ruth M., Valentine A. Lance, Ted Joanen, and Larry Mcnease. "Acute stress suppresses plasma estradiol levels in female alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 100, no. 3 (January 1991): 649–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-9629(91)90384-o.

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50

Eme, John, Cassidy J. Cooper, Andrew Alvo, Juan Vasquez, Sara Muhtaseb, Susan Rayman, Thomas Schmoyer, and Ruth M. Elsey. "Scaling of major organs in hatchling female American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis )." Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology 331, no. 1 (October 26, 2018): 38–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jez.2236.

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