Journal articles: 'American alligator'

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STOUT, JEREMY B. "New early Pleistocene Alligator (Eusuchia: Crocodylia) from Florida bridges a gap in Alligator evolution." Zootaxa 4868, no. 1 (October 23, 2020): 41–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4868.1.3.

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The American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is one of two species of Alligator in the modern world. It is only distantly related to the other extant species (A. sinensis), with much closer relatives known from the geologic past of North America. A disparity exists, though, in the fossil record between A. mississippiensis and its close relative, the late Miocene (?)—early Pliocene A. mefferdi. While A. mississippiensis is known from the mid-Pleistocene and later, few Alligator remains were known from the earliest Pleistocene of North America until the discovery of the Haile 7C and 7G early Pleistocene (Blancan Land Mammal Age) sites from Alachua County, Florida. The Haile alligators exhibit a suite of characters from both A. mississippiensis and A. mefferdi, displaying intermediate morphology in time. The Haile alligators are distinct from either of the aforementioned taxa, and a new species, Alligator hailensis is suggested, bridging an important gap in the evolution of the American Alligator.

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Riordan, Casey, Jennifer Jacquet, and Becca Franks. "Investigating the welfare and conservation implications of alligator wrestling for American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 13, 2020): e0242106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242106.

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Wildlife tourism attractions (WTA) are popular in the United States, but they may be harmful to the individual animals involved and we question whether they provide benefits to environmental conservation. Most research on the welfare and environmental implications of WTAs focuses on charismatic mammals, with few studies investigating these issues for reptiles. Here we examine alligator wrestling, including its impact on animal welfare and environmental conservation. Using a sample of 94 relevant YouTube videos of alligator wrestling in Florida representing 16 different venues, we coded the environmental and behavioral characteristics evident in each video. We then performed a content analysis of wrestlers’ narration in a subset of 51 videos to analyze the environmental awareness and educational components of alligator wrestling. Our results show systemic welfare harm: 11 venues housed adult alligators together with conspecifics, 96% of alligator wrestling performances facilitated direct contact in the form of physical restraint by one or more human wrestlers, and as many as 96% of the videos did not show a suitable water or waterside features for captive alligators. Furthermore, 12% of performances showed wrestlers flipping alligators onto their backs while 16% showed wrestlers tying alligators’ jaws shut, both of which are known to be acute stressors. Finally, just under half of alligator wrestling commentary (49%) addressed environmental conservation topics, and much of this commentary included contradictory or misleading information that is not likely to benefit alligators in the wild. We argue that alligator wrestling serves no role in promoting positive relationships between humans, animals, and the environment, and instead furthers traditional notions of dominion that undermine welfare and conservation aims.

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Walsh, Zane Cullinane, Hannah Olson, Miranda Clendening, and Athena Rycyk. "Social Behavior Deficiencies in Captive American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens 3, no. 1 (March 21, 2022): 131–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jzbg3010011.

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Understanding how the behavior of captive American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) congregations compares to wild congregations is essential to assessing the welfare of alligators in captivity. Wild alligator congregations perform complex social behaviors, but it is unknown if such behaviors occur in captive congregations as frequently. We observed the behaviors of a captive and wild congregation of American alligators in Florida, USA in January 2021. Social behaviors were, on average, 827% more frequent in the wild congregation than the captive, and the wild congregation had a richer repertoire of social behaviors, with growling and HOTA (head oblique tail arched) behaviors being particularly common. High walking, a nonsocial behavior, dominated the behavioral repertoire of the captive congregation (94% of behaviors, excluding feeding) and may be a stereotypy that can be used as an indicator of welfare. Both congregations experienced human disturbance and displayed flushing as a species-specific defense reaction. Captive environments differ from the wild with respect to size, structure, stocking density, resource availability, and human presence. These differences translate into behavioral differences between wild and captive congregations. We identified important behavioral differences between wild and captive alligator congregations that can serve as a platform for more detailed investigations of alligator welfare in captivity.

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Erickson, Gregory M. "Toothlessness in American Alligators, Alligator Mississippiensis." Copeia 1996, no. 3 (August 1, 1996): 739. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1447542.

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Burne, Alexandra M., Lauren J. Richey, Trenton R. Schoeb, and Mary B. Brown. "Galleria mellonella Invertebrate Model Mirrors the Pathogenic Potential of Mycoplasma alligatoris within the Natural Host." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2024 (March 22, 2024): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2024/3009838.

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Most mycoplasmal infections result in chronic, clinically silent disease. In direct contrast, Mycoplasma alligatoris elicits a fulminant, multisystem disease in the natural host, Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator). The goals of the study were to better understand the disease in the natural host and to determine if the invertebrate model G. mellonella could serve as a surrogate alternate host. The survival of alligators infected intratracheally was dose dependent (p=0.0003), ranging from no mortality (102 CFU) to 100% mortality (108 CFU), with 60% mortality at the 104 and 105 CFU infectious dose. Microbial load in blood, joints, and brain was dose dependent, regardless of whether alligators were infected intratracheally or intravenously (p <0.002). Weight loss was similarly impacted (p <0.001). Experimental infection of the invertebrate Galleria mellonella mirrored the result in the natural host. In a dose response infection study, both larval survival curves and successful pupation curves were significantly different (p≤0.0001) and dose dependent. Infected insects did not emerge as moths (p <0.0001). Here, we describe the first study investigating G. mellonella as a surrogate model to assess the pathogenic potential of M. alligatoris. G. mellonella survival was dose dependent and impacted life stage outcome.

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Codd, Jonathan R., Kayleigh A. R. Rose, Peter G. Tickle, William I. Sellers, Robert J. Brocklehurst, Ruth M. Elsey, and Dane A. Crossley. "A novel accessory respiratory muscle in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis )." Biology Letters 15, no. 7 (July 2019): 20190354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0354.

