Relevant bibliographies by topics / Altruism. Helping behavior

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters

Academic literature on the topic 'Altruism. Helping behavior'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 3 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Altruism. Helping behavior"

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Schroeder, David A., John F. Dovidio, Mark E. Sibicky, Linda L. Matthews, and Judith L. Allen. "Empathic concern and helping behavior: Egoism or altruism?" Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 24, no. 4 (July 1988): 333–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(88)90024-8.

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Beardman, Stephanie. "Altruism and the Experimental Data on Helping Behavior." Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 15, no. 4 (October 12, 2011): 547–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-011-9309-4.

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Price, Linda L., Lawrence F. Feick, and Audrey Guskey. "Everyday Market Helping Behavior." Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 14, no. 2 (September 1995): 255–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074391569501400207.

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Research in marketing includes many examples of consumers helping other consumers. However, most research has studied helping behavior from the recipients’ perspective by examining the use of personal sources of information. Consequently, very little is known about the prevalence of market helping or why market helpers provide assistance. The authors examine the incidence of a variety of everyday market helping activities and identify a few key antecedents of market helping behavior. The results of a study of 302 heads of household confirm significant relationships between market helping and two hypothesized predictors: general altruism and marketplace involvement. The market maven construct is shown to mediate completely the relationship of these predictors with market helping behavior. The authors discuss the implications of the results for public policymakers and consumer welfare.
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Allyn Piliavin, Jane. "Altruism and Helping: The Evolution of a Field: The 2008 Cooley-Mead Presentation1." Social Psychology Quarterly 72, no. 3 (September 2009): 209–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019027250907200305.

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I present a selective history of the evolution of the study of altruism and helping behavior, using a series of questions and answers. Some of the topics covered include the motives for helping, the origins of helping and altruism in evolution and child development, the relationship of organizations to helping, and the psychological and health consequences for the helper. A framework within which to view the current structure of the field is presented, and a challenge is issued for scholars in the areas of social movements and helping behavior to come together to synthesize the two fields.
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Kerekes, Zsuzsanna. "The Presence of Others, Prosocial Traits, Machiavellianism." Social Psychology 41, no. 4 (January 2010): 238–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000032.

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The presence of others has long been known to have an effect on people’s decisions to engage in more helping behavior, but relatively few studies have examined the interaction between the observation of the helping act and various personality traits of the altruist person. In the present study, subjects were asked to volunteer by offering a less and a more costly charity service in public and under anonymous conditions. We found that prosocial personality traits showed relative independence of situational factors. Scores on the scale of Machiavellianism, in contrast, proved to be strongly dependent on the presence of others, but not on the cost of the offered charity act. Those obtaining high scores on this scale (high-Mach persons) disguised their selfishness and pretended altruism in the presence of others, but realized their self-interest when others were not observing their behavior. This responsiveness to the strategic distinction between the presence and absence of others is discussed in terms of reputation-gaining and competitive altruism.
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Oswald, Patricia A. "Subtle Sex Bias in Empathy and Helping Behavior." Psychological Reports 87, no. 2 (October 2000): 545–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.87.2.545.

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The present study examined the influences on empathy and altruism of sex of participant, the affective demeanor (positive or negative) and cognitive processes (positive or negative) displayed by a female target in a video, and the perspective-taking focus of participants. The latter variable is related to the affective or cognitive response to the target's portrayal, or the response to technical aspects of the video (nonperspective-taking). Empathy was measured using Batson's Empathy Adjectives (1987) and altruism was measured by participants' written responses, which indicated how many hours they were willing to volunteer to help persons similar to the target. An ethnically diverse sample of working adults ( M age = 31.6 yr., SD = 8.2) participated. Analysis yielded a subtle difference between groups. Men reported feeling more empathy for a confused, unfocused, illogical woman target, whereas women felt more empathy for a focused, clear, logical woman target. Moreover, there was a significant relationship between sex and helping—men offered more help than women.
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Smith, Joyce D., and David R. Shaffer. "SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, SELF-REPORTED ALTRUISM, AND HELPING BEHAVIOUR." Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 14, no. 2 (January 1, 1986): 215–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1986.14.2.215.

