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Journal articles on the topic 'Ammonium chlorure'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 7 February 2022

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1

Renaudin, J. M., B. Sbinné, and F. De Blay. "Asthme professionnel dû ammoniums quaternaires : analyse de 16 cas démontrés par test de provocation bronchique positif au chlorure de didécyl diméthyl ammonium." Revue des Maladies Respiratoires 30 (January 2013): A39—A40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rmr.2012.10.125.

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2

Renaudin, J. M., B. Sbinné, and F. De Blay. "Asthme professionnel dû aux ammoniums quaternaires : analyse de 16 cas démontrés par test de provocation bronchique positif au chlorure de didécyl diméthyl ammonium." Revue Française d'Allergologie 52, no. 3 (April 2012): 293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.reval.2012.02.122.

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3

Moore, Nathan, Shelir Ebrahimi, Yanping Zhu, Chengjin Wang, Ron Hofmann, and Susan Andrews. "A comparison of sodium sulfite, ammonium chloride, and ascorbic acid for quenching chlorine prior to disinfection byproduct analysis." Water Supply 21, no. 5 (March 2, 2021): 2313–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2021.059.

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Abstract This study compared 3 commonly used quenching agents for dechlorinating samples prior to disinfection byproduct (DBP) analysis under typical drinking water sampling conditions for a representative suite of chlorination byproducts. Ascorbic acid and sodium sulfite quenched the residual free chlorine to below detection within 5 seconds. Ammonium chloride did not quench the chlorine to below detection with up to a 70% molar excess, which agrees with published ammonium chloride-chlorine chemistry. With respect to the DBPs, ascorbic acid worked well for the trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, except for dibromoiodomethane, which exhibited 2.6–28% error when using ascorbic acid compared to non-quenched control samples. Sodium sulfite also worked well for the trihalomethanes (and performed similarly to ascorbic acid for dibromoiodomethane) and was the best performing quenching agent for MX and the inorganic DBPs, but contributed to the decay of several emerging DBPs, including several halonitromethanes and haloacetamides. Ammonium chloride led to considerable errors for many DBPs, including 27–31% errors in chloroform concentrations after 24 hours of storage. This work shows that ascorbic acid is suitable for many of the organic DBPs analyzed by gas chromatography-electron capture detection and that sodium sulfite may be used for simultaneous chlorite, chlorate, and bromate analysis.

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4

Limpo, J. L., A. Luis, and M. C. Cristina. "Hydrolysis of cupric chloride in aqueous ammoniacal ammonium chloride solutions." Revista de Metalurgia 31, no. 3 (June 30, 1995): 150–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/revmetalm.1995.v31.i3.961.

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5

Wang, Rui Xiang, Mo Tang Tang, Jing He, and Sheng Hai Yang. "Thermodynamics of Pb(II) Complex Equilibrium in Pb(II)-NH₃-NH₄CI-H₂O System." Advanced Materials Research 402 (November 2011): 397–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.402.397.

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Thermodynamics of Pb(II) complex equilibrium in Pb(II)-NH3-NH4Cl-H2O system were studied using the double equilibrium method. Varying the concentration of ammonia and ammonium chloride, respectively, in range of 0~5mol/L, the equilibrium concentration of all the species in the system are calculated, and thermodynamic diagram are plotted. The dissolution laws of Pb(II) in the system are revealed and the high dissolution fields of Pb(II) are found. The solubility of lead increase with the ammonium chloride concentration increasing, and the highest solubility reaches 0.29mol/L, whereas the concentration of lead always remains 0 in pure ammonia solution. Add ammonium chloride to the solution and maintain its concentration constant, the concentration of lead decreases with ammonia concentration increasing.

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6

Hughes, R. J., J. Nair, and G. Ho. "The toxicity of ammonia/ammonium to the vermifiltration wastewater treatment process." Water Science and Technology 58, no. 6 (October 1, 2008): 1215–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.478.

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This study was undertaken to assess the toxicity of ammonia/ammonium to key species within the vermifiltration process. The key species, the earthworm Eisenia fetida, was subjected to a series of tests in solid phase mesocosms and full-scale units. The solid phase tests showed a relatively low toxicity to ammonium with ammonium chloride having an LC50 for ammonium of 1.49 g/kg. Ammonium sulfate did not show an effect on mortality at 2 g/kg ammonium. The full-scale units showed that ammonia hydroxide can change the pH and concentration of ammonia in wastewater and while it caused some mortality to the worms its overall affect on system functioning was minimal with no significant difference in terms of worm survival found between treatments. The affect on nitrifying bacteria was also minimal with no linear trend shown with ammonia concentration.

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7

Fogaça, Lara Alexandre, Laura Bereczki, Vladimir M. Petruševski, Berta Barta-Holló, Fernanda Paiva Franguelli, Miklós Mohai, Kende Attila Béres, Istvan E. Sajó, Imre Miklós Szilágyi, and Laszlo Kotai. "A Quasi-Intramolecular Solid-Phase Redox Reaction of Ammonia Ligands and Perchlorate Anion in Diamminesilver(I) Perchlorate." Inorganics 9, no. 5 (May 9, 2021): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/inorganics9050038.

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The reaction of ammoniacal AgNO3 solution (or aq. solution of [Ag(NH3)2]NO3) with aq. NaClO4 resulted in [Ag(NH3)2]ClO4 (compound 1). Detailed spectroscopic (correlation analysis, IR, Raman, and UV) analyses were performed on [Ag(NH3)2]ClO4. The temperature and enthalpy of phase change for compound 1 were determined to be 225.7 K and 103.04 kJ/mol, respectively. We found the thermal decomposition of [Ag(NH3)2]ClO4 involves a solid-phase quasi-intramolecular redox reaction between the perchlorate anion and ammonia ligand, resulting in lower valence chlorine oxyacid (chlorite, chlorate) components. We did not detect thermal ammonia loss during the formation of AgClO4. However, a redox reaction between the ammonia and perchlorate ion resulted in intermediates containing chlorate/chlorite, which disproportionated (either in the solid phase or in aqueous solutions after the dissolution of these decomposition intermediates in water) into AgCl and silver perchlorate. We propose that the solid phase AgCl-AgClO4 mixture eutectically melts, and the resulting AgClO4 decomposes in this melt into AgCl and O2. Thus, the final product of decomposition is AgCl, N2, and H2O. The intermediate (chlorite, chlorate) phases were identified by IR, XPS, and titrimetric methods.