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The muscles that effect lung ventilation are key to understanding the evolutionary constraints on animal form and function. Here, through electromyography, we demonstrate a newly discovered respiratory function for the iliocostalis muscle in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ). The iliocostalis is active during expiration when breathing on land at 28°C and this activity is mediated through the uncinate processes on the vertebral ribs. There was also an increase in muscle activity during the forced expirations of alarm distress vocalizations. Interestingly, we did not find any respiratory activity in the iliocostalis when the alligators were breathing with their body submerged in water at 18°C, which resulted in a reduced breathing frequency. The iliocostalis is an accessory breathing muscle that alligators are able to recruit in to assist expiration under certain conditions.

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Rainwater, Thomas R., Randeep Singh, Clarissa A. Tuten, Aaron M. Given, Parker W. Gibbons, Bo Song, Steven G. Platt, Philip M. Wilkinson, and Catherine M. Bodinof Jachowski. "Fauna Associated with American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Nests in Coastal South Carolina, USA." Animals 14, no. 4 (February 14, 2024): 620. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani14040620.

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Crocodilians are considered to be “ecosystem engineers” because their modification of habitats provides opportunities for feeding, drinking, breeding, and other vital life activities to a wide variety of other animals. One such habitat modification is the construction of nest mounds during the breeding season by most crocodilian species, including American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). While many reports exist describing wildlife associated with alligator nests, no studies have quantified faunal associates and their corresponding behaviors while visiting nests. To address this data gap, we used automated game cameras to monitor wildlife and their behaviors at alligator nests during the egg incubation period (June–September) in coastal South Carolina, USA (2016–2021). We documented a total of 81 species (79 vertebrates and 2 invertebrates) at 78 alligator nests representing six taxonomic groups, including 48 birds (59.2%), 9 mammals (11.1%), 19 reptiles (23.4%), 3 amphibians (3.7%), 1 malacostracan (1.2%), and 1 insect (1.2%). Collectively, faunal associates primarily used alligator nests for feeding/foraging (51.8%), traveling (29.3%), and loafing (19.9%) and to a much lesser extent basking, burrowing/shelter, breeding, and nesting. However, trends in alligator nest use varied among faunal associate groups (birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, etc.), subgroups (e.g., passerines, raptors, wading birds, and waterfowl), and species. Several novel behaviors by some nest associates were also noted during the study, including the first observations of Virginia oppossum (Didelphis virginiana) opening and predating nests, bobcat (Lynx rufus) consuming alligator hatchlings, and Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) feeding on the contents of a recently predated alligator egg. The results of this study indicate that a diverse assemblage of vertebrates (and some invertebrates) use alligator nest sites in coastal South Carolina for a variety of life activities during the egg incubation period, and the proportion of the behaviors exhibited varies among animal groups and species. This study provides a first step for investigations regarding the net impacts of alligator nest-faunal associate interactions and ultimately the greater ecological role of alligators and other crocodilians.

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Brandt, Laura A., Jennifer H. Nestler, Arnold M. Brunell, Jeffrey S. Beauchamp, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Variation in body condition of Alligator mississippiensis in Florida." Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History 54, no. 1 (December 7, 2016): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.58782/flmnh.ieeo8303.

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We examined body condition (using Fulton’s K with snout-vent length and weight) for 482 American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) collected from 14 aquatic sites in Florida in 2011 and 2012. An information-theoretic approach using Akaike information criterion (AIC) was used to select the best models for alligator body condition from a suite of seven candidate models created using combinations of trophic state (oligotrophic, eutrophic, hypereutrophic), sex, and alligators/km. Our top model included trophic state and alligators/km indicating that alligator body condition from sites classified as hypereutrophic and eutrophic (2.43 ± 0.07 and 2.45 ± 0.05, respectively) were greater than alligator body condition at oligotrophic sites (2.14 ± 0.01). Alligator body condition was lower at sites with a higher density of alligators ≥ 1.25 m. Across all sites, average alligator body condition ranged from 1.94 ± 0.054 (SE) to 2.78 ± 0.121(SE). This was a 43% difference in alligator body condition between the site with the highest alligator body condition (Lochloosa Lake, a hypereutrophic lake in north-central Florida) compared to the site with lowest body condition (Water Conservation Area 3B, an oligotrophic marsh in the Everglades). Across all sites, average alligator body condition was 12% greater at eutrophic and hypereutrophic sites compared to oligotrophic sites which was consistent with patterns observed in other studies for fish standing stock (highest in eutrophic lakes and lowest in oligotrophic marshes in the Everglades). The same patterns occur in alligator stomach content volume (higher in lakes in north-central Florida, Louisiana fresh, intermediate, and brackish marshes compared to the Everglades). Our results illustrate that variation in alligator body condition is consistent with patterns of aquatic site productivity and is a useful parameter for describing differences in aquatic site ecological condition.

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Squires, Michiko, Avishka Godahewa, Justin R. Dalaba, Laura A. Brandt, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Have you seen a skinny alligator in South Florida?" EDIS 2019, no. 6 (December 20, 2019): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-uw460-2019.

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The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is an effective indicator for restoration of more natural patterns of water levels and flows through the Everglades. The Florida Everglades is a highly modified system, so monitoring health of alligators can inform how different areas of this large ecosystem are doing. Based on an increase in reports of very skinny alligators, biologists and natural resource managers are seeking help from the public to better understand where and when this problem occurs. This fact sheet serves as a guide for citizen scientists on how to score alligator body condition and report sightings of very skinny or unhealthy alligators.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw460

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Squires, Michiko, Avishka Godahewa, Justin R. Dalaba, Laura A. Brandt, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Have you seen a skinny alligator in south Florida? [trifold brochure]." EDIS 2019, no. 6 (December 20, 2019): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-uw461-2019.

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This is a trifold brochure based on the fact sheet by the same title, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw460 The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is an effective indicator for restoration of more natural patterns of water levels and flows through the Everglades. The Florida Everglades is a highly modified system, so monitoring health of alligators can inform how different areas of this large ecosystem are doing. Based on an increase in reports of very skinny alligators, biologists and natural resource managers are seeking help from the public to better understand where and when this problem occurs. This brochure serves as a guide for citizen scientists on how to score alligator body condition and report sightings of very skinny or unhealthy alligators.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw461

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Young, Bruce A., James Potter, Joshua Blanchard, Lucas Knoche, and Tatyana Kondrashova. "Cardiac response to stimulation and stress in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Amphibia-Reptilia 41, no. 4 (May 12, 2020): 547–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685381-bja10013.

