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Relevant bibliographies by topics / Amphibians – Metamorphosis

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Academic literature on the topic 'Amphibians – Metamorphosis'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Amphibians – Metamorphosis"

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Kuzmin, Sergius L. "Feeding of amphibians during metamorphosis." Amphibia-Reptilia 18, no. 2 (1997): 121–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853897x00017.

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AbstractThe feeding ecology of 28 amphibian species with complete life cycles has been studied from the last pre-metamorphic stages to metamorphosed juveniles. The widespread view that feeding ceases completely during metamorphosis is not confirmed. Generally, however, amphibian feeding rate decreases at metamorphosis. Foraging in Caudata either does not cease (Hynobiidae, rheophilous Salamandridae) or ceases only before the end of transformation, which takes less than one metamorphic stage. The cessation of foraging in Anura coincides with the transformation of the mouth and digestive tract at the beginning of the metamorphic climax. Foraging on small animals starts just after the change from a larval to a post-metamorphic mouth, i.e., before the end of metamorphosis.

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Schoch, Rainer R. "Can metamorphosis be recognised in Palaeozoic amphibians ?" Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen 220, no. 3 (June 11, 2001): 335–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/njgpa/220/2001/335.

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Ruben, Laurens N., Richard H. Clothier, and Michael Balls. "Cancer Resistance in Amphibians." Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 35, no. 5 (October 2007): 463–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026119290703500514.

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While spontaneous tumours may occasionally develop in inbred and isogenic strains of Xenopus laevis, the South African clawed toad, they are extremely rare in natural and laboratory populations. Only two amphibian neoplasms, the renal adenocarcinoma of Rana pipiens and the lymphosarcoma of Xenopus laevis, have been extensively explored. Amphibians are resistant to the development of neo-plasia, even following exposure to “direct-acting” chemical carcinogens such as N-methyl- N-nitrosourea, that are highly lymphotoxic, thus diminishing immune reactivity. Regenerative capacity in adults, and a dramatic metamorphosis which remodels much of the larval body to produce the adult form, are unique to amphibian vertebrates, and the control mechanisms involved may protect against cancer. For example, naturally rising corticosteroid titres during metamorphosis will impair some T-cell functions, and the removal of T-regulatory (suppressor) functions inhibits the induction of altered-self tolerance. Altered-self tolerance is not as effectively induced in adult Xenopus laevis as in mammals, so cancer cells with new antigenicity are more likely be rejected in amphibians. Amphibian immunocytes tend to undergo apoptosis readily in vitro, and, unlike mammalian immunocytes, undergo apoptosis without entering the cell cycle. Cells not in the cell cycle that die from nuclear damage (apoptosis), will have no opportunity to express genetic instability leading to cell transformation. We suggest that all these factors, rather than any one of them, may reduce susceptibility to cancer in amphibians.

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Byrne, Isabel, Robyn Thomson, Rory Thomson, Duncan Murray-Uren, and J. Roger Downie. "Observations on metamorphosing tadpoles of Hyalinobatrachium orientale (Anura: Centrolenidae)." Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology 19, no. 2 (December 12, 2020): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v19i2p217-223.

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Observations on metamorphosing tadpoles of Hyalinobatrachium orientale (Anura: Centrolenidae). Metamorphosis, when anuran amphibians resorb their tails and remodel their mouthparts and internal organs, is a vulnerable stage in the frog’s life history. As larvae metamorphose from tadpoles to adult frogs, they are neither suited to aquatic life nor ready for active terrestrial life. Previous studies have examined the duration of metamorphosis in a range of species, with respect to tadpole size, habitat, and other factors; however, the duration of metamorphosis relative to where it takes place has not been reported in centrolenids. In Hyalinobatrachium orientale, metamorphosis takes place on the upper surfaces of the leaves of low understory plants and lasts 3.5–4.0 days, a little longer than expected for the tadpole of this body size. Metamorphs seem to shift their perches from leaf to leaf randomly. There are no significant differences in the temperature or relative humidity of the upper and lower surfaces of leaves in the forest understory; thus, the presence of the metamorphs on the upper surfaces of leaves may provide moisture from the upper story vegetation after rain and protect them from terrestrial predators.