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8

Rodriguez Rodriguez, Nerea, Lukas Gijsemans, Jakob Bussé, Joris Roosen, Mehmet Ali Recai Önal, Victoria Masaguer Torres, Álvaro Manjón Fernández, Peter Tom Jones, and Koen Binnemans. "Selective Removal of Zinc from BOF Sludge by Leaching with Mixtures of Ammonia and Ammonium Carbonate." Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy 6, no. 4 (November 9, 2020): 680–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40831-020-00305-3.

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Abstract The zinc content of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) sludges is too high for direct recycling into the blast furnace via the sinter plant, as excessive zinc concentrations are detrimental for the refractory lining of the blast furnace. However, by partial and selective removal of zinc from the BOF sludge, the residual sludge can be used as a secondary iron resource in the blast furnace. In this paper, BOF sludge was leached with aqueous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium salts (chloride, carbonate, and sulfate), and aqueous mixtures of ammonia and ammonium salt. The mixtures of ammonia and ammonium salt could leach more zinc with respect to either the aqueous ammonia or the aqueous ammonium salt solution. The ammonia–ammonium carbonate (AAC) mixture was selected as the most suitable lixiviant due to the high zinc leaching efficiency in combination with a high selectivity towards iron; furthermore, this combination does not introduce unwanted chloride or sulfate impurities in the residue. The leaching process was optimized in terms of the liquid-to-solid ratio, total ammonia concentration, ammonium:ammonia molar ratio, temperature, and leaching time. The co-dissolved iron was precipitated as a hydroxide after oxidation of ferrous to ferric ions by an air stream, without co-precipitation of zinc, while the dissolved zinc could be easily recovered as zinc sulfide by precipitation with ammonium sulfide. The (almost) closed-loop process was successfully up-scaled from 10 mL to 1 L scale. Graphical Abstract

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9

Dong, Yu Wei, Jing Zhi Miao, and An Hui Chen. "Research on Immobilized Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria by Sodium Alginate." Applied Mechanics and Materials 618 (August 2014): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.618.283.

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Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria were immobilized by sodium alginate. Immobilized conditions and ammonium removal ability of immobilized cells were researched. The results showed that the optimal immobilized conditions were: 4.5% sodium alginate with 2.0% calcium chloride, 2000 immobilized balls, 1000mL immobilized medium, pH 8, 30°C, 110r/min. Immobilized ammonia-oxidizing bacteria were recycled six times under the optimal immobilized conditions. Immobilized ammonia-oxidizing bacteria at the optimal conditions had better ammonium removal ability than non-immobilized ammonia-oxidizing and were good for preservation. Removal rate of ammonia nitrogen of immobilized ammonia-oxidizing bacteria reached 89.51%.

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10

Ushida, K., and Y. Kojima. "Effect of defaunation and refaunation of the rumen on cellulolytic activity in vitro with or without ammonia supplementation." Canadian Journal of Animal Science 71, no. 3 (September 1, 1991): 913–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas91-108.

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The effect of defaunation and refaunation of the rumen on cellulose digestion in vitro was examined with special reference to ammonia supply. Digestion of cellulose by DF and RF rumen populations was measured using a simple in vitro batch system with or without ammonia supplementation. Ammonia was supplied to the cultures either as ammonium sulfate or ammonium chloride solution. Cellulose digestion was increased by the presence of either protozoa or ammonia. The protozoal effect was evident in the absence of ammonia supplementation and the ammonia effect was evident in the absence of protozoa. The form of the ammonia supplement did not affect cellulose digestibility. Key words: Protozoa, ammonia, cellulose digestion

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11

Ma, Shao Jian, Jin Lin Yang, Gui Fang Wang, Wei Mo, and Xiu Juan Su. "Alkaline Leaching of Low Grade Complex Zinc Oxide Ore." Advanced Materials Research 158 (November 2010): 12–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.158.12.

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Alkaline leaching is an important way for treating low grade metal oxide ore, which has some advantages such as low corrosion and low pollution compared to acidic leaching. In order to recover the zinc from a low grade complex zinc oxide ore in which the grade of Zn and Fe are 13 wt.% and 40.2 wt.%, respectively, and 52.8% of Zn is contained in siderite, 34.63% in limonite and 11.55% in smithsonite, this paper presents a preliminary investigation of this type of ore by alkaline leaching method. In this study, ammonia-ammonium chloride and ammonia-ammonium carbonate were used as the leaching reagents. The effects of alkaline concentration, leaching time, leaching temperature and liquid to solid ratio (L/S) were studied, respectively. The results show that 43.15% of initial Zn content was extracted adopting ammonia-ammonium chloride as the leaching reagent in 4.5M at 30°C for 3h with a liquid to solid ratio of 4:1, while 43.07% of Zn recovery was achieved employing ammonia-ammonium carbonate as the leaching reagent at 5M, 30°C and 4:1(L/S). The low leaching rate of Zn is probably attributed to that the zinc contained in siderite was not extracted completely because Zn and Fe exist as isomorphism in siderite.

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12

Mohammad, Ameera F., Ali H. Al-Marzouqi, Muftah H. El-Naas, Bart Van der Bruggen, and Mohamed H. Al-Marzouqi. "A New Process for the Recovery of Ammonia from Ammoniated High-Salinity Brine." Sustainability 13, no. 18 (September 7, 2021): 10014. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su131810014.

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This paper describes a new method for the recovery of high-concentration ammonia from water in the form of ammonium chloride, ammonium hydroxide and ammonium carbonate. The method was applied to the Solvay process, in which sodium bicarbonate is produced through the reaction of ammoniated brine and CO2 gas. The Solvay effluent contains ammonia in the form of soluble ammonium chloride. The proposed method is based on the recovery of ammonia using a high-alkalinity reactant, calcium oxide (CaO), in a closed electrocoagulation cell operating at a specific current density. The recovered ammonia is collected as a gas within a closed cell containing deionized (DI) water at room temperature. Afterwards, the collected solution (DI water–NH3 gas) is concentrated through a separate process, and is then reused in the Solvay process and other applications. The electrocoagulation process is applied to the treatment cell using aluminum electrodes and a current density of 5–15 mA/cm2. After 7 h of treatment using the electrocoagulation cell, a high reduction of the ammonia concentration—99%—was realized after ~9 h of the electrochemical treatment. The initial ammonia concentration in a Solvay effluent of 13,700 mg/L N was decreased to 190 mg/L N. Furthermore, an ammonia recovery of 77.1% in the form of ammonium hydroxide was achieved. Generally, this process, which starts at room temperature, can result in an energy reduction of 80%—from 7.8 to 2.3 kWh/kg NH3—compared to conventional processes, which entail heating the Solvay effluents to 160 °C. The proposed system and method were found to be suitable for the recovery of ammonia from ammoniated water, and can be utilized for the treatment of landfill leachate, and municipal and industrial wastewater.