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Abstract Previous descriptions of the direction (tachycardia versus bradycardia), magnitude, and duration of the cardiac stimulation/stress response of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) have been contradictory. Superficial EKG leads were used to quantify heart rate while presenting a graded series of stimuli to a cohort of 5 sub-adult alligators. Only tachycardic responses were recorded. Stress (manual restraint and transport) induced a nearly 3-fold increase over the resting heart rate (∼17 bpm), which decreased only 7 bpm over 40 minutes in a stimulus-free environment. Lower-level stimulation (i.e., exposure to room light) produced a significantly smaller response than did higher-level stimulation (i.e., physical contact), both responses were transitory, lasting approximately 120 s.

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Unlu, Isik, Wayne L. Kramer, Alma F. Roy, and Lane D. Foil. "Detection of West Nile Virus RNA in Mosquitoes and Identification of Mosquito Blood Meals Collected at Alligator Farms in Louisiana." Journal of Medical Entomology 47, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 625–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/47.4.625.

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Abstract Since 2001, alligator farms in the United States have sustained substantial economic losses because of West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Once an initial infection is introduced into captive alligators, WNV can spread among animals by contaminative transmission. Some outbreaks have been linked to feeding on infected meat or the introduction of infected hatchlings, but the initial source of WNV infection has been uncertain in other outbreaks. We conducted a study to identify species composition and presence of WNV in mosquito populations associated with alligator farms in Louisiana. A second objective of this study was to identify the origin of mosquito blood meals collected at commercial alligator farms. Mosquitoes were collected from 2004 to 2006, using Centers for Disease Control light traps, gravid traps, backpack aspirators, and resting boxes. We collected a total of 58,975 mosquitoes representing 24 species. WNV was detected in 41 pools of females from 11 mosquito species: Anopheles crucians, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Coquillettidia perturbans, Culex coronator, Culex erraticus, Culex nigripalpus, Culex quinquefasciatus, Mansonia titillans, Aedes sollicitans, Psorophora columbiae, and Uranotaenia lowii. The blood meal origins of 213 field-collected mosquitoes were identified based on cytochrome B sequence identity. Alligator blood was detected in 21 mosquitoes representing six species of mosquitoes, including Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus. Our results showed that mosquitoes of species that are known to be competent vectors of WNV fed regularly on captive alligators. Therefore, mosquitoes probably are important in the role of transmission of WNV at alligator farms.

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Farmer, C. G., and D. R. Carrier. "Ventilation and gas exchange during treadmill locomotion in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 11 (June 1, 2000): 1671–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.11.1671.

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A number of anatomical characters of crocodilians appear to be inconsistent with their lifestyle as sit-and-wait predators. To address this paradoxical association of characters further, we measured lung ventilation and respiratory gas exchange during walking in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). During exercise, ventilation consisted of low-frequency, large-volume breaths. The alligators hyperventilated severely during walking with respect to their metabolic demands. Air convection requirements were among the highest and estimates of lung P(CO2) were among the lowest known in air-breathing vertebrates. Air convection requirements dropped immediately with cessation of exercise. These observations indicate that the ventilation of alligators is not limited by their locomotor movements. We suggest that the highly specialized ventilatory system of modern crocodilians represents a legacy from cursorial ancestors rather than an adaptation to a lifestyle as amphibious sit-and-wait predators.

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Parrott, Benjamin B., John A. Bowden, Satomi Kohno, Jessica A. Cloy-McCoy, Matthew D. Hale, Jacqueline T. Bangma, Thomas R. Rainwater, Phillip M. Wilkinson, John R. Kucklick, and Louis J. Guillette. "Influence of tissue, age, and environmental quality on DNA methylation in Alligator mississippiensis." REPRODUCTION 147, no. 4 (April 2014): 503–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/rep-13-0498.

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Epigenetic modifications are key mediators of the interactions between the environment and an organism's genome. DNA methylation represents the best-studied epigenetic modification to date and is known to play key roles in regulating transcriptional activity and promoting chromosome stability. Our laboratory has previously demonstrated the utility of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) as a sentinel species to investigate the persistent effects of environmental contaminant exposure on reproductive health. Here, we incorporate a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method to directly measure the total (global) proportion of 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine (5mdC) in ovarian and whole blood DNA from alligators. Global DNA methylation in ovaries was significantly elevated in comparison with that of whole blood. However, DNA methylation appeared similar in juvenile alligators reared under controlled laboratory conditions but originating from three sites with dissimilar environmental qualities, indicating an absence of detectable site-of-origin effects on persistent levels of global 5mdC content. Analyses of tissues across individuals revealed a surprising lack of correlation between global methylation levels in blood and ovary. In addition, global DNA methylation in blood samples from juvenile alligators was elevated compared with those from adults, suggesting that age, as observed in mammals, may negatively influence global DNA methylation levels in alligators. To our knowledge, this is the first study examining global levels of DNA methylation in the American alligator and provides a reference point for future studies examining the interplay of epigenetics and environmental factors in a long-lived sentinel species.

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Asa, Cheryl S., Gary D. London, Ronald R. Goellner, Norman Haskell, Glenn Roberts, and Crispen Wilson. "Thermoregulatory Behavior of Captive American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Herpetology 32, no. 2 (June 1998): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1565296.

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Novak, Susan S., and Richard A. Seigel. "GRAM-NEGATIVE SEPTICEMIA IN AMERICAN ALLIGATORS (ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS)." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 22, no. 4 (October 1986): 484–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-22.4.484.

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Ibrahim, Sayed A., James W. Avery, Paul J. Weldon, and James W. Wheeler. "Age-Class Differences in Lipids from the Paracloacal Glands of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 53, no. 3-4 (April 1, 1998): 201–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-1998-3-410.