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Watters, G. Thomas. "Glochidial metamorphosis of the freshwater mussel Lampsilis cardium (Bivalvia: Unionidae) on larval tiger salamanders, Ambystoma tigrinum ssp. (Amphibia: Ambystomidae)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, no. 3 (March 1, 1997): 505–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z97-062.

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Larval tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum ssp.) were infected with glochidia of the freshwater mussel Lampsilis cardium in laboratory experiments. At 20–21 °C, metamorphosis occurred from 9 to 39 days, primarily between 9 and 17 days. The percentage of attached glochidia that metamorphosed varied from 0.27 to 15.7%. Metamorphosis on the salamanders occurred more quickly than on a known piscine host, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), but a smaller percentage of the total attached glochidia metamorphosed. The role of amphibians as hosts of freshwater mussels in North America has not been addressed. Recognizing such a relationship could have important consequences for our understanding of mussel zoogeography.

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Davenport, J. M., P. A. Seiwert, L. A. Fishback, and W. B. Cash. "The effects of two fish predators on Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) tadpoles in a subarctic wetland: Hudson Bay Lowlands, Canada." Canadian Journal of Zoology 91, no. 12 (December 2013): 866–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2013-0091.

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Fish can have strong predatory impacts on aquatic food webs. Indeed, fish are known to have strong effects on amphibians, with some species being excluded from communities where fish are present. Most research with amphibians and fish has focused on lower latitudes and very little is known of amphibian–fish interactions at higher latitudes. Therefore, we conducted an enclosure experiment in a subarctic natural wetland to examine the predatory effects of two species of fish, brook sticklebacks (Culaea inconstans (Cuvier, 1829)) and ninespine sticklebacks (Pungitius pungitius (L., 1758)), on the survival and growth of Wood Frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus (LeConte, 1825)). We found no significant difference in survival and size at metamorphosis among the two fish species treatments and fish-free treatments. We found that individuals from fish-free treatments metamorphosed earlier than those from either fish species present treatment. Our work suggests that stickleback fish predation may not have a major impact on Wood Frog tadpole survival and growth in a subarctic wetland. Sticklebacks may still have an impact on earlier developmental stages of Wood Frogs. This work begins to fill an important gap in potential factors that may impact larval amphibian survival and growth at higher latitudes.

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Fritzsch, Bernd. "The evolution of metamorphosis in amphibians." Journal of Neurobiology 21, no. 7 (October 1990): 1011–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/neu.480210707.

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Crump, D. "The effects of UV-B radiation and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) on the biology of amphibians." Environmental Reviews 9, no. 2 (June 1, 2001): 61–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/a01-001.

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Statistical meta-analysis of large and diverse data sets has indicated that amphibians have been declining worldwide since the 1960s. Exposure to UV-B radiation (280320 nm) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been considered as possible hypotheses to explain the observed declines. Equivocal conclusions have been reached with respect to the effects of UV-B on amphibian populations. Field and laboratory studies employing both ecologically relevant and enhanced UV-B levels have been conducted using a variety of amphibian species and reports differ with respect to the most sensitive developmental stage and the ultimate implications. UV-B radiation has also been shown to interact with other stressors (e.g., pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, low pH) resulting in decreased survivorship for several amphibian species. Limited evidence of reproductive toxicity of xenobiotics in amphibians exist; however, early exposure to EDCs could cause abnormal development of the amphibian reproductive system, inhibit vital hormone messages that drive metamorphosis, and ultimately contribute to the decline of some amphibian populations. The available evidence suggests that more than one agent is contributing to amphibian population declines and the following review narrows the focus to address the existing data on the effects of UV-B, alone and in combination with other stressors, and EDCs on amphibian survivorship and development. Key words: amphibians, UV-B radiation, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, declines, review.

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LESIMPLE, M., C. DOURNON, M. LABROUSSE, and Ch HOUILLON. "Production of fertile salamanders by transfer of germ cell nuclei into eggs." Development 100, no. 3 (July 1, 1987): 471–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.100.3.471.

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In amphibians, the ability of somatic cell nuclei to give rise to embryos in nuclear transplantation experiments has been thoroughly investigated and shown to be limited, except in Xenopus laevis. Similar experiments have been performed with primordial germ cells from genital ridges and spermatogonia. In the present paper, we have studied the capacity of germ cell nuclei to promote development of complete and fertile adults in the urodele amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. Germ cell nuclei were taken from larvae at progressive stages of larval development up to metamorphosis and transplanted into enucleated eggs. Two nonlethal chromosomal mutations were used as nuclear markers in two control series. Nuclei from all developmental stages tested were able to initiate larval development. Furthermore, nine individuals underwent metamorphosis (representing 3% of normal blastulae) and six of these animals are now adults. When two of these six animals, a male and a female, were mated to each other, the offspring were normal. These results show conclusively, for the first time in amphibians, that germ cell nuclei remain totipotent at least during the larval period.

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Rollins-Smith, Louise A., Patrick J. Blair, and A. Tray Davis. "Thymus Ontogeny in Frogs: T-Cell Renewal at Metamorphosis." Developmental Immunology 2, no. 3 (1992): 207–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/1992/26251.

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Metamorphosis in amphibians presents a unique problem for the developing immune system. Because tadpoles are free-living, they need an immune system to protect against potential pathogens. However, at metamorphosis, they acquire a variety of new adultspecific molecules to which the tadpole immune system must become tolerant. We hypothesized thatXenopus laevistadpoles may avoid potentially destructive antiself responses by largely discarding the larval immune system at metamorphosis and acquiring a new one. By implanting triploid (3N) thymuses into diploid (2N) hosts, we examined the influx and expansion of host T-cell precursors in the donor thymus of normally metamorphosing and metamorphosis-inhibited frogs. We observed that donor thymocytes are replaced by host-derived cells during metamorphosis, but inhibition of metamorphosis does not prevent this exchange of cells. The implanted thymuses export T cells to the spleen. This donor-derived pool of cells declines after metamorphosis in normally developing frogs but is retained to a greater extent if metamorphosis is inhibited. These studies confirm previous observations of a metamorphosis-associated wave of expansion of T cells and demonstrate that it is not dependent on the relatively high concentrations of thyroid hormones required for metamorphosis. Although some larval T cells persist through metamorphosis, others may be destroyed or the larval population is significantly diluted by the expanding adult population.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Amphibians – Metamorphosis"

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Ruthsatz, Katharina [Verfasser], and Kathrin H. [Akademischer Betreuer] Dausmann. "Amphibians in a changing world : an ecophysiological perspective on amphibian metamorphosis / Katharina Ruthsatz ; Betreuer: Kathrin H. Dausmann." Hamburg : Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, 2019. http://d-nb.info/1176702076/34.

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Ruthsatz, Katharina Verfasser], and Kathrin H. [Akademischer Betreuer] [Dausmann. "Amphibians in a changing world : an ecophysiological perspective on amphibian metamorphosis / Katharina Ruthsatz ; Betreuer: Kathrin H. Dausmann." Hamburg : Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, 2019. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:18-95339.

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James, Stacy M. "Amphibian metamorphosis and juvenile terrestrial performance following chronic cadmium exposure in the aquatic environment." Diss., Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri-Columbia, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10355/4140-D1763/.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2005.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file viewed on (May 24, 2006) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

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Puglis, Holly J. "Effects of Terrestrial Buffer Zones on Amphibians in Managed Green Spaces." Miami University / OhioLINK, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=miami1280773926.

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Walsh, Patrick Thomas. "The plasticity of life histories during larval development and metamorphosis, using amphibians as study organisms." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2008. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/183/.

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The ability of animals to vary growth, development rate and behaviour in response to environmental conditions has been well documented, particularly during the larval phase in animals with complex life cycles. The evolution and maintenance of plasticity in response to environmental conditions is likely to be adaptive in animals that face unpredictable environments. However, there are two aspects of life histories in animals with complex life cycles, which would be expected to favour plasticity, that have received limited attention: traits during metamorphic climax and variation in the life history phase at which temperate species spend the winter. Therefore the aims of this thesis were to consider the environmental factors that are likely to result in plasticity in the timing and duration of metamorphic climax and contribute to variation in the over-wintering life stage, using amphibians as study animals. To assess the ability of animals to respond to environmental conditions during metamorphic climax conditions were manipulated during metamorphosis independent of larval treatment. Accordingly all larvae entered metamorphic climax having experienced the same conditions. The African clawed toad, Xenopus laevis, was used. I examined the influence of environmental temperature, predation risk and starting body size on several traits during the transitional stage (e.g. mass, snout-vent length (SVL), head width, tail morphology, duration and locomotor performance). Morphological measures and the duration of the life stage were shown to vary with temperature and predation risk. As predicted, higher temperatures and the risk of predation resulted in faster development through metamorphosis and smaller sizes on completion. The acceleration of metamorphosis was demonstrated to have potential costs, not in the form of reduced locomotor performance as predicted, but in a reduction in juvenile size as a result of faster metamorphic development. This suggests that, during this potentially vulnerable stage, it would be advantageous to take more time to complete in the absence of predators. Greater body size at the onset of metamorphosis requires a longer time to complete metamorphic climax suggesting that having a greater quantity of tissue to reconfigure during metamorphosis takes more time. Therefore, the conditions experienced during metamorphosis may have important implications for juvenile fitness and should be considered in studies of life history plasticity. In many temperate species with complex life cycles, the life history stage at which a species can survive the winter is generally fixed, imposing time limits on the timing of development. Most of these species must therefore often modify developmental rate to reach the appropriate stage or size at the onset of winter, usually at a cost to other traits. However, variation in the stage or developmental group that some amphibian, fish and insect species spend the winter has been observed, such as in the common frog Rana temporaria in the UK, which can spend the first winter as either a tadpole or as a juvenile frog. To investigate the factors that contribute to this variation in life history, I examined the influence of environmental temperature, food availability and water depth on the rate of larval development and growth. Data on development, growth and environmental temperature of a field population of R. temporaria, which have been observed to over-winter as larvae, were collected to determine how and when the two divergent early life history patterns of development were established. Development rate was slowed by reduced temperatures and food availability and greater water depth during rearing. Temperature and food availability also had a significant impact on the proportion of larvae that over-wintered, but in the field other factors are likely to contribute to the within-population variation in wintering strategy. While a greater water depth did prolong larval development, as predicted, this does not appear to be due to the cost of surfacing to respire acting as a constraint on development, since a similar slowing in development was observed in the lung-less Bufo bufo tadpoles. The results of these studies did not allow a definitive assessment of whether over-wintering as larvae represents an adaptive strategy or occurs as the result of developmental constraints. There is some evidence that over-wintering as larvae might be adaptive, since on completion of metamorphosis individuals that wintered as larvae were larger than those that completed metamorphosis late in the summer. Further work is necessary to identify other factors contributing to the over-wintering of larvae in Rana temporaria and to determine the adaptive significance, if any, of the alternative life history patterns.

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Purrenhage, Jennifer Lyn. "Importance of Habitat Structure for Pond-Breeding Amphibians in Multiple Life Stages." Miami University / OhioLINK, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=miami1240957514.

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Bouffard, Jeremie. "Effects of a Neonicotinoid Insecticide and Population Density on Behaviour and Development of Wood Frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus)." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/42390.

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Amphibians have been facing global declines over the last decades due to direct and indirect effects of anthropogenic activities. One of the leading causes is environmental contamination, particularly that of waterbodies which are used by many amphibian species for reproduction, development, and adult life. An important source of contamination comes from agricultural runoffs of pesticides such as neonicotinoids, which are known to alter anuran survival, behaviour, predation stress response, and development. However, few studies have investigated the possible interactions between neonicotinoids and natural environmental stressors which could alter the strength and direction of observed neonicotinoid effects. This study investigated how a concentration of imidacloprid (a neonicotinoid) measured in surface waters interacted with high population density, an important environmental stressor, to influence behaviour and development across metamorphosis in wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) known to breed in agricultural landscapes. I reared tadpoles in a fully crossed design experiment, between two densities (0.33 and 1 tadpole/L) and clean vs contaminated water (10 µg/L imidacloprid). Behaviours were measured in the absence and presence of predation cues using open-field tests at three distinct developmental stages, up to the metamorph stage. I found that imidacloprid did not interact with population density or independently affect behaviours in the absence of predation cues. However, individuals raised at high density compared with low density were more active at an early developmental stage but less active at metamorphic climax. Furthermore, both density and imidacloprid independently decreased the natural behavioural response (i.e., “freezing”) of tadpoles to predation cues. Both treatments also slightly accelerated metamorphosis while only density altered final mass at metamorphosis. Finally, I found that distance travelled was weakly repeatable between aquatic stages but not repeatable across metamorphosis, a pattern that was not affected by treatments. This study provides novel insights on the ecotoxicology of imidacloprid in the presence of a natural stressor, highlighting the importance of including behavioural assays and stressors in studies of amphibian ecotoxicology.

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Hollar, Amy Rebecca. "Cloning and developmental expression of thyroid hormone receptors from three species of spadefoot toads with divergent larval period durations." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1291050160.

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Kulkarni, Saurabh S. "Endocrine Mechanisms Underlying Phenotypic Evolution in Frogs." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1342106009.

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Lanctôt, Chantal. "The Effects of Glyphosate-based Herbicides on the Development of Wood Frogs, Lithobates sylvaticus." Thèse, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/23288.

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Amphibians develop in aquatic environments where they are very susceptible to the effects of pesticides and other environmental contaminants. Glyphosate-based herbicides are widely used and have been shown to affect survival and development of tadpoles under laboratory conditions. The goal my thesis is to determine if agriculturally relevant exposure to Roundup WeatherMax®, a herbicide formulation containing the potassium salt of glyphosate and an undisclosed surfactant, influences the survival and development of wood frogs tadpoles (Lithobates sylvaticus) under both laboratory and field conditions. In the field, experimental wetlands were divided in half using an impermeable curtain so that each wetland contained a treatment and control side. Tadpoles were exposed to two pulses of this herbicide at environmentally realistic concentration (ERC, 0.21 mg acid equivalent (a.e.)/L) and predicted environmental concentrations (PEC, 2.89 mg a.e./L), after which survival, growth, development, and expression of genes involved in metamorphosis were measured. Results indicate that exposure to the PEC is extremely toxic to tadpoles under laboratory conditions but not under field conditions. Results from both experimental conditions show sublethal effects on growth and development, and demonstrate that ERC of glyphosate-based herbicides have the potential to alter hormonal responses during metamorphosis. My secondary objectives were to compare the effects of Roundup WeatherMax® to the well-studied Vision® formulation (containing the isopropylamine (IPA) salt of glyphosate and POEA), and to determine which ingredient(s) are responsible for the sublethal effects on development. Survival, growth and gene expression results indicate that Roundup WeatherMax® has greater toxicity than Vision® formulation. Contrary to my prediction, results suggest that, under realistic exposure scenarios, POEA is not the sole ingredient responsible for the observed developmental effects. However, my results demonstrate that chronic exposure to the POEA surfactant at the PEC (1.43 mg/L) is extremely toxic to wood frog tadpoles in laboratory. As part of the Long-term Experimental Wetlands Area (LEWA) project, this research contributes to overall knowledge of the impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides on aquatic communities.

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Books on the topic "Amphibians – Metamorphosis"

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S, Owen Oliver. Tadpole to frog. Edina, Minn: Abdo & Daughters, 1994.

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Wendy, Pfeffer. From tadpole to frog. New York: HarperCollins, 1994.

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ill, Kubo Hidekazu, ed. The tadpole. Milwaukee: Raintree, 1986.

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Back, Christine. Tadpole and frog. Morristown, N.J: Silver Burdett, 1986.

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undifferentiated, Harold Fox. Amphibian Morphogenesis. Springer, 2011.

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Amphibian Morphogenesis. Humana Press, 2011.

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Amphibian Metamorphosis: From Morphology to Molecular Biology. Wiley-Liss, 1999.

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Buckley, Janet. The decision to overwinter: Developmental plasticity in a high altitude population of Rana cascadae. 1997.

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DeVito, Jill. The effects of predation on anuran metamorphosis. 1997.

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1929-, Gilbert Lawrence I., Tata Jamshed R, and Atkinson Burr G, eds. Metamorphosis: Postembryonic reprogramming of gene expression in amphibian and insect cells. San Diego: Academic Press, 1996.

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Book chapters on the topic "Amphibians – Metamorphosis"

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Amano, Tosikazu, Liezhen Fu, Atsuko Ishizuya-Oka, and Yun-Bo Shi. "Thyroid Hormone-Induced Apoptosis during Amphibian Metamorphosis." In Molecular Mechanisms of Programmed Cell Death, 9–19. Boston, MA: Springer US, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5890-0_2.

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Endler, P. C., C. Heckmann, E. Lauppert, W. Pongratz, J. Alex, D. Dieterle, C. Lukitsch, et al. "The Metamorphosis of Amphibians and Information of Thyroxin Storage Via the Bipolar Fluid Water and on a Technical Data Carrier; Transference Via an Electronic Amplifier." In Fundamental Research in Ultra High Dilution and Homoeopathy, 155–87. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5878-7_11.

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Tata, Jamshed R. "How Hormones Regulate Programmed Cell Death during Amphibian Metamorphosis." In Programmed Cell Death, 1–11. Boston, MA: Springer US, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0072-2_1.

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Ishizuya-Oka, Atsuko. "Regulation of Adult Intestinal Stem Cells through Thyroid Hormone-Induced Tissue Interactions during Amphibian Metamorphosis." In Cell and Molecular Biology and Imaging of Stem Cells, 153–72. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118285602.ch6.

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Kemp, T. S. "3. Reproduction and life history." In Amphibians: A Very Short Introduction, 48–71. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198842989.003.0003.

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‘Reproduction and life history’ discusses the life cycle of amphibians, which includes a fully aquatic, juvenile stage. This is the larva, known in the anurans as the tadpole. It feeds and grows, and eventually undergoes a rapid transformation, or metamorphosis, into the adult. Metamorphosis can take place in as little as nine days from the eggs hatching. A small number of species in all three amphibian orders have evolved the most complete mode of parental care of all, viviparity, which is bearing the young live. An area of interest here is the courtship and mating practices of amphibians.

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Pechenik, Jan A. "Life Cycles." In Evolutionary Ecology. Oxford University Press, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195131543.003.0016.

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I have a Hardin cartoon on my office door. It shows a series of animals thinking about the meaning of life. In sequence, we see a lobe-finned fish, a salamander, a lizard, and a monkey, all thinking, “Eat, survive, reproduce; eat, survive, reproduce.” Then comes man: “What's it all about?” he wonders. Organisms live to reproduce. The ultimate selective pressure on any organism is to survive long enough and well enough to pass genetic material to a next generation that will also be successful in reproducing. In this sense, then, every morphological, physiological, biochemical, or behavioral adaptation contributes to reproductive success, making the field of life cycle evolution a very broad one indeed. Key components include mode of sexuality, age and size at first reproduction (Roff, this volume), number of reproductive episodes in a lifetime, offspring size (Messina and Fox, this volume), fecundity, the extent to which parents protect their offspring and how that protection is achieved, source of nutrition during development, survival to maturity, the consequences of shifts in any of these components, and the underlying mechanisms responsible for such shifts. Many of these issues are dealt with in other chapters. Here I focus exclusively on animals, and on a particularly widespread sort of life cycle that includes at least two ecologically distinct free-living stages. Such “complex life cycles” (Istock 1967) are especially common among amphibians and fishes (Hall and Wake 1999), and within most invertebrate groups, including insects (Gilbert and Frieden 1981), crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods, polychaete worms, echinoderms, bryozoans, and corals and other cnidarians (Thorson 1950). In such life cycles, the juvenile or adult stage is reached by metamorphosing from a preceding, free-living larval stage. In many species, metamorphosis involves a veritable revolution in morphology, ecology, behavior, and physiology, sometimes taking place in as little as a few minutes or a few hours. In addition to the issues already mentioned, key components of such complex life cycles include the timing of metamorphosis (i.e., when it occurs), the size at which larvae metamorphose, and the consequences of metamorphosing at particular times or at particular sizes. The potential advantages of including larval stages in the life history have been much discussed.

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Shi, Yun-Bo, and Atsuko Ishizuya-Oka. "7 Biphasic Intestinal Development in Amphibians: Embryogenesis and Remodeling during Metamorphosis." In Current Topics in Developmental Biology Volume 32, 205–35. Elsevier, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0070-2153(08)60429-9.

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KALTENBACH, JANE C. "Endocrinology of Amphibian Metamorphosis." In Metamorphosis, 403–31. Elsevier, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012283245-1/50013-0.

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DENVER, ROBERT J. "Neuroendocrine Control of Amphibian Metamorphosis." In Metamorphosis, 433–64. Elsevier, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012283245-1/50014-2.

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"Biology, Management, and Conservation of Lampreys in North America." In Biology, Management, and Conservation of Lampreys in North America, edited by Margaret F. Docker. American Fisheries Society, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.47886/9781934874134.ch4.

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Abstract:

<em>Abstract</em>.—In most lamprey genera, “paired” species exist in which the larvae (which are microphagous filter feeders) are morphologically similar but the adults differ dramatically, becoming parasitic on teleost fishes or nonparasitic (i.e., do not feed at all) following metamorphosis. Parasitic lampreys feed for several months to several years (either in their natal stream or after migrating to larger fresh or marine water bodies) before embarking on a nontrophic upstream migration, sexual maturation, and spawning (followed by death); nonparasitic lampreys eliminate the parasitic phase, begin sexual maturation toward the end of metamorphosis, and spawn and die within 6–10 months of metamorphosis. In each species pair, the reduction in the length of postlarval life in nonparasitic lampreys is generally accompanied by an increase in the length of the larval period (and size at metamorphosis) so that the evolution of nonparasitism appears to have occurred without a change in the overall life span. Rather, nonparasitism appears to have evolved as a result of a change in the timing of metamorphosis relative to the timing of sexual maturation. Conspicuous morphological (e.g., adult body size, relative eye and oral disk size) and histological (e.g., lack of a functional digestive tract) differences distinguish nonparasitic adults from parasitic forms, and most lamprey taxonomists recognize life history type as a species-specific characteristic. However, plasticity of feeding type (e.g., facultative parasitism) has been observed in some lamprey populations, and molecular data on a number of paired species show no genetic differentiation between sympatric species pairs and suggest a polyphyletic origin for several nonparasitic species. This paper reviews the paired species concept, the repeated and independent evolution of nonparasitism in different genera and even within species, the evidence for facultative parasitism or facultative nonparasitism in some lamprey species, and the potential for hybridization between paired species and attempts to answer the question, are brook lampreys “real” species? The tentative answer is that there likely is not a single answer for all lamprey species pairs; different species pairs represent speciation at different stages. Some pairs appear to be distinct species according to both the biological and phylogenetic species concepts (i.e., they are reproductively isolated and show reciprocal monophyly), although each is not necessarily fixed for feeding type. In contrast, other pairs may represent incipient speciation and others yet may be experiencing ongoing gene flow. Parallels are therefore drawn between different lamprey species pairs and the divergent life history types found in other animal taxa (e.g., echinoderms and amphibians) and other temperate fish species (e.g., anadromous and freshwater-resident salmonids).

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