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13

Nakamura, Eiji, and Susan J. Hagen. "Role of glutamine and arginase in protection against ammonia-induced cell death in gastric epithelial cells." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 283, no. 6 (December 1, 2002): G1264—G1275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00235.2002.

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Ammonia is a cytotoxic factor produced during Helicobacter pylori infection that may reduce the survival of surface epithelial cells. Here we examine whether ammonia kills cells and whether l-glutamine (l-Gln) protects against cell death by stimulating ammonia detoxification pathways. Cell viability and vacuolation were quantified in rat gastric epithelial (RGM1) cells incubated with ammonium chloride at pH 7.4 in the presence or absence of l-Gln. Incubation of RGM1 cells with ammonium chloride caused a dose-dependent increase in cell death and vacuolation, which were both inhibited byl-Gln. We show that RGM1 cells metabolize ammonia to urea via arginase, a process that is stimulated by l-Gln and results in reduced ammonia cytotoxicity. l-Gln also inhibits the uptake and facilitates the extrusion of ammonia from cells. Blockade of glutamine synthetase did not reduce the survival of RGM1 cells, demonstrating that the conversion ofl-glutamate and ammonia to l-Gln is not involved in ammonia detoxification. Thus our data support a role forl-Gln and arginase in protection against ammonia-induced cell death in gastric epithelial cells.

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14

Wiechetek, Maria, Pawel Podgurniak, Romuald Zabielski, and Malgorzata Podgurniak. "The effect of adrenal denervation on the metabolic effects of hyperammonemia in sheep." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 67, no. 9 (September 1, 1989): 1062–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y89-168.

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The metabolic effect of intravenous infusion of ammonium chloride (60 μmol/(kg body weight∙min)) was compared in five sheep before and after adrenal denervation. Adrenal denervation completely abolished the hyperglycemic effect of ammonium chloride, diminished the rise of pyruvate and lactate concentration, and failed to influence the lipolytic effect of NH4Cl It is suggested that the metabolic effects of ammonia are in a different degree related to the action of ammonia on the central nervous system and (i) the hyperammonemic effect of ammonia completely depends on the neurogenic increase of adrenal medullary hormones; (ii) the rise of blood lactate and pyruvate level observed during hyperammonemia is only partially mediated by adrenaline; and (iii) the lipolytic effect of ammonia ion does not depend on the nerve-controlled secretion of adrenal medullary hormones.Key words: adrenal denervation, hyperammonemia, metabolism, sheep.

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15

Brendler, E., S. Frühauf, E. Müller, and G. Roewer. "Interaction of Polychloromethylsilanes with Ammonia and Ammonium Chloride." Chemistry of Materials 16, no. 7 (April 2004): 1368–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cm030619a.

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16

Kawashima, Hiroto, and Sae Ono. "Nitrogen Isotope Fractionation from Ammonia Gas to Ammonium in Particulate Ammonium Chloride." Environmental Science & Technology 53, no. 18 (August 6, 2019): 10629–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b01569.

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17

Sabba, Nassila, Omar Arous, and Djamel Eddine Akretche. "Extraction du plomb (II) par des membranes polymères à inclusion en utilisant l’Aliquat 336 comme transporteur." Revue des sciences de l’eau 26, no. 2 (June 3, 2013): 107–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1016062ar.

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Résumé Au cours de ce travail, nous avons étudié l’extraction liquide - liquide et le transport du plomb à travers des membranes polymériques en utilisant le chlorure de tricapryle ammonium (Aliquat 336) comme transporteur. L’extraction du plomb par Aliquat 336 nous a permis de mettre au point les conditions optimales d’extraction et de déterminer les rendements d’extraction. Les expériences d’extraction liquide - liquide ont montré qu’un maximum de rendement était obtenu après huit minutes d’agitation à une vitesse de 2 400 (rpm). Les pourcentages d’extraction obtenus varient entre 80 à 94 % et donc une très bonne élimination du plomb a été réalisée (la concentration initiale du plomb varie entre 2 10‑6 M et 30 10‑6 M). Nous avons préparé par la suite des membranes à base du polymère triacétate de cellulose (TAC) plastifiées par le tris-ethyl-hexyl-phosphate (TEHP) et modifiées par l’extractant Aliquat 336 utilisé comme transporteur. Les membranes élaborées ont été également caractérisées par spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (FTIR). Les valeurs obtenues pour les épaisseurs (entre 10 et 20 µm) et les densités sont tout à fait comparables à celles des supports commerciaux utilisés pour la préparation des membranes liquides supportées. L’ajout du plastifiant a donné une très bonne hydrophobie des membranes élaborées. Les expériences du transfert du plomb à travers les nouvelles membranes ont montré que les flux augmentent considérablement avec la concentration du transporteur pour atteindre un maximum à partir de 10‑3 M. D’autres paramètres caractérisant le transport (concentration initiale du métal et le pH) ont été déterminés. Un bon rendement d’élimination du plomb a été obtenu dans la gamme de pH très acide (1 ≤ pH ≤ 2).

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18

Lasquellec, V., J. Marcq, M. Sbaï, R. Filmon, T. Q. Nguyen, F. De Nardi, and M. Pontié. "Nouvelle stratégie antibiofilm par dépôt LBL d’un polyélectrolyte cationique sur la membrane de dialyse anionique AN69." Revue des sciences de l'eau 20, no. 2 (May 16, 2007): 175–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/015811ar.