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Female subjects who differed in public and private self-consciousness and in self-reported altruism were afforded an opportunity to assist a person in need. As anticipated, subjects high in private selfconsciousness provided more assistance to the recipient than did subjects low on this attribute. However, there was a tendency for “high private” subjects to be somewhat less helpful if they were also high in public self-consciousness. Internal analyses revealed that Self-reported Altruism, a measure of one's altruistic inclinations, reliably predicted the helping behavior of subjects high in private self-consciousness, but did not predict the prosocial actions of those low in private self-consciousness. The implications of these findings for self-consciousness theory and the issue of value-behavior correspondence are discussed.
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Sileo, Frank J., and Wesley A. Kayson. "When Will Annoying Phone Calls Be Listened to?: Effects of Sex, Tone of Voice, and Time of Day." Psychological Reports 62, no. 2 (April 1988): 351–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1988.62.2.351.

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This experiment studied the effects of sex, tone of voice, and time of day on the length of time to which an annoying phone call was listened. A man and a woman made 90 phone calls each in an angry or an apologetic tone of voice during the morning, afternoon, or night hours. It was predicted that the female caller making calls, in the afternoon with an apologetic tone of voice, would be listened to the longest. The predictions about sex and tone of voice were confirmed; however, phone calls made in the morning were listened for the shortest time. The findings are similar to those found for altruistic behavior. It is hypothesized that there is a continuum of helping behavior ranging from the passive helping received in this experiment to the active helping studied in the research on altruism. The theorized continuum of altruism should be further elaborated and researched.
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Rezvani Nejad, Saeed, Ahmad Borjali, Mahdi Khanjani, and Daniel J. Kruger. "Belief in an Afterlife Influences Altruistic Helping Intentions in Alignment With Adaptive Tendencies." Evolutionary Psychology 19, no. 2 (April 1, 2021): 147470492110117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/14747049211011745.

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Evolutionary definitions of altruism are only concerned with reproductive consequences and not motives or other psychological mechanisms, making them ideal for generalization to all forms of organisms. Hamilton’s inclusive fitness theory explains altruistic behavior toward genetic relatives and has generated extensive empirical support. Trivers’ theory of reciprocal altruism helps explain patterns of helping among non-kin, and other research has demonstrated that human helping intentions follow fitness consequences from age-based reproductive value on altruism. The current study examines a novel psychological factor, belief in the afterlife, which may influence altruistic helping intentions. Belief in the afterlife was incorporated into a previous study design assessing the effects of a target’s genetic relatedness and age-based reproductive value. The influences of inclusive fitness and target age were reproduced in a non-Western sample of participants ( N = 300) in Iran. Belief in the afterlife predicted the overall confidence of risking one’s life to save another across all targets, and also moderated the effects of genetic relatedness and target age. Rather than promoting altruism equitably or advantaging those favored by adaptive tendencies, higher belief in an afterlife aligned with these tendencies in promoting further favoritism toward close kin and younger targets with higher reproductive value.
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Mastain, Lisa. "A Phenomenological Investigation of Altruism as Experienced by Moral Exemplars." Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 38, no. 1 (2007): 62–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156916207x190247.

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AbstractThis research study used descriptive phenomenological methods (Giorgi, 1989, Methods, 1, 39-61) to investigate and document the lived experience of altruism as described by moral exemplars. Six moral exemplars wrote descriptions of situations in which they engaged in spontaneous altruism. Altruism was defined for the purpose of this study as a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991, The altruism question: Toward a social psychological answer). These descriptions were then expanded and clarified through follow up interviews. The results of this descriptive phenomenological analysis produced two structures: the structure of the lived experience of altruism as described by moral exemplars, and the structure of the lived experience of helping as described by moral exemplars. The differences between these two structures suggest that altruistically motivated pro-social behavior is more committed, extensive and effective than egoistically motivated helping, and results in a higher level of concern for the long-term well-being of the individuals helped. Although differentiated by primary motivations, altruistic or egoistic, both structures identify the motivating factors of empathy, personal historical life experiences, moral values, and personal identity as essential to the experience of assisting another individual in need.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Altruism. Helping behavior"

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Lai, Sally Hsueh-Chih. "Re-thinking helping and altruism : a social identity perspective /." [St. Lucia, Qld.], 2006. http://www.library.uq.edu.au/pdfserve.php?image=thesisabs/absthe19279.pdf.

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Christy, Sean M. "Essays on the economics of signaling goodness." Diss., Online access via UMI:, 2006.

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Szabo, Alexander Gregory. "The social construction of altruism and social work /." Access Digital Full Text version, 1990. http://pocketknowledge.tc.columbia.edu/home.php/bybib/1093831x.