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Abstract The paracloacal gland secretions of immature and adult American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) from Louisiana were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate age-class differences in lipid composition. The secretions of both immature and adult alligators contain saturated C14 and C16 free fatty acids and decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tetradecyl, and hexadecyl acetates. Compounds observed only in immature alligators include dodecanoic acid, C12 and C14 alcohols, C10-C14 butanoates, an array of C8-C18 3-methylbutanoates, C12- C15 hexanoates, C12 and C14 octanoates, a C12 decanoate, C10-C14 dodecanoates, C10- C16 tetradecanoates, C12 and C14 hexadecanoates, a C12 octadecanoate, and a diterpene hydrocarbon identified as (E ,E )- 7,11,15-trimethyl-3-methylenehexadeca-1,6,10,14-tetraene (β-springene). Compounds observed only in adults include several C7-C16 free fatty acids and certain C10- C18 acetates. The age-class differences we observe in the paracloacal gland lipids of alligators from Louisiana are similar to those previously reported for alligators from Texas.

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Hamlin, Heather J., Russell H. Lowers, Satomi Kohno, Naoko Mitsui-Watanabe, Haruna Amano, Akihiko Hara, Yasuhiko Ohta, Shinichi Miyagawa, Taisen Iguchi, and Louis J. Guillette. "The reproductive hormone cycle of adult female American alligators from a barrier island population." REPRODUCTION 147, no. 6 (June 2014): 855–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/rep-14-0031.

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Comparatively, little data are available detailing the geographic variation that exists in the reproductive endocrinology of adult alligators, especially those living in barrier islands. The Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge (MI) is a unique barrier island environment and home to the Kennedy Space Center (FL, USA). Seasonal patterns of sex steroids were assessed in adult female American alligators from MI monthly from 2008 to 2009, with additional samples collected at more random intervals in 2006, 2007, and 2010. Plasma 17β-estradiol and vitellogenin concentrations peaked in April, coincident with courtship and mating, and showed patterns similar to those observed in adult female alligators in other regions. Plasma concentrations of progesterone, however, showed patterns distinctly different than those reported for alligator populations in other regions and remained relatively constant throughout the year. Plasma DHEA peaked in July around the time of oviposition, decreased in August, and then remained constant for the remaining months, except for a moderate increase in October. Circulating concentrations of DHEA have not been previously assessed in a female crocodilian, and plasma concentrations coincident with reproductive activity suggest a reproductive and/or behavioral role. Interestingly, plasma testosterone concentrations peaked in May of 2008, as has been shown in female alligator populations in other regions, but showed no peak in 2009, demonstrating dramatic variability from year to year. Surveys showed 2009 to be particularly depauperate of alligator nests in MI, and it is possible that testosterone could serve as a strong indicator of breeding success.

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Bickler, P. E., R. G. Spragg, M. T. Hartman, and F. N. White. "Distribution of ventilation in American alligator Alligator mississippiensis." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 249, no. 4 (October 1, 1985): R477—R481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1985.249.4.r477.

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The regional distribution of ventilation in the multicameral lung of spontaneously ventilating alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was studied with 133Xe scintigraphy. Frequent gamma camera images of 133Xe washin and washout were obtained and processed to allow evaluation of regional ventilation. Washin of 133Xe to equilibrium occurred in three to four breaths in anterior, central, and posterior compartments. Washin was most rapid in the posterior compartment and slowest in the anterior. The structure of the lungs and distribution of ventilation of inspired gas is consistent with the rapid radial spread of gas through a parallel arrangement of lung units surrounding the central intrapulmonary bronchus. Washout to equilibrium of 133Xe from all compartments occurred within three to four breaths. This rapid washin and washout of gas to all parts of the lung stands in contrast to the lungs of turtles and snakes, in which the caudal air sacs are relatively poorly ventilated.

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Galli, Gina L. J., Janna Crossley, Ruth M. Elsey, Edward M. Dzialowski, Holly A. Shiels, and Dane A. Crossley. "Developmental plasticity of mitochondrial function in American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 311, no. 6 (December 1, 2016): R1164—R1172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00107.2016.

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The effect of hypoxia on cellular metabolism is well documented in adult vertebrates, but information is entirely lacking for embryonic organisms. The effect of hypoxia on embryonic physiology is particularly interesting, as metabolic responses during development may have life-long consequences, due to developmental plasticity. To this end, we investigated the effects of chronic developmental hypoxia on cardiac mitochondrial function in embryonic and juvenile American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis). Alligator eggs were incubated in 21% or 10% oxygen from 20 to 90% of embryonic development. Embryos were either harvested at 90% development or allowed to hatch and then reared in 21% oxygen for 3 yr. Ventricular mitochondria were isolated from embryonic/juvenile alligator hearts. Mitochondrial respiration and enzymatic activities of electron transport chain complexes were measured with a microrespirometer and spectrophotometer, respectively. Developmental hypoxia induced growth restriction and increased relative heart mass, and this phenotype persisted into juvenile life. Embryonic mitochondrial function was not affected by developmental hypoxia, but at the juvenile life stage, animals from hypoxic incubations had lower levels of Leak respiration and higher respiratory control ratios, which is indicative of enhanced mitochondrial efficiency. Our results suggest developmental hypoxia can have life-long consequences for alligator morphology and metabolic function. Further investigations are necessary to reveal the adaptive significance of the enhanced mitochondrial efficiency in the hypoxic phenotype.

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Liu, Victor H. "Chinese Alligators." Reptiles & Amphibians 20, no. 4 (December 1, 2013): 172–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.17161/randa.v20i4.13965.