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Résumé Cette étude présente une stratégie antibiofilm appliquée à une membrane de dialyse, l’AN69; il s’agit de réaliser une modification initiale de la surface de la membrane par un polyélectrolyte cationique, le poly(diallyldiméthyl-ammonium), noté PDADMA, selon un protocole de type « layer-by-layer ». Les caractéristiques physico-chimiques des deux membranes, l’AN69 et l’AN69 modifiée par le PDADMA, sont suivies par la détermination de la modification de la charge de la membrane en mettant en oeuvre des mesures de potentiels d’écoulement et de nombres de transports de Li+, de perméabilité hydraulique et des analyses morphologiques et topographiques effectuées par les microscopies électroniques à balayage et à force atomique, respectivement avant et après exposition à E. coli et à un biofilm marin. Nos résultats montrent tout d’abord un rôle majeur joué par l’attraction électrostatique entre les microorganismes et l’AN69 modifiée par le PDADMA à l’origine d’une adhésion forte des bactéries. Par ailleurs, nous avons mis au point un protocole original d’élimination du biofilm marin. Ce protocole consiste à immerger la membrane modifiée par le PDADMA et encrassée, dans une solution de chlorure de sodium 2M afin d’écranter les charges électrostatiques à l’origine de l’accroche du polyélectrolyte et permettre le décrochage du PDADMA qui entraîne avec lui l’encrassement (constitué de bactéries et autres résidus de biofilm). La recharge d’un film frais de PDADMA permet alors une réutilisation à l’infini de la membrane AN69. La simplicité de ce protocole « de régénération » ouvre la possibilité d’une modification non permanente des membranes de dialyse, dans le but de limiter les problèmes récurrents de biocolmatage et d’augmenter les durées de vie des membranes en milieu marin.

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19

Harikrishnan, B., P. Subramanian, and S. Subash. "Effect ofWithania SomniferaRoot Powder on the Levels of Circulatory Lipid Peroxidation and Liver Marker Enzymes in Chronic Hyperammonemia." E-Journal of Chemistry 5, no. 4 (2008): 872–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/589394.

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Withania somnifera(L) Dunal (Solanaceae), commonly called Ashwagandha (Sanskrit) is an Ayurvedic Indian medicinal plant, which has been widely used as a home remedy for several ailments. We have investigated the influence ofW.somniferaroot powder on the levels of circulatory ammonia, urea, lipid peroxidation products such as TBARS (thiobarbituric acid and reactive substances), HP (hydroperoxides) and liver marker enzymes such as AST (aspartate transaminase), ALT (alanine transaminase) and ALP (alkaline phosphatase), for its hepatoprotective effect in ammonium chloride induced hyperammonemia. Ammonium chloride treated rats showed a significant increase in the levels of circulatory ammonia, urea, AST, ALT, ALP, TBARS and HP. These changes were significantly decreased in rats treated withW.somniferaroot powder and ammonium chloride. Our results indicate thatW.somniferaoffers hepatoprotection by influencing the levels of lipid peroxidation products and liver markers in experimental hyperammonemia and this could be due to (i) the presence of alkaloids, withanolids and flavonoids, (ii) normalizing the levels of urea and urea related compounds, (iii) its free radical scavenging property and (iv) its antioxidant property. The exact underlying mechanism is still unclear and further research needed.

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20

Narkis, N., and A. Katz-Stoller. "Back to pre-disinfection of highly polluted waters." Water Supply 2, no. 3 (July 1, 2002): 219–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2002.0106.

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The initial pre-disinfection was one of the stages that most contributed to the formation of a large number of halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs). The threat and awareness to the formation of chlorine disinfection by-products, refrained from using pre-disinfection with chlorine in the treatment of contaminated raw waters, to be used as drinking water. The main purpose of this research was to study whether chlorine dioxide can be used for pre-disinfection in the treatment of highly polluted wastewaters and surface waters. Chlorine dioxide was found suitable, as a replacement for chlorine, for disinfection of water containing natural organic substances, effluents’ organic materials and ammonium ions, due to its advantages, and especially because it is an effective disinfectant for killing pathogenic microorganisms and destroying viruses. Chlorine dioxide does not form THMs and barely creates chloroorganic compounds. However, the main disadvantage of the chlorine dioxide is the creation of undesirable chlorite and chlorate ions, which are suspected of being toxic. This research showed that the undesirable chlorite ions can be removed completely by adding Fe+2, which reduces ClO2- to the harmless Cl-, and is oxidized to Fe+3, to form the ferric polyhydroxo complexes, that can be used as the flocculant, in the next flocculation step, for the achievement of safer drinking water.

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21

Gagarina, Tatiana B., Nicolaiy V. Ksandrov, Tatiana N. Kazankova, and Anatoliy A. Peretrutov. "DEPENDENCE OF DENSITY OF JOINT AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA, AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, AMMINES OF ZINC AND COPPER ON THEIR COMPOSITION." IZVESTIYA VYSSHIKH UCHEBNYKH ZAVEDENIY KHIMIYA KHIMICHESKAYA TEKHNOLOGIYA 59, no. 2 (July 11, 2018): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.6060/tcct.20165902.5299.

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The dependence of the pressure of joint aqueous solutions of ammonia, ammonium chloride, ammines of zinc and copper on their component concentrations was studied by pycnometric method. The equation wich allow calculating the density of solutions mentioned above using known molar concentrations of components was obtained. The error of calculation on equation is not more than 3%. The data obtained can be used at the design of pilot devices for the extraction of zinc and copper by ammonia-ammonium solutions from industrial waste.

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22

Xu, Wenkai, Zhaohu Zhu, Fengli Ge, Zhongzhi Han, and Juan Li. "Analysis of Behavior Trajectory Based on Deep Learning in Ammonia Environment for Fish." Sensors 20, no. 16 (August 8, 2020): 4425. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20164425.

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Ammonia can be produced by the respiration and excretion of fish during the farming process, which can affect the life of fish. In this paper, to research the behavior of fish under different ammonia concentration and make the corresponding judgment and early warning for the abnormal behavior of fish, the different ammonia environments are simulated by adding the ammonium chloride into the water. Different from the existing methods of directly artificial observation or artificial marking, this paper proposed a recognition and analysis of behavior trajectory approach based on deep learning. Firstly, the three-dimensional spatial trajectories of fish are drawn by three-dimensional reconstruction. Then, the influence of different concentrations of ammonia on fish is analyzed according to the behavior trajectory of fish in different concentrations of ammonia. The results of comparative experiments show that the movement of fish and vitality decrease significantly, and the fish often stagnates in the water of containing ammonium chloride. The proposed approach can provide a new idea for the behavior analysis of animal.