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Thesis (Ed.D.)--Teachers College, Columbia University.
Typescript; issued also on microfilm. Sponsor: Paul Byers. Dissertation Committee: Herve Varenne. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 153-162).
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Bento, Gustavo Leoplodo. "The difference between bystander normative judgments and intentions to intervene in male on female physical violence." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2007. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/3144.

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Abild, Miranda L. "Kin selection and male androphilia : sociocultural influences on the expression of kin-directed altruism." Thesis, Lethbridge, Alta. : University of Lethbridge, c2012, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10133/3213.

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The Kin Selection Hypothesis proposes that the genes associated with male androphilia (i.e., sexual attraction/arousal to adult males) may be maintained over evolutionary time if the fitness costs of not reproducing directly are offset by increasing one’s indirect fitness. Theoretically, this could be accomplished by allocating altruism toward kin which would increase the recipient’s ability to survive and reproduce. Evidence for this hypothesis has been garnered through research conducted in Samoa however, no support has been garnered from research conducted in more industrialized cultures (i.e., USA, UK, Japan). In this thesis, I use a Canadian population to examine: (1) the role geographic proximity plays in the expression of androphilic male avuncularity and (2) whether androphilic males direct altruism toward the children of friends who might represent proxies for nieces and nephews in more industrialized cultures. Other sociocultural factors that potentially influence the expression of androphilic male avuncularity are also discussed.
ix, 81 leaves ; 29 cm
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Cholerton, Steven M. "Prosocial behaviour in South African students a qualitative enquiry." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002457.

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The central aim of this study was to conduct a qualitative exploration of the prosocial inclinations possessed by young South African students. The literature review argues that traditional approaches to moral responding separate the individual from the social. An alternative approach that reinstates language and ideology is delineated. It is argued that such a paradigm is most appropriate to a study of prosocial responding during a period of social change. Hypothetical moral dilemmas were administered to twenty-nine students. Six students were selected and each was interviewed on two separate occasions. In this way six case studies were developed. The methodological traditions of phenomenology and hermeneutics were employed to analyze the protocols and subsequent interviews. Seven themes descriptive of a moral response were identified. These consisted of moral reasoning, empathy, mood, guilt, alienation, a sense of group-identity, and ambiguity regarding the relative interests of self versus other. These themes are fully discussed in terms of the literature. It is concluded that moral reasoning may be insufficient to motivate prosocial behaviour. Conventional moral narratives may be appropriated in order to make sense of conflicting emotions. Empathy was identified as a necessary but not sufficient condition for a prosocial response. Empathy might translate into either sympathy or personal distress. Mood was found to largely dictate attentional focus. Alienation was found to be a defensive formulation that inhibits the emergence of sympathy. Guilt might precipitate an alienated posture. It was found that guilt might be attributed to group-identity and thereby denied. Tension between a self- and other-oriented response, or between blame and sympathy, was common. It is suggested that this ambiguity reflects ideological contradictions that have been internalized. It is postulated that during periods of social change such contradictions are accentuated.
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Sanchez, Julian. "The Various Agendas of Market Mavens." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2007. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1189.

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This item is only available in print in the UCF Libraries. If this is your Honors Thesis, you can help us make it available online for use by researchers around the world by following the instructions on the distribution consent form at http://library.ucf.edu/Systems/DigitalInitiatives/DigitalCollections/InternetDistributionConsentAgreementForm.pdf You may also contact the project coordinator, Kerri Bottorff, at kerri.bottorff@ucf.edu for more information.
Bachelors
Business Administration
Marketing
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Zetterberg, Karin. "För andra eller sig själv? : Altruism hos volontärer utomlands och på hemmaplan." Thesis, Mälardalen University, School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology, 2008. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mdh:diva-1537.

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Forskning har visat att människor hjälper varandra av såväl egoistiska som altruistiska skäl. Hur ter det sig hos volontärer? Ställer volontärer upp för de hjälpbehövandes eller för sin egen skull? Den här uppsatsen syftar till att undersöka volontärers motiv till att hjälpa. Skiljer motiven sig åt beroende på om engagemanget sker i Sverige, inom Europa eller i en annan världsdel? 40 volontärer berättade skriftligt om sina volontärupplevelser. Berättelserna analyserades för att se vilken typ av motiv som angavs mest. Resultatet visade att fler egoistiska än altruistiska motiv angavs totalt sett bland volontärerna, däremot angav Europavolontärer flest altruistiska motiv. Överlag engagerade sig yngre volontärer längre hemifrån. Resultaten kan ge framförallt frivilligorganisationer men också samhället i stort insikt i motiv bakom hjälpinsatser.