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I present previously unpublished data on the breeding habits and related conservation efforts on behalf of the endangered endemic Chinese Alligator (Alligator sinensis) collected through interviews and observations conducted at the Changxing Nature Reserve & Breeding Center for Chinese Alligators. The objective of this study was to provide additional material to supplement that presented in the most current and comprehensive English-language literature on the species. Conservation efforts on behalf of the Chinese Alligator are hindered by heavily polluting industries, such as coal-fired power plants and battery plants, which affect all local fauna. In addition, captive population satistics at Changxing and Xuancheng breeding centers have changed since 2010. Additional observations of the Chinese Alligator include nesting behaviors, ovipositioning, and temperature and humidity conditions in nests. I observed experiments comparing temperature-dependent sex determination to that in the closely related American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). I provide information on reintroduction efforts by both Chinese captive breeding centers in different wild zones and discuss definitioono of "wild," with which Chinese Alligator reintroduction efforts do not conform. Further species conservation efforts should be facilitated by a master plan and studbook, implemented to maximize genetic variation and minimize the effects of inbreeding depression in captive populations with few founders.

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Merchant, Mark, Matthew Hebert, Anna C. Salvador, Jennifer Berken, Thomas Boverie, and Mary E. White. "Constitutive Innate Immunity and Systemic Responses to Infection of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Animals 14, no. 6 (March 20, 2024): 965. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani14060965.

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Uninfected alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) exhibited high constitutive levels of hepatic gene expression related to immune function, whereas the highest-expressed hepatic genes of uninfected mice were related to metabolism. Intraperitoneal challenge of mice with bacterial lipopolysaccharide results in dramatic inflammatory effects including peritoneal ascites, febrile response, dramatic alterations in electrophoretic serum profile, and mortality. In contrast, coelomic injection of alligators with 200× the murine LD50 of intraperitoneal bacterial lipopolysaccharide resulted in no changes in serum protein profiles, behavioral effects, mortality, and no coelomic ascites. However, injection of juvenile alligators with live bacteria resulted in a titer-dependent decrease in metabolic rate, as measured by oxygen consumption. These results are the opposite of those observed for mammalian and avian species. The decreased oxygen consumption was not accompanied by changes in heart or respiration rate, indicating that this phenomenon was not due to bradycardia or bradypnea. Interestingly, challenge of alligators with bacteria resulted in the complete expulsion of digestive tract contents within four hours. We interpret these activities as temporary minimization of other biological systemic activities to redirect and devote energy to immune function. The reallocation of resources within an organism to fight infection without increases in metabolic rate has not been described in other animals.

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Whittaker, C. J. G., T. G. Heaton-Jones, P. S. Kubilis, P. J. Smith, D. E. Brooks, C. Kosarek, E. O. Mackay, and K. N. Gelatt. "Intraocular pressure variation associated with body length in young American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." American Journal of Veterinary Research 56, no. 10 (October 1, 1995): 1380–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.1995.56.10.1380.

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SUMMARY Using an applanation tonometer, 5 replicate intraocular pressure (iop) measurements were obtained from each eye of 12 young, clinically normal, American alligators. Alligator length ranged from 46 to 117 cm, measured from snout to tail tip. All iop were recorded by a single observer at an ambient temperature of approximately 25 C, and ranged from 5 to 35 mm of Hg. Observer reliability was excellent (intraclass r = 0.93), and iop did not change over the ordered sequence of 5 replicate measurements/eye. Replicate iop measurements were, therefore, averaged in each eye for comparison between eyes of the same alligator. Left and right eye iop were highly correlated within individual alligators (r = 0.92), whereas the mean within-animal difference between left and right eye iop was not statistically significant (95% confidence interval [ci] for the left eye-right eye mean difference, −1.9 to 1.5 mm of Hg). Mean iop determined for 5 confirmed females and 3 confirmed males did not differ significantly between the sexes (95% ci for the male-female difference in means, −2.1 to 3.7 mm of Hg). Mean ± sem iop of 23.7 + 2.1 mm of Hg determined for 4 alligators < 50 cm long was significantly (P = 0.009) greater than mean iop of 11.6 + 0.5 mm of Hg determined for 8 alligators > 50 cm long (95% ci for the difference in means, 8.5 to 15.7 mm of Hg). In young alligators, the relation between body length and iop appears to be nonlinear, possibly with a negative exponent.

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Platzack, Björn, Yuqi Wang, Dane Crossley, Valentine Lance, James W. Hicks, and J. Michael Conlon. "Characterization and cardiovascular actions of endothelin-1 and endothelin-3 from the American alligator." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 282, no. 2 (February 1, 2002): R594—R602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00733.2000.

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The structures and biological activities of the isoforms of endothelin (ET) in a reptile are unknown. ET-3, whose primary structure is identical to human ET-3 except for the substitution Phe4 → Tyr, and a peptide identical to human ET-1 were isolated from an extract of the lung of the alligator, Alligator mississipiensis. Bolus intravenous injections of alligator ET-3 (10, 30, and 100 pmol/kg) into anesthetized alligators produced dose-dependent decreases in systemic blood pressure (Psys) and systemic vascular resistance (Rsys) without change in heart rate (HR), systemic blood flow (Qsys), pulmonary pressure (Ppul), pulmonary vascular resistance (Rpul), or pulmonary blood flow (Qpul). At a dose of 300 pmol/kg, the initial vasodilatation was followed by an increase in Rsys and decreases in Qsys and Ppul. The response to intravenous human/alligator ET-1 (10, 30, 100, and 300 pmol/kg) was biphasic at all doses with initial decreases in Psys and Rsys being followed by sustained increases in these parameters. In the pulmonary circulation, ET-1 produced a dose-dependent decrease in Qpul and an increase in Rpul during the first phase of the response but no significant change during the second phase. There was no change in HR in response to ET-1. The vasodilatator action of arginine, but not ET-1, was attenuated by N ω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, indicating that the effect of the peptide is probably not mediated through increased synthesis of nitric oxide. The data demonstrate that the structure of the ET isoforms has been strongly conserved during the evolution of vertebrates but that cardiovascular actions differ significantly between the alligator and mammals, especially in the magnitude and duration of the hypotensive response.