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Smirnov, Alekseiy A., Sergeiy A. Silkin, Sergeiy A. Kusmanov, Pavel N. Belkin, Ilya G. Dyakov, and Varvara S. Sevostyanova. "IMPROVEMENT OF CORROSION AND WEAR RESISTANCE OF 45 STEEL WITH ANODE PLASMA ELECTROLYTE NITRIDING." IZVESTIYA VYSSHIKH UCHEBNYKH ZAVEDENIY KHIMIYA KHIMICHESKAYA TEKHNOLOGIYA 60, no. 1 (March 1, 2017): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.6060/tcct.2017601.5417.

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For citation:Smirnov A.A., Silkin S.A., Belkin P.N., Dyakov I.G., Sevostyanova V.S., Kusmanov S.A. Improvement of corrosion and wear resistance of 45 steel with anode plasma electrolyte nitriding. Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved. Khim. Khim. Tekhnol. 2017. V. 60. N 1. P. 81-86.The wear and corrosion resistance was studied after anode plasma electrolytic nitriding (PEN) the carbon steel in electrolyte containing ammonium chloride and ammonia or ammonium nitrate. Tribological properties of nitrided samples were evaluated using a pin-on-disk and ball-on-disk tribometers under lubricated testing conditions and dry sliding. The effect of processing temperature on corrosion resistance of the PEN samples was examined by means of potentiodynamic polarization in a solution of sodium sulfate (0.1 N). The anode PEN at 750 °C during 5 min in electrolyte containing ammonium chloride (15%) and ammonium nitrate (5%) results in a decrease in a corrosion current density by a factor of 16. The anode PEN at 750 °C during 10 min in electrolyte containing ammonium chloride (10%) and ammonia (5%) results in the decrease in a corrosion current density by a factor of 6. Improving the corrosion resistance of steel takes place due to the formation of the surface oxide layer and the nitride-martensite zone. Results of wear tests under lubricated testing conditions with the speed of 0.49 m/s and load of 208.6 N against hardened steel (50 HRC) diskshow that friction coefficient of nitrided samples decreases at all PEN temperatures. The anode PEN at 750 °C during 10 min in electrolyte containing ammonium chloride and ammonia results in the decrease in wear rate more than 9 times and friction coefficient from 0.17 to 0.12. Nitriding in electrolyte with ammonium chloride and nitrate also results in minimum of the wear rate after the PEN at 750 °C during 10 min but it gives lesser result due to the lower hardness of the nitride-martensite sublayer. Wear tests during dry sliding with the speed of 0.2 m/s and load of 5 N against bearing steel ballshow that friction coefficient of nitrided samples decreases from 0.41 to 0.28. The increasing the load reduces the friction coefficient that means saving mode of elastic contact and a good running-in ability of oxide layer in the studied range. Linear wear decreases from 35 to 21 mm at load of 10 N and sliding speed of 0.4 m/s.

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Friedrich, Jochen, Cäcilia Maichle-Mössmer, Claudio Schrenk, Andreas Schnepf, and Reiner Anwander. "Ceric Ammonium Nitrate and Ceric Ammonium Chloride as Precursors for Ceric Siloxides: Ammonia and Ammonium Inclusion." European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry 2019, no. 1 (December 4, 2018): 79–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejic.201801150.

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Camargo Valero, M. A., and D. D. Mara. "Nitrogen removal in maturation ponds: tracer experiments with 15N-labelled ammonia." Water Science and Technology 55, no. 11 (June 1, 2007): 81–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.347.

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A primary maturation pond (M1) was spiked with labelled ammonium chloride (15NH4Cl) to track ammonium transformations associated with algal uptake and subsequent sedimentation. Conventional sampling based on grab samples collected from M1 influent, water column and effluent, and processed for unfiltered and filtered TKN, ammonium, nitrite and nitrate, found low total nitrogen removal (8%) and high ammonium nitrogen removal (90%). Stable isotope analysis of 15N from suspended organic and ammonium nitrogen fractions in M1 effluent revealed that labelled ammonium was mainly found in the organic fraction (69% of the 15N recovered), rather than the inorganic fraction (5%). Algal uptake was the predominant pathway for ammonia removal, even though conditions were favourable for ammonia volatilization (8.9 < pH <10.1 units, 15.2 < temperature <18.8 °C). Total nitrogen was removed by ammonia volatilization at 15 g N/ha d (3%), organic nitrogen sedimentation at 105 g N/ha d (20%), and in-pond accumulation due to algal uptake at 377 g N/ha d (71%). Algal uptake of ammonium and subsequent sedimentation and retention in the benthic sludge, after partial ammonification of the algal organic nitrogen, is thus likely to be the dominant mechanism for permanent nitrogen removal in maturation ponds during warm summer months in England.

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Acharya, A. R., A. T. Pise, and I. I. Momin. "Ammonium Chloride as Surfactant for Heat Transfer Enhancement in Pool Boiling." International Journal of Engineering and Technology 3, no. 3 (2011): 323–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.7763/ijet.2011.v3.246.

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HUA, Xiao-ming, Yong-fei ZHENG, Qian XU, Xiong-gang LU, Hong-wei CHENG, Xing-li ZOU, Qiu-shi SONG, and Zhi-qiang NING. "Interfacial reactions of chalcopyrite in ammonia–ammonium chloride solution." Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 28, no. 3 (March 2018): 556–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1003-6326(18)64688-6.

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Max, Jean-Joseph, and Camille Chapados. "Aqueous ammonia and ammonium chloride hydrates: Principal infrared spectra." Journal of Molecular Structure 1046 (August 2013): 124–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2013.04.045.

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Ding, Zhiying, Zhoulan Yin, Xifei Wu, Huiping Hu, and Qiyuan Chen. "Leaching Kinetics of Willemite in Ammonia-Ammonium Chloride Solution." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 42, no. 4 (February 23, 2011): 633–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11663-010-9472-3.

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Ellis, P. Christopher, Lori F. Pivarnik, Mamadou Thiam, L. Berger, S. Field, D. Green, D. Hewes, et al. "Determination of Volatile Bases in Seafood Using the Ammonia Ion Selective Electrode: Collaborative Study." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 83, no. 4 (July 1, 2000): 933–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/83.4.933.