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FENDRICHOVÁ, Bohdana. "Prosociální rysy u pracovníků pomáhajících profesí." Master's thesis, 2009. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-50568.

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In the thesis on the pro-social traits of workers in helping (assistance-providing) professions I dedicate myself to pro-social behavior, empathy and the basic characteristics of personality issuing from the five-factor personality model {--} The Big Five. Most professionals agree that pro-social behavior and empathy belong among the basic characteristics that assistance-providing professionals should have. An important role is also the personality of the care provider. The listed constructs and connections among them however remain the home environment of empirical research and thereby represent the phenomena regarding which there exist few verified findings. The goal of the paper rests in fining the level of empathy and personal dispositions in accordance with the Big Five model that could influence pro-social behavior in selected groups of assistance-giving professionals. The factors in question are neuroticism, extroversion, and openness to experience, graciousness and conscientiousness. Data collection took place with the help of two psychodiagnostic questionnaires. The IRI questionnaire measures level of empathy and the NEO-FFI questionnaire was used for diagnosing the five personality dimensions. The study was quantitative. The monitored set included respondents from three assistance-giving professions {--} nurses, members of the Czech Republic Fire Rescue Corps, and elementary-school teachers. The results confirmed the hypothesis that care providing workers show higher levels of empathy in comparison to the population average, and the hypothesis that these professionals show a higher level of personality traits that, in an interpersonal context, display positive orientation towards others, that is that they are more extroverted and gracious in comparison with the population average, was refuted. These results make it possible to consider that the relationship between the basic personality dimensions and pro-social tendencies may be mediated by the level of empathy with regard to other psychological constructs and the results of social learning. Conclusions cannot be generalized, due to a relatively small sample group. For this purpose it would be interesting to carry out a professional study, which would exceed, in its scope and possibilities, the usual requirements of a thesis paper.
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KOCMICHOVÁ, Kateřina. "Prosociální chování u zdravotních sester." Master's thesis, 2007. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-47506.

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This work is focusing on questions of for-social behavior and altruism of nurses. For-social behavior is an important social phenomenon, such an antipole of non-provoked agresivity and probably of all other bad behavior (asocial, antisocial) . It is such behavior that keeps social bindings and that makes us closer one another. For-social behavior is characterized by acts done in favor of others without expectation of reward (financial, material) or social approval. In the first part of the diploma paper, there is outlined question of for-social behavior at theoretical level. Here is defined the term of for-social behavior, altruism, empathy with effort to answer the question why we help others, under what conditions, circumstances and to whom. The intention of this work consists in exploration-description of for-social behavior of nurses. The work deals with scale of empathy, altruism and affiliation of nurses in comparison with women non-working in helping professions. Furthermore, there is investigated the ability of nurses to cope with stress and that is measured by means of optimism scale. I did four hypotheses, all of which proved to be right. I used a method of questionnaire in terms of quantified research. Each hypothesis was based on its own separate questionnaire in question form. It was 200 question forms in total, 100 forms for nurses and the same for women non-working in helping professions as a control group. 174 filled forms were given back. The basic group was formed by 88 nurses and the control group by 86 non-nurses. The outcome of questionnaire research is that nurses show higher measure of empathy, altruism and affiliation than women non-working in helping professions. The nurses were also proved to be less adaptable to stress than non-nurses.
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Books on the topic "Altruism. Helping behavior"

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Hunt, Morton M. The compassionate beast: The scientific inquiry into human altruism. New York: Anchor Books, 1991.

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M, Hunt Morton. The compassionate beast: What science is discovering about the humane side of humankind. New York: Morrow, 1990.

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Psihologija altruizma: Čuvstveni i spoznajni aspekti prosocijalnog ponašanja. Zagreb: "Alinea", 1995.

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Śliwak, Jacek. Osobowość altruistyczna: Osobowościowe korelaty altruizmu : psychologiczne badania empiryczne. Lublin: Red. Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, 2001.

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More give to live: How giving can change your life. La Jolla, CA: ALTI Pub., 2003.

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Boca, Stefano, and Costanza Scaffidi Abbate. Altruismo e comportamento prosociale: Temi e prospettive a confronto. Milano, Italy: FrancoAngeli, 2011.

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Barclay, Pat. Reputation and the evolution of generous behavior. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science Publisher's, 2010.