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Balaguera-Reina, Sergio A., Laura A. Brandt, Nicole D. Hernandez, Brittany M. Mason, Christopher D. Smith, and Frank J. Mazzotti. "Body condition as a descriptor of American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) health status in the Greater Everglades, Florida, United States." PLOS ONE 18, no. 11 (November 30, 2023): e0295357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295357.

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Body condition is used as an indicator of the degree of body fat in an animal but evidence of its actual relationship with health diagnostics (e.g., blood parameters) is usually lacking across species. In American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), body condition has been used as a performance metric within the Greater Everglades ecosystem to provide insight on hydrological and landscape changes on alligator populations. However, there is no clear evidence that spatial body condition changes relate to different health conditions (low food intake vs sickness) and whether this link can be made when relating body condition values with blood parameters. We assessed the relationship between alligator body condition and 36 hematological and biochemistry (blood) parameters in four areas across two physiographic regions (Everglades and Big Cypress) of the Greater Everglades (sample size = 120). We found very strong to weak evidence of linearity between 7 (Big Cypress) and 19 (Everglades) blood parameters and relative condition factor index, from which cholesterol (38%) and uric acid (41%) for the former and phosphorus (up to 52%) and cholesterol (up to 45%) for the latter (mean absolute error MAE = 0.18 each) were the predictors that individually explain most of the body condition variation. The best combination of blood parameters for the Everglades were cholesterol, phosphorus, osmolality, total protein, albumin, alpha 2, beta, and gamma globulins, and corticosterone accounting for 40% (37 ± 21%, MAE = 0.16) of the variation found in alligator body condition for this region. We found better predictability power in models when analyzed at smaller rather than larger scales showing a potential habitat effect on the body condition—blood parameters relationship. Overall, Everglades alligators in poorer condition are likely dehydrated or have an inadequate diet and the spatial differences found between physiographic regions suggest that these areas differ in prey availability/quality.

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Greer, Skye, Michael J. Cramberg, and Bruce A. Young. "Morphometrics of the Spinal Cord and Surrounding Structures in Alligator mississippiensis." Biology 11, no. 4 (March 27, 2022): 514. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology11040514.

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Understanding the fluid dynamics of the cerebrospinal fluid requires a quantitative description of the spaces in which it flows, including the spinal cord and surrounding meninges. The morphometrics of the spinal cord and surrounding tissues were studied in specimens of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) ranging from hatchlings through adults. Within any size class of alligators (i.e., hatchlings), along the axial length there are significant differences in the size of the spinal cord, meninges, and vertebral canal; these differences can be used to define discrete cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions. When compared across the range of body sizes in Alligator, every structure in each spinal region had a distinctive growth rate; thus, the physical arrangements between the structures changed as the alligator grew. The combination of regional differentiation and differential growth rates was particularly apparent in the lumbar meninges where a unique form of lumbar cistern could be identified and shown to decrease in relative size as the alligator ages. This analysis of the spinal cord and surrounding tissues was undertaken to develop a data set that could be used for computational flow dynamics of the crocodilian cerebrospinal fluid, and also to assist in the analysis of fossil archosaurs.

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Sakaguchi, K., J. G. Nevarez, and F. Del Piero. "Salmonella Enterica Serovar Pomona Infection in Farmed Juvenile American Alligators (Alligator Mississippiensis)." Veterinary Pathology 54, no. 2 (November 24, 2016): 316–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0300985816677149.

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A fatal epizootic of salmonellosis occurred in farmed juvenile American alligators in Louisiana. Six animals were examined. Gross lesions included severe fibrinonecrotizing enterocolitis, necrotizing splenitis, coelomic effusion, and perivisceral and pulmonary edema. Microscopic examination revealed severe necrotizing enterocolitis and splenitis with intralesional bacteria and pneumocyte necrosis with fibrin thrombi. Salmonella enterica serovar Pomona was isolated from intestine and lung. Clinical salmonellosis is a rare finding in reptiles and salmonellosis caused by S. Pomona is not previously reported in American alligators. Since S. Pomona is a commonly isolated Salmonella serotype from patients with reptile-associated salmonellosis in the United States, and since alligator meat is consumed and the skin is exported to numerous countries, risk of human and animal infection should be considered.

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Young, Bruce A., and Michael Cramberg. "The Influence of Movement on the Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Biology 11, no. 12 (November 25, 2022): 1702. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology11121702.

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This study was undertaken to document how the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure varied during movements and physiological activities. Using surgically implanted pressure catheters; the CSF pressure was recorded from sub-adult American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) under anesthesia and post-recovery. Pressures were recorded during physiological activities (the cardiac cycle; passive and active ventilation); manual manipulation of the anesthetized animals (foot sweeps; tail oscillations; and body bends); as well as voluntary movements post-recovery (changes in body tone; defensive strikes; and locomotion). The CSF pulsations associated with the cardiac cycle had the lowest mean amplitude (3.7 mm Hg); during active ventilation and defensive strikes; the alligators routinely generated CSF pressure spikes in excess of 100 mm Hg. The recorded CSF pressures appear to be caused by a variety of mechanisms including vascular pressure; fluid inertia; and possible physical displacement of the spinal cord. The results of the study suggest that any model of CSF dynamics or perfusion should incorporate the episodic high-pressure CSF pulsations associated with movement

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Farmer, C. G., and D. R. Carrier. "Pelvic aspiration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 11 (June 1, 2000): 1679–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.11.1679.

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The pelvis of crocodilians is highly derived in that the pubic bones are isolated from the acetabulum and are attached to the ischia via moveable joints. We examined the possible role of this unusual morphology in lung ventilation by measuring ventilation, abdominal pressure and the electrical activity of several abdominal and pelvic muscles in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). We found that the activity of two pelvic muscles, the ischiopubis and ischiotruncus muscles, was correlated with inspiration; these muscles rotate the pubes ventrally and thereby increase abdominal volume. During expiration, contraction of the rectus abdominis and transversus abdominis rotates the pubes dorsally. We suggest that this mechanism facilitates diaphragmatic breathing by creating space for caudal displacement of the viscera during inspiration. Because birds also use a dorso-ventral movement of the pelvis to effect ventilation, some form of pelvic aspiration may be plesiomorphic for archosaurs.