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Abstract Nine collaborating laboratories tested a combination of 23 seafood samples for volatile bases using an ammonia ion selective electrode. Results were reported as mg NH3/100 g fish, but the method reflected levels of both ammonia and trimethylamine, which permeated the ammonia membrane. The 23 samples were broken down into 8 blind duplicate pairs, 2 Youden matched pairs, and 3 single samples covering fresh to spoiled product ranging from 8 to 82 mg NH3/100 g. Seven species were evaluated: Atlantic cod, squid, Atlantic halibut, gray sole, monkfish, dogfish, and Atlantic mackerel. The ammonia electrode assay was performed on an aqueous homogenate consisting of 95 mL distilled water and 5.0 g sample tissue. Alkaline ion strength adjusting solution (2 mL) was added to the homogenate to liberate ammonia that was sensed by the ion specific electrode and measured on a precalibrated portable meter. Repeatability standard deviations (RSDr) ranged from 4.2 to 17%; reproducibility standard deviations (RSDR) ranged from 8.8 to 21%. A standard ammonium chloride solution was provided to all laboratories to spike 3 different samples at 10 mg NH3/100 g. Recoveries of added ammonia as ammonium chloride for fresh, borderline, and spoiled samples were 88.6, 107, and 128%, respectively.

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Liu, Yi, Ai Xiang Wei, and Xiao Dong Lin. "Morphological and Optical Properties of CdS Nano-Crystalline Thin Films by Chemical Bath Deposition." Key Engineering Materials 537 (January 2013): 144–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.537.144.

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CdS thin films were prepared by chemical bath deposition (CBD) at different ammonia concentration and different temperature using cadmium chloride hydrate, thiourea, ammonium chloride, ammonia and deionized water as precursors. The morphology structure and the optical properties of CdS thin films were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), ultraviolet-visible spectra and spectroscopic ellipsometry. The results indicated that CdS thin film could be grown when ammonia concentration at the range of 0.4-1.0 mol /L and in the temperature range of 50 °C -80 °C. Within 600-980 nm wavelength，the average value of the refractive index was found to be 1.70 and the extinction coefficient was less than 0.08.

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Belkin, Pavel N., Sergei A. Kusmanov, V. S. Belkin, and V. I. Parfenyuk. "Increase in Corrosion Resistance of Commercial Pure Titanium by Anode Plasma Electrolytic Nitriding." Materials Science Forum 844 (March 2016): 125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.844.125.

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Features of the anode electrolytic plasma processing of commercial pure titanium and its alloys in aqueous solutions of ammonium chloride and ammonia additives are studied. It is identified that structure of modified layer contains an external TiO2 or TiO layer with micropores of up to 100 nm and a diffusion sub-layer after nitriding in the solution with the ammonia addition. Some increase in the surface microhardness is found. The plasma electrolytic treatment of titanium makes it possible to enhance its corrosion resistance by short-term (5 min) saturation with nitrogen at 750 °C in an electrolyte containing 5% ammonia and 10% ammonium chloride. The oxide coating formed during the anodic treatment has a positive effect on the corrosion resistance of titanium and results in reduce of the corrosion rate by two orders under continuous tests. Saturation of titanium samples with nitrogen leads to an increase in their strength properties after corrosion tests with a slight decrease in ductility. An additional advantage of this coating is to reduce of leaching of alloying elements from samples in corrosive environments.

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Pratskova, Svetlana E., and Oksana E. Sirenko. "Spectrophotometric determination of active chlorine by the color of indophenolic compounds." Butlerov Communications 57, no. 3 (March 31, 2019): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.37952/roi-jbc-01/19-57-3-93.

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Chlorination is a method of disinfection and oxidation of organic impurities in water. Chlorine is present in aqueous solutions in various forms, which are formed as a result of the chlorination of water. Spectrophotometric methods are very important for determining small amounts of chlorine and its compounds. The article presents a modification of the classical indophenolic method. Determination of active chlorine should be carried out at room temperature, maintaining the solutions for 50 minutes, the pH range is 11.9 ± 0.1. The optimal concentration of reagents: 33-fold excess of N-phenanthranilic acid, 2-fold excess of sodium nitroprusside, and the concentration of ammonium chloride should be 4 to 7 times less than the concentration of active chlorine. The following interaction scheme was proposed: oxidation of ammonia to chloramine with hypochlorite, amination of N-phenanthanilate with the formation of sodium 4-amino-N-phenylanthranilate, oxidation of 4-amino-N-phenylanthranilate with sodium hypochlorite to an indamin compound, followed by complexation with sodium nitroprusside. The linearity range of the calibration curve is 1-23 mg/l, the convergence is 2.3%, the relative error is 1%. The molar ratios of ions and oxidizing agents present in natural waters that do not interfere with the determination of active chlorine are investigated. The optimal concentrations of reagents, sequential variation of the concentration of solutions and fixing the change in light absorption were established. The ratio of the stoichiometric coefficients according to the reaction equation was: ammonium: N-phenanthranilic acid: sodium nitroprusside: hypochloride was 1: 2: 1: 1. It is proposed to use this method to determine the active chlorine in tap water. It is recommended to use the calibration schedule to determine the preliminary content, and to establish a more accurate concentration, use the method of additives.

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Yan, Mi, Zhi Fu Qi, Xiao Dong Li, Tong Chen, Sheng Yong Lu, Alfons G. Buekens, Kees Olie, and Jian Hua Yan. "Chlorobenzene Formation from Fly Ash: Effect of Moisture, Chlorine Gas, Cupric Chloride, Urea, Ammonia, and Ammonium Sulfate." Environmental Engineering Science 29, no. 9 (September 2012): 890–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ees.2011.0304.

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35

Tomida, Daisuke, Kousuke Suzuki, Yuuichi Katou, and Chiaki Yokoyama. "Vapor Pressures and Liquid Densities of Ammonium Chloride + Ammonia Mixtures." Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 53, no. 7 (July 2008): 1583–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/je8001267.

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36

Yin, Zhoulan, Zhiying Ding, Huiping Hu, Kui Liu, and Qiyuan Chen. "Dissolution of zinc silicate (hemimorphite) with ammonia–ammonium chloride solution." Hydrometallurgy 103, no. 1-4 (June 2010): 215–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2010.03.006.

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37

Young, Jay A. "Ammonium Chloride." Journal of Chemical Education 82, no. 11 (November 2005): 1618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed082p1618.