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La bonté humaine: Altruisme, empathie, générosité. Paris: Odile Jacob, 2012.

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Prosocial behaviour. New York: Psychology Press, 2002.

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Carkhuff, Robert R. The secrets of helping. Amherst, Mass: HRD Press, 2009.

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Book chapters on the topic "Altruism. Helping behavior"

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Stukas, A. A., and E. G. Clary. "Altruism and Helping Behavior." In Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 100–107. Elsevier, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-375000-6.00019-7.

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"Altruism and Helping Behavior." In Empathy, edited by Mark H. Davis, 126–52. Routledge, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429493898-7.

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Danner, Deborah D., Wallace V. Friesen, and Adah N. Carter. "Helping Behavior and Longevity: An Emotion Model." In Altruism and Health, 246–58. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195182910.003.0016.

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Moskalenko, Sophia, and Clark McCauley. "Psychology of Altruism." In The Marvel of Martyrdom, 35–46. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190689322.003.0003.

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Why would anyone do something unselfish? Evolutionary theories––Inclusive Fitness and Reciprocal Altruism––offer limited help in answering this question. Social psychology supplies two competing explanations of helping behavior: Distress Theory and Empathy Theory. We find surprising and informative parallels between textbook presentations of research on self-sacrifice and Gospel stories of self-sacrifice.
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Ottoni-Wilhelm, Mark. "Altruism and Egoism/Warm Glow in Economics and Psychology: Building a Bridge Between Different Experimental Approaches." In Social Economics. The MIT Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262035651.003.0005.

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The same dual–motive theory that combines altruism and egoism/warm glow is used in economics to study charitable giving and in psychology to study helping behavior. However, the two disciplines have taken different approaches to experimental testing. This paper builds a bridge between the different experimental approaches. For economists, the importance of this bridge is that it leads to a systematic description of six specific types of egoism/warm glow, and further suggests experimental designs that could be used to investigate warm glow motives in charitable giving. For psychologists, the bridge is important because the experimental design in economics suggests a way to test, directly rather than indirectly, the empathy–altruism hypothesis.
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Walker, Justine A., and Debora Jeske. "Understanding Bystanders' Willingness to Intervene in Traditional and Cyberbullying Scenarios." In Multigenerational Online Behavior and Media Use, 1345–64. IGI Global, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7909-0.ch073.

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Bullying incidents in traditional and online settings are a cause for concern to many parties. The goal of the current study was to explore the extent to which a bystander would intervene in a bullying incident and the degree to which this behavior is influenced by group size (the number of other witnesses), the setting (traditional or cyberbullying), and gender of the victim. Using an online survey method, participants were presented with eight bullying scenarios, each of which involved verbal bullying of a victim. Participants (N = 82) were asked to report how likely they would be to intervene in each of these scenarios. Results showed that female victims were more likely to be helped than male victims. Furthermore, female participants were more willing to intervene than the male participants in the cyberbullying scenarios. Altruism was a positive predictor of participants' willingness to intervene. The present findings suggest that certain gender differences in helping behavior may depend on the context in which bullying is observed (traditional or cyberbullying).
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Hamburg, David A., and Beatrix A. Hamburg. "Development of Prosocial Behavior." In Learning to Live Together. Oxford University Press, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195157796.003.0010.

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The next several chapters follow a developmental sequence of examining opportunities for learning peaceful human relationships in programs appropriate for children at different stages of growth and development. The focus on prosocial behavior is broadly applicable to the basic orientation of this book. The primary focus of this chapter is on the role of prosocial behavior in the earliest years of life. Nancy Eisenberg and Paul Mussen of the University of California at Berkeley provide a major analytical examination of what is known about prosocial behavior—its development and the underlying mechanisms at work. This body of research examines how children are socialized to behave prosocially—what are the personal attributes and capabilities involved, and what are the impacts of the social environment that inhibit or facilitate expressions of generosity, helping, and comforting? There are fundamental questions on this topic; much has been learned, but many questions await future research to clarify significant issues. Why are some individuals predisposed toward prosocial conduct, whereas others are not? How does genetic makeup predispose one to behave compassionately? What are the specific interactions of children of differing ages, gender, and past experiences with major socialization agents such as parents, teachers, schools, siblings, peers, cultural and religious institutions, and the mass media? What are the cultural values that foster or reduce prosocial behavior? The other major variability has to do with differences within an individual’s responses to the current context—the fact that everyone’s behavior varies from time to time, according to the situation. The research evidence confirms the malleability of behavior across all ages and indicates ample opportunity for the learning of prosocial behavior and its modifiability over the course of development. So, ways can be found for teachers, parents, and others to contribute toward shaping individual prosocial behavior and thereby, in the aggregate, to promote and sustain a more constructive society. Eisenberg and Mussen distinguish between prosocial behavior and altruism:… • Prosocial behavior is defined as voluntary action that is intended to help another individual or a group. Although voluntary in nature, prosocial actions may be performed for a variety of reasons—for reward, approval, sense of duty, or because of genuine sympathy. • Altruism is one particular type of prosocial behavior stemming from intrinsic motivation (i.e., concern, sympathy, values, self-rewards), not from personal gain. In practice, these two forms of behavior are often considered together as prosocial.
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Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. "The Sociobiology of Human Cooperation." In A Cooperative Species. Princeton University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691151250.003.0004.