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Jacobsen, T., and J. A. Kushlan. "Growth dynamics in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Zoology 219, no. 2 (October 1989): 309–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1989.tb02583.x.

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VLIET, KENT A. "Social Displays of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." American Zoologist 29, no. 3 (August 1989): 1019–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/29.3.1019.

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32

English, Connor J., Zachary Taylor, Michael Cramberg, and Bruce A. Young. "Dynamic asymmetry in cerebrospinal fluid pressure: An indicator of regional differences in compliance." Surgical Neurology International 14 (June 2, 2023): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.25259/sni_365_2023.

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Background: Dural compliance influences the shape and magnitude of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pulsations. In humans, cranial compliance is approximately 2× greater than spinal compliance; the differential has been attributed to the associated vasculature. In alligators, the spinal cord is surrounded by a large venous sinus, which suggests that the spinal compartment may have higher compliance than is found in mammals. Methods: Pressure catheters were surgically implanted into the cranial and spinal subdural spaces of eight subadult American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). The CSF was propelled through the subdural space by orthostatic gradients and rapid changes in linear acceleration. Results: CSF pressure recordings taken from the cranial compartment were consistently, and significantly, larger than those taken from the spinal compartment. After the myodural bridge of Alligator was surgically released, the asymmetry in CSF pressure was decreased. Conclusion: Unlike the situation in humans, the spinal compartment of Alligator has greater compliance than the cranial compartment, presumably due to the presence of the large spinal venous sinus surrounding the dura. The change in CSF pressures after myodural surgical release supports the hypothesis that the myodural bridge functions, at least in part, to modulate dural compliance and the exchange of CSF between the cranial and spinal compartments.

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Passek, Kelly M., and James C. Gillingham. "Absence of Kin Discrimination in Hatchling American Alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." Copeia 1999, no. 3 (August 2, 1999): 831. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1447624.

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34

Saalfeld, David T., Warren C. Conway, and Gary E. Calkins. "Food Habits of American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in East Texas." Southeastern Naturalist 10, no. 4 (December 2011): 659–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1656/058.010.0406.

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35

Faulkner, Patricia C., David Hala, Jessica Shimskie, Rachel Johnson, Anna Schneider, Taylor Cubbage, Nicolette Lozano, and Lene H. Petersen. "Juvenile American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) Use Behavioral Thermoregulation to Cope with Dehydration and Salt-Loading when Chronically Exposed to 12 ‰ Saltwater." Animal Behavior and Cognition 10, no. 1 (February 1, 2023): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.26451/abc.10.01.01.2023.

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American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) are native to freshwater habitats in the Southeastern United States. These areas are susceptible to salinity increases due to extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes) and climate change. The goal of this study was to investigate behaviors in juvenile alligators exposed to 12‰ saltwater for five weeks. Sixteen alligators were maintained in an experimental tank with 90 L of water and a heat lamp overhanging a basking plate. Observations were conducted in freshwater (prior to exposure to saltwater) and over the course of 5 weeks in 12‰ saltwater. This allowed for comparison of behaviors in freshwater and in saltwater in the same group of animals. Behaviors related to thermoregulation (basking and staying in the water) and feeding were recorded via instantaneous sampling, in which sampling intervals of 1 min occurred throughout a 20 min observation period. Saltwater-exposed alligators reduced foraging and feeding within the first week of saltwater exposure and spent significantly less time basking compared with freshwater observations. Furthermore, significantly fewer animals chose to bask over the course of 5 weeks in saltwater. A novel behavior, never seen in freshwater, was the closing of the outer eyelids when alligators were in the saltwater. Collectively, the present study demonstrates that chronic saltwater exposure has significant impact on the thermoregulatory behavior in juvenile alligators concomitantly exposed to dehydration and salt-loading without access to freshwater. As alligator hatchlings emerge during peak hurricane season, the survivability of hatchlings may be compromised if access to freshwater is unattainable.

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36

Xu, Yingjiao, Teresa A. Summers, and Bonnie D. Belleau. "Who buys American alligator?" Journal of Business Research 57, no. 10 (October 2004): 1189–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0148-2963(02)00327-2.

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37

Tate, Kevin B., Turk Rhen, John Eme, Zachary F. Kohl, Janna Crossley, Ruth M. Elsey, and Dane A. Crossley. "Periods of cardiovascular susceptibility to hypoxia in embryonic american alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 310, no. 11 (June 1, 2016): R1267—R1278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00320.2015.

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During embryonic development, environmental perturbations can affect organisms' developing phenotype, a process known as developmental plasticity. Resulting phenotypic changes can occur during discrete, critical windows of development. Critical windows are periods when developing embryos are most susceptible to these perturbations. We have previously documented that hypoxia reduces embryo size and increases relative heart mass in American alligator, and this study identified critical windows when hypoxia altered morphological, cardiovascular function and cardiac gene expression of alligator embryos. We hypothesized that incubation in hypoxia (10% O2) would increase relative cardiac size due to cardiac enlargement rather than suppression of somatic growth. We exposed alligator embryos to hypoxia during discrete incubation periods to target windows where the embryonic phenotype is altered. Hypoxia affected heart growth between 20 and 40% of embryonic incubation, whereas somatic growth was affected between 70 and 90% of incubation. Arterial pressure was depressed by hypoxic exposure during 50–70% of incubation, whereas heart rate was depressed in embryos exposed to hypoxia during a period spanning 70–90% of incubation. Expression of Vegf and PdgfB was increased in certain hypoxia-exposed embryo treatment groups, and hypoxia toward the end of incubation altered β-adrenergic tone for arterial pressure and heart rate. It is well known that hypoxia exposure can alter embryonic development, and in the present study, we have identified brief, discrete windows that alter the morphology, cardiovascular physiology, and gene expression in embryonic American alligator.

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38

Finger, John W., Scott M. Goetz, Meghan D. Kelley, L. M. Horne, Sara Piccolomini, Ruth M. Elsey, and Mary T. Mendonça. "American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Serum Inhibits Pitviper Venom Metalloproteinases." Journal of Herpetology 54, no. 2 (March 11, 2020): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1670/19-027.

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39

Merchant, Mark, Dusty Savage, Amos Cooper, Monique Slaughter, Joshuah S. Perkin, and Christopher M. Murray. "Nest Attendance Patterns in the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Copeia 106, no. 3 (October 2018): 421–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1643/ch-17-709.

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40

Bishop, Barney M., Melanie L. Juba, Megan C. Devine, Stephanie M. Barksdale, Carlos Alberto Rodriguez, Myung C. Chung, Paul S. Russo, Kent A. Vliet, Joel M. Schnur, and Monique L. van Hoek. "Bioprospecting the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Host Defense Peptidome." PLOS ONE 10, no. 2 (February 11, 2015): e0117394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117394.

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41

D., Higgs, Brittan-Powell E., Soares D., Souza M., Carr C., Dooling R., and Popper A. "Amphibious auditory responses of the American alligator ( Alligator mississipiensis )." Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 188, no. 3 (April 1, 2002): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00359-002-0296-8.

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42

D., Higgs, Brittan-Powell E., Soares D., Souza M., Carr C., Dooling R., and Popper A. "Amphibious auditory responses of the American alligator ( Alligator mississipiensis )." Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 188, no. 6 (July 1, 2002): 501–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00359-002-0324-8.

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43

Nilsen, Frances M., Brittany L. Kassim, J. Patrick Delaney, Ted R. Lange, Arnold M. Brunell, Louis J. Guillette, Stephen E. Long, and Tracey B. Schock. "Trace element biodistribution in the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis)." Chemosphere 181 (August 2017): 343–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.102.

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44

Lau, C. H., E. R. Snook, A. K. Swinford, and L. K. Bryan. "Achlya sp. Dermatitis in an American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Comparative Pathology 175 (February 2020): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2019.12.002.

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45

McDonald, M. M., and H. W. Taylor. "Egg Yolk Serositis in an American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24, no. 4 (October 1988): 700–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-24.4.700.

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46

Busk, M., J. Overgaard, J. W. Hicks, A. F. Bennett, and T. Wang. "Effects of feeding on arterial blood gases in the American alligator Alligator mississippiensis." Journal of Experimental Biology 203, no. 20 (October 15, 2000): 3117–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.20.3117.

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Reptiles habitually ingest large meals at infrequent intervals, leading to changes in acid-base status as the net secretion of acid to the stomach causes a metabolic alkalosis (the alkaline tide). In chronically cannulated and undisturbed amphibians and reptiles, the pH changes in arterial blood are, nevertheless, reduced by a concomitant respiratory acidosis (increased P(CO2) caused by a relative hypoventilation). Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) have been reported to exhibit exceptionally large increases in plasma [HCO3(−)] following feeding, but these studies were based on blood samples obtained by cardiac puncture, so stress and disturbance may have affected the blood gas levels. Furthermore, crocodilian haemoglobin is characterised by a unique binding of HCO3(−) that act to reduce blood oxygen-affinity, and it has been proposed that this feature safeguards oxygen offloading by counteracting pH effects on blood oxygen-affinity. Therefore, to study acid-base regulation and the interaction between the alkaline tide and oxygen transport in more detail, we describe the arterial blood gas composition of chronically cannulated and undisturbed alligators before and after voluntary feeding (meal size 7.5+/−1% of body mass). Digestion was associated with an approximately fourfold increase in metabolic rate (from 0.63+/−0.04 to 2.32+/−0.24 ml O(2) min(−1)kg(−1)) and was accompanied by a small increase in the respiratory gas exchange ratio. The arterial P(O2) of fasting alligators was 60.3+/−6.8 mmHg (1 mmHg = 0.133 kPa) and reached a maximum of 81.3+/−2.7 mmHg at 96 h following feeding; there was only a small increase in lactate levels, so the increased metabolic rate seems to be entirely aerobic. Plasma [HCO3(−)] increased from 24.4+/−1.1 to 36.9+/−1.7 mmol l(−1) (at 24 h), but since arterial P(CO2) increased from 29.0+/−1.1 to 36.8+/−1.3 mmHg, arterial pH remained virtually unaffected (changing from 7.51+/−0.01 to 7.58+/−0.01 at 24 h). The changes in plasma [HCO3(−)] were mirrored by equimolar reductions in plasma [Cl(−)]. The in vitro blood oxygen-affinity was reduced during the post-prandial period, whereas the estimated in vivo blood oxygen-affinity remained virtually constant. This supports the view that the specific HCO3(−) effect prevents an increased blood oxygen-affinity during digestion in alligators.

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Eversole, Cord B., Scott E. Henke, Benjamin L. Turner, Selma N. Glasscock, Randy L. Powell, David B. Wester, and Bart M. Ballard. "A Theoretical Population and Harvest Model for American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)." Herpetological Monographs 32, no. 1 (December 2018): 22–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1655/herpmonographs-d-17-00005.

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Nevarez, Javier G., Christine R. Lattin, Michael Romero, Brian Stacy, and Noel Kinler. "Assessment of Corticosterone Levels in American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) with Dermatitis." Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 21, no. 2 (June 1, 2011): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5818/1529-9651-21.2.76.

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49

Scott, Timothy P., and Paul J. Weldon. "Chemoreception in the feeding behaviour of adult American alligators, Alligator mississippiensis." Animal Behaviour 39, no. 2 (February 1990): 398–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80887-5.

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50

Hamlin, Heather J., Russell H. Lowers, Lori C. Albergotti, Michael W. McCoy, Jessica Mutz, and Louis J. Guillette. "Environmental Influence on Yolk Steroids in American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)1." Biology of Reproduction 83, no. 5 (November 1, 2010): 736–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.110.085142.

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Journal articles on the topic 'American alligator'

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