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38

&NA;. "Ammonium chloride." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 1351 (May 2011): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-201113510-00020.

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39

Kulmala, Markku, Jyrki Mäkelä, Tom W. Choularton, Alfred Wiedensohler, and Hans-Christen Hansson. "Formation of ammonium chloride particles from hydrogen chloride and ammonia in the atmosphere." Journal of Aerosol Science 26 (September 1995): S463—S464. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-8502(95)97139-6.

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40

Koishina, G. M., E. E. Zholdasbay, M. B. Kurmanseitov, E. B. Tazhiev, and A. A. Argyn. "Study on the behavior of zinc and associated metal-impurities in the process of chlorinating roasting of dross." Kompleksnoe Ispolʹzovanie Mineralʹnogo syrʹâ/Complex Use of Mineral Resources/Mineraldik Shikisattardy Keshendi Paidalanu 318, no. 3 (September 12, 2021): 71–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.31643/2021/6445.30.

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In this work the issue of processing of dross with preliminary separation of the metal part from the oxide one is reviewed. Based on a comparative analysis of the results of known works it is shown that this approach can be quite effective if a technology is developed for the separate processing of the oxide part to obtain a commercial product. The authors of this work proposed carrying out chlorinating roasting under oxidizing conditions with various chlorine-containing reagents as one of the effective ways of processing the oxide part of the dross. Based on the thermodynamic analysis of the reactions of interaction between the components of the oxide part of the dross and calcium and ammonium chlorides, the principal possibility of obtaining pure zinc oxide, suitable for use as mineral additives in animal feed has been shown. As a result of thermodynamic calculations of the reactions of interaction of impurity metals with calcium chloride and ammonium chloride, the values of Gibbs free energy and reaction rate constants were determined in the temperature range 973 and 1373 K. It has been established that under the conditions of roasting the oxide part of the dross with both calcium chloride and ammonium chloride, a high degree of sublimation of impurity metals from the dross in the form of their chlorides into dust is achieved. It has been shown that roasting the oxide part of the dross using ammonium chloride is more efficient than with calcium chloride.

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41

Stojanovska, Marina, and Vladimir M. Petrusevski. "Chemistry of Alkali Metals 1. A Simple Synthesis of Liquid K-Na Alloy and Few Examples of its Use in the Chemistry Education Lab." Educación Química 18, no. 2 (August 22, 2018): 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.22201/fq.18708404e.2007.2.65961.

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<span>Upon pressing small pieces of sodium and potassium with a glass rod, the solid pieces turn into silvery liquid product a KNa alloy. The alloy reacts with water very vigorously (often an explosion occurs). This experiment is reserved only for chemistry instructors, providing they take all necessary precautions. Two much safer experiments are described: a novel one, where the alloy is allowed to react with mercury, giving KNa amalgam, and the reaction of the obtained amalgam with saturated aqueous solution of ammonium chloride, where unstable ammonium amalgam is formed. Ammonium amalgam decays in several minutes to give ammonia, hydrogen and elemental mercury.</span>

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42

Atkinson, George H., Samuel Hinmers, Robert E. Critoph, and Michel van der Pal. "Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)—Ammonia (NH3): Sorption Characteristics for Heat Pump Applications." Energies 14, no. 18 (September 21, 2021): 6002. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14186002.

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In a resorption heat pump, the adsorption and desorption reaction of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) with ammonia (NH3) is of interest as a Low Temperature Salt (LTS). Reviewing previously published NH4Cl-NH3 equilibrium lines, ammonium chloride appears to offer useable working temperatures (50–70 °C) in the 10–15 bar pressure range during the adsorption reaction, and provides beneficial working conditions for the desorption reaction, when compared with alternative LTS candidates at atmospheric pressure. The NH4Cl-NH3 adsorption and desorption reactions, using a NH4Cl composite salt, have been evaluated under dynamic ‘real-world’ conditions in a Large Temperature Jump (LTJ) experimental testing rig; although there are concerns with mass transfer characteristics, the salt exhibits no hysteresis between the adsorption and desorption reactions, contrary to previous literature. The experimentally obtained equilibrium line values for the reaction enthalpy and entropy are 29,835 J/mol and 207 J/(mol∙K), respectively. Using a semi-empirical model, the NH4Cl composite salt has been successfully characterised, enabling the prediction of salt reaction behaviour. The model constants, A and n, identified are 4.5 and 5 for adsorption and 5 and 4 for desorption, with an overall salt active fraction (applicable to both reactions) of 0.98. Overall, the working equilibrium line and the dynamic performance of ammonium chloride has been investigated and the applicability of NH4Cl as a LTS for a resorption heat pump determined.

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43

Velásquez-Yévenes, Lilian, Hans Álvarez, Víctor Quezada, and Antonio García. "The Enhancement of Enargite Dissolution by Sodium Hypochlorite in Ammoniacal Solutions." Materials 14, no. 16 (August 12, 2021): 4529. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14164529.

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The dissolution of both copper and arsenic from a copper concentrate was investigated in oxidative ammonia/ammonium solutions at moderate temperatures and atmospheric pressure. The main parameters studied were temperature, pH, concentrations of different ammonia salts, the presence of sodium hypochlorite, pretreatment with sodium chloride, and curing period. In all ammoniacal solutions studied, increasing the temperature enhanced the dissolution of copper, but the dissolution of arsenic remained marginal. Mixing the copper concentrate with sodium chloride and leaving it to rest for 72 h before leaching in ammoniacal solutions significantly increased the dissolution of copper and slightly increased the dissolution of arsenic from the concentrate. A maximum of 35% of Cu and 3.3% of As were extracted when ammonium carbonate was used as the lixiviant. The results show relatively rapid dissolution of the concentrate with the addition of sodium hypochlorite in ammonium carbonate solution, achieving a dissolution of up to 50% and 25% of copper and arsenic, respectively. A copper dissolution with a non-linear regression model was proposed, considering the effect of NaClO and NH4Cl at 25 °C. These findings highlight the importance of using the correct anionic ligands for the ammonium ions and temperature to obtain a high dissolution of copper or arsenic. The results also showed that the curing time of the packed bed before the commencement of leaching appeared to be an important parameter to enhance the dissolution of copper and leave the arsenic in the residues.