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This chapter examines the sociobiology of human cooperation. Given the tendency of people to copy the successful and the fact that natural selection favors the more fit, the chapter asks how our altruistic preferences overcame the cultural and biological evolutionary handicaps entailed by the reduced payoffs that they elicited. To answer this question, two major biological explanations of cooperation are discussed: inclusive fitness in either a kin-based or a multi-level selection model, and reciprocal altruism and its indirect reciprocity and costly signaling variants. The chapter explores a model of inclusive fitness based on group differentiation and competition, clarifying what is meant by multi-level selection and how it works. It also discusses models that address equilibrium selection, the link between standing strategy and indirect reciprocity, and positive assortment. Finally, it assesses the mechanisms and motives underlying helping behavior.
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Di Tosto, Gennaro. "Learning to be Altruistic." In Social Simulation, 126–37. IGI Global, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-522-1.ch010.

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Evolutionary studies account for cooperation under the shadow of the future. But how can altruism spread without direct reciprocity? Learning from punishment, including badmouth, is impossible in harsh environments, where agents do not survive rejections received. Imitation is indispensable, but what to imitate? Frequent behaviors are not necessarily socially desirable, neither fitness observable. In this paper, agents meeting infrequent but lethal food scarcity survive thanks to food sharing. Saving recipients from certain death, donations reduce altruists’ lifetime. Results show that prudent donors, helping only when above starvation point, are exploited by cheaters and soon extinguish. The same happens with agents taking reciprocity into account, and helping only when their credits are turned off. Instead, agents endowed with dynamic goals (survival vs. giving help) learn even the most unconditioned form of altruism, thus avoiding extinction. Tentative conclusions are discussed. Among others, dynamic goal-directed agents are autonomous entities learning even the most generous forms of altruism. Moreover, prudence is not necessarily more adaptive than unconditioned altruism; indeed, it may be self-defeating under given conditions.
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10

West-Eberhard, Mary Jane. "Gaps and Inconsistencies in Modern Evolutionary Thought." In Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. Oxford University Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195122343.003.0006.

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One of the oldest unresolved controversies in evolutionary biology—and a source of many bitter arguments and failed revolutions—concerns the relation between nature and nurture in the evolution of adaptive design. In modern evolutionary biology there is still a gap between the conclusions of a genetical theory for the origin and spread of new traits, and the observed nature of the traits being explained, the manifest phenotypes, always products of genes and environment. This gap is especially clear in discussions of adaptively flexible morphology and behavior. How are complex adaptively flexible traits constructed during evolution? Remarkable adaptability is shown by humble plants and animals. I see a young female Polistes wasp approach the dominant queen of her colony and adopt a subordinant position that condemns her to permanent sterility and serfdom. Yet she has done the right thing in Darwinian terms, for she genetically profits by helping to rear her despotic sister’s young. How should we explain such behavior? Should we visualize the spread of genes for flexibility and altruism, and the eventual construction of a genetic capacity for environmental assessment and social judgment? Or is the evolutionary construction of such complex abilities something other than an accumulation of modifier alleles, selected gradually and independently, one by one? It is not surprising that students of human behavior have been among the first to complain about the failure of evolutionary biology to deal effectively with complex adaptive plasticity. Anthropologists, for example, have good reason to question the explanations of a strongly gene-centered sociobiology. Human behavior is essentially circumstantial. We know intuitively that our phenotypes are molded by our environments—by mothers, fathers, schoolteachers, economics, and accidents of history. But in this respect human nature is like every other phenotype of every other animal or plant. A phenotype is a product of both genotype and environment.
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