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Journal articles on the topic 'Ancient Roman medicine'
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1
Cruse, Audrey. "Roman Medicine: Science or Religion?" Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 89 (September 2013): 223–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/bjrl.89.s.12.
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In ancient Greece and Rome magical and religious healing continued to be practised at the same time as a burgeoning of research and learning in the natural sciences was promoting a seemingly more rational and scientific approach to medicine. Was there, then, a dichotomy in medical treatment or was the situation more complex? This paper draws on historical textual sources as well as archaeological research in examining the question in more detail. Some early texts, such as the Egyptian papyri from about 2,600 bc and the Hippocratic Corpus from the third and fourth centuries bc, contain an intriguing mixture of scientific and religious material. Archaeological evidence from, for example, sites of healing sanctuaries from ancient times, show medical prescriptions used as part of votive offerings and religious inscriptions on surgical instruments, while physicians were prominent among donators to shrines. Other archaeological finds such as the contents of rubbish tips, buried hoards, sepulchral deposits and stray artefacts from occupation levels, have also added to the archive of medical material available for discussion. The paper concludes that such intertwinings of religion and science were not only common in Roman medicine but, in fact, continue into the present time.
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Wallner, Christoph, Eric Moormann, Patricia Lulof, Marius Drysch, Marcus Lehnhardt, and Björn Behr. "Burn Care in the Greek and Roman Antiquity." Medicina 56, no. 12 (November 28, 2020): 657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56120657.
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The last century brought about more rapid new developments in the treatment of burns, which significantly lowered the mortality of burn injuries. However, burns were already treated in antiquity, where the threshold from spirituality to scientific medicine originated. The existing literature on burn treatment is very limited and there are many cross-references, some of them incorrect. The aim of this work by an interdisciplinary team of historians and physicians is to offer a more precise reproduction of the burn treatment of Greek and Roman antiquity using original texts in context and with a modern scientific background. There are many sources from ancient doctors on the subject of burn treatment, as well as the treatment of burned-out wounds and frostbite, which have not yet been mentioned. The literature research also showed an understanding of scientific contexts in ancient medicine, such as antiseptics or rheology. Interestingly, there was a change in burn medicine from everyday Greek medicine to Roman military medicine with other burn patterns. The care of patients using analgetics and the therapy of burn shock arose from the literature. The ancient world is considered to be the foundation of medicine, but it is believed to have been based mainly on shamanism rather than science. However, already more than two millennia ago, burns were correctly assessed and treated according to today’s scientific standards and scientific relationships were recognized.
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Supady, Jerzy. "Ancient Greek medicine during Hellenistic age and the Roman Empire." Health Promotion & Physical Activity 11, no. 2 (June 30, 2020): 28–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.2639.
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In the Hellenistic Age and during the Roman Empire the greatest influence on the development medicine was exerted by two philosophers: Plato and Aristotle. Their views demonstrated by individual approaches of physicians and medical trends of empiricists, scepticists, dogmatists, methodologists and others. Beginning from the 1st century BC the overwhelming activity of Greek medicine practitioners was transferred to Rome where the most outstanding physicians such as Archagatos, Asclepiades, Temison, Soranos, Athenois, Archigenes and others appeared. In 46 BC all free foreigners practising in Rome were granted citizenship. In the first centuries of the Roman Empire medical practitioner were exempted from tax obligation and released from the performance of public service duties.
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Supady, Jerzy. "Aulus Cornelius Celsus – a famous Roman encyclopedist." Health Promotion & Physical Activity 10, no. 1 (March 30, 2020): 20–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.0664.
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The ancient Romans did not work as physicians, but they used the services of foreign doctors, mostly Greeks. During the times of the Roman Empire there emerged a class of well-educated patricians, who possessed knowledge in various field. Aulus Cornelius Celsus, the author of a voluminous work, was one of such patricians. Of the numerous volumes of his encyclopaedia only a fragment on medicine in extant. The piece which remains intact is a collection of medical knowledge of those times.
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Volterra, V., and R. G. V. Hancock. "Provenancing of ancient Roman millstones." Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry Articles 180, no. 1 (May 1994): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02039900.
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Supady, Jerzy. "The precursors of monastic medicine at the beginning of the Middle Ages." Health Promotion & Physical Activity 7, no. 2 (July 2, 2019): 15–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.2661.
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The collapse of the ancient civilization was like a disaster which had an impact on all spheres of life. The Roman Church was the institution which survived the historical annihilation. Therefore, the ones who significantly contributed to the preservation of the remnants of the former world, inter alia ancient manuscripts, and the development of new science based on an ancient knowledge, including medical science, were the members of the clergy, mainly monks and friars.
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Dzikowski, Andrzej. "Morbus est… Roman Views on Health of Animals as a Basis for the Present-Day Warranty Legislation." Krakowskie Studia z Historii Państwa i Prawa 13, no. 4 (2020): 429–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/20844131ks.20.033.12758.
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The aim of the study is to reveal the connections and inspirations between Roman and contemporary regulations of warranty, as an element of European heritage. The material for the study consists of Justinian’s “Digest”, Gellius’and Cato’s works, contemporary Polish warranty legislation –the Civil Code, its amendments and executive acts. Juridical, medical and philosophical views of ancient Roman lawyers on animal health in the mentioned material were examined and analyzed. The views of the ancient Romans reflected in Polish civil law were pointed out. Studies have been carried out, comparing the ideas that provide the background for legal norms of warranty. It has been proved how different defining of health and disease in veterinary medicine can affect divergent legal regulations in relation to animals sold. The functionality criterion was affirmed to be applicable not only as one of warranty premises, but also as a motor for legal development.
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Łapiński, Krzysztof. "Between medicine and rhetoric: therapeutic arguments in Roman Stoicism." Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal 9, no. 1 (June 30, 2019): 11–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.24917/20841043.9.1.1.
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In this paper, I intend to focus on some rhetorical strategies of argumentation which play
crucial role in the therapeutic discourse of Roman Stoicism, namely in Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Reference is made to Chaim Perelman’s view of ancient
rhetoric as an art of inventing arguments. Moreover, it is pointed out that in rhetorical education (cf. Cicero, Ad Herennium, Quintilian, etc.) as well as in therapeutic discourse the concept
of “exercise” and constant practice play a crucial role.
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Solin, Heikki. "Was there a Medical School at Salerno in Roman Times?" European Review 20, no. 4 (September 4, 2012): 526–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798712000099.
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It is sometimes assumed in the Italian historiography that the medieval school of medicine at Salerno continued the medical tradition of ancient Salerno; the ancient Salernitan school, in its turn, would represent a continuation of that of Velia. The existence of such a school has been assumed on the grounds of rather sparse evidence consisting of a passage in the first book of Horace's Epistles and a Latin inscription from the first century AD mentioning a medicus clinicus.
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Capasso, Luigi, Ruggero D'Anastasio, Lia Pierfelice, Antonietta Di Fabrizio, and Pier Enrico Gallenga. "Roman conquest, lifespan, and diseases in ancient Italy." Lancet 362, no. 9384 (August 2003): 668. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14175-x.
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Clogan, Paul M. "Lydgate and the Roman Antique." Florilegium 11, no. 1 (January 1992): 7–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/flor.11.002.
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The obsession with Lydgate's style, according to Derek Pearsall, "is endless, and to some extent self-sufficient, for there is no other poet in whom 'style' becomes so nearly an end in itself, a fixed entity, whose relation to 'subject' is one of abstract congruence not expressive embodiment." For John Ganim Lydgate's "often prolix narrative style . . . can be understood as part of a process of literary history that begins to include an audience broader than the court or monastery. His style comes about from a union of the perspectives of the court and the cloister; . . . his creation of a voice that could speak to prince and merchant on the same level." This paper focusses on the relation of narrative and moral generalization in The Siege of Thebes and suggests that it springs from a elaboration of elements in the tradition of the roman antique and, in particular, the recovery and assimilation of Le Roman de Thébes into the prose text of the Histoire ancienne jusqu'a Cesar, the earliest ancient history written in Old French.
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Underwood, Norman. "Medicine, Money, and Christian Rhetoric." Studies in Late Antiquity 2, no. 3 (2018): 342–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sla.2018.2.3.342.
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This article explores the socio-economic aspects of medical care in Late Antiquity with a particular emphasis on how payments and medical costs shaped perceptions of physicians as fee-charging individuals. As it illustrates, criticisms of physicians for greed, hucksterism, and chilly indifference to the poor spanned the gamut of ancient literature, and the limited evidence for physicians’ incomes and fees under the Roman Empire does suggest that medical careers were quite profitable. For ethical and philanthropic purposes, though, many ancient physicians chose to forego payment or adjust their fees for patients of lesser means. This essay concludes with a challenge to a common scholarly assertion that the Christianization of Roman society placed greater pressure on physicians to assume more charitable practices. Christians did not differ appreciably from pagans in their criticisms of avaricious physicians; instead, I suggest, Christian leaders who inherited a tradition of censuring physicians for predatory behavior leveraged established Classical discourses about the greedy physicians and the exclusion of the poor from healthcare to persuade parishioners to support almsgiving, particularly the funding of hospitals. Clerics in this way erected a parallel healthcare economy that was explicitly outside of marketplace norms: volunteers, clerics, and paid physicians were to serve the ailing poor at hospitals, while the rich were to fund these operations by treating their diseased souls through the purgative act of almsgiving.
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Downie, David. "A Roman Anchovy's Tale." Gastronomica 3, no. 2 (2003): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2003.3.2.25.
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A Roman Anchovy's Tale author David Downie investigates contemporary Roman uses of salted anchovies, comparing them to the garum, liquamen, muria, colatura, and hallex fish sauces, pastes and brines of antiquity. His point of departure is a self-styled "archeological restaurant" in the Italian capital, Magna Roma, where co-owner Luciano Carigato and colleagues make authentic garum following an Imperial-era recipe. Downie also discusses regional variations of ancient fish sauces, specifically hallex (fermented fish