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Cai, Cheng Xiang, Yan Zhen Yin, Jia Ming Li, Shu Ming Zhong, Xiu Feng Wu, and Yao Song Nong. "Investigation of the Corrosion Mechanism of A3 Steel by Ammonia Nitrogen Metabolites of Crassostrea Rivularis." Applied Mechanics and Materials 624 (August 2014): 147–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.624.147.

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Using ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) as model compounds of ammonia nitrogen metabolites of crassostrea rivularis (oyster), the corrosion process of steel alloys by ammonia nitrogen metabolites of oyster was carried out in simulated seawater. Using A3 steel for marine engineering steel as the sample, the experiments based on the corrosion coupon in natural sea, static coupon, scanning electron microscope and polarization curve were carried out. According to the corrosion morphology development of samples, the corrosion mechanism of attached corrosion of was revealed.

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45

Musick, J., W. Kiefer, and J. Popp. "Chemical Reactions of Single Levitated Inorganic Salt Particles with Ammonia Gas." Applied Spectroscopy 54, no. 8 (August 2000): 1136–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702001950931.

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The chemical reactions of water droplets containing dissolved salts and of solid salt particles with ammonia gas have been studied. The salts used were MgCl2*6H2O, KNO3, and MgSO4. In contrast to the irreversible formation of a solid ammonium chloride shell when MgCl2*6H2O dissolved in water droplets is used, we observed formation of solid microcrystals when using KNO3 together with ammonia, whereas no reaction was observed in the case of MgSO4. All three inorganic salts act similarly as a sink for ammonia gas, resulting in solid or dissolved NH4 components. Only the system KNO3/NH4NO3 can act as source dependent on the concentration of ammonia gas.

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46

Monnet, Christophe, Diego Mora, and Georges Corrieu. "Glutamine Synthesis Is Essential for Growth of Streptococcus thermophilus in Milk and Is Linked to Urea Catabolism." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71, no. 6 (June 2005): 3376–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.71.6.3376-3378.2005.

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ABSTRACT Growth of a glutamine synthetase-deficient mutant of Streptococcus thermophilus was compared to that of the parent strain in milk that was not supplemented or was supplemented with ammonium chloride, glutamine, or the urease inhibitor flurofamide. It was concluded that one of the functions of urease is to supply ammonia for the synthesis of glutamine.

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47

A.S. I. Joy Sinthiya, A. S. I. Joy Sinthiya, and P. Selvarajan P. Selvarajan. "Studies of L-asparagine crystals admixtured with ammonium chloride (LAAC) grown by solution method." Indian Journal of Applied Research 3, no. 9 (October 1, 2011): 521–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/2249555x/sept2013/158.

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48

Jančaitienė, Kristina, and Rasa Šlinkšienė. "KH2PO4 crystallisation from potassium chloride and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate." Polish Journal of Chemical Technology 18, no. 1 (March 1, 2016): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pjct-2016-0001.

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Abstract Seeking to obtain bulk (NPK – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), chlorine-free fertilizers, the influence of interaction between potassium chloride and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate in aqueous solutions at temperature of 20, 40, 60 and 80°C has been investigated. Components of the solid phase have been identified by methods of chemical and instrumental analysis: radiography (X – ray), infra – red molecular absorption spectroscopy (IR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It has been observed that the largest amount of solid state potassium dihydrogen phosphate was obtained at 60–80°C, when the potassium chloride and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate molar ratio is equal 0.8:0.2. Changing the molar ratio of 0.5:0.5 to 0.8:0.2, and with increasing temperature, various shaped crystals have developed in the remaining aqueous solutions with a morphology shifting from sharp needles to tetragonal prism.

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49

Boyarskih, Ekaterina P., Ludmila A. Brusnitsina, Elena I. Stepanovskih, and Tatiana A. Alekseeva. "Optimization of copper ammonium etching composition solutions in the production of printed circuit boards." Butlerov Communications 61, no. 3 (March 31, 2020): 36–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.37952/roi-jbc-01/20-61-3-36.

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Etching in the production of printed circuit boards is the process of chemical destruction of metal (mainly copper) as a result of the action of liquid or gaseous etchers on the areas of the surface of the workpiece unprotected by a protective mask (etching resist). Copper foil etching is used to form a conductive pattern of PCB by removing copper from unprotected etching resist areas. This is one of the main operations of manufacturing the PCB, since a pattern of printed elements is formed on it. During the etching process, unprotected copper from the printed circuit board by means of an oxidizer is converted into an ionic state and is connected to hydroxide and ammonium chloride, forming a solution of the copper-ammonia complex, which after oxidation with air ensures dissolution of copper. The etching solution in question contains three components: copper(II) chloride, which when reacted with metallic copper is an oxidant; Ammonia forming ammonia complexes with copper(II) and allowing copper(II) to be kept in a soluble state; Ammonium chloride, which accelerates the etching process and keeps the solution stable. Increased efficiency of copper etching in ammonia solutions is achieved at change of its composition. The purpose of the work was to study the etching rate of copper and to change the concentration of the etching solution depending on the initial concentration of copper(II) chloride in the original etching solution, as well as the effect of the pH of the etching solution on the etching rate of metallic copper. The double-sided foamed fiberglass was used as a starting material to study the etching process. The foil thickness was 30 μm. Etching of the copper foil was carried out with constant stirring of the sample in solution. The concentration of copper ions in the solution was determined by spectrophotometric method from the value of optical density of the ammonia-containing solution (D). The thickness of the release layer of metallic copper was determined by gravimetric method. As a result of this work, it has been shown that changes in the concentration of copper(II) in the solution, the etching rate, the thickness of the release coating and the pH of the solution can be used to characterize the copper etching process. It is established that the greatest increase in concentration of Cu2+ in solution is observed within the first minute with its further gradual slow increase. More obvious increase in concentration of Cu2+ in solution is observed at concentration of Cu2+ in initial solution 80 gl−1. At increase in concentration of chloride of copper(II) in solution from 40 gl−1 to values 100 gl−1 sharp increase in speed of etching of copper is observed. A further increase in copper(II) chloride concentration results in a decrease in etching rate. The pH of the etching solution is determined by the ratio of ammonia and ammonium chloride. This is due to the formation of a buffer mixture in the solution. Increasing the pH of the solution results in an increase in the etching rate followed by a decrease in the etching rate.

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Saikia, Bishwajit. "Zinc Ammonium Chloride." Synlett 2011, no. 17 (October 2011): 2597–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1289513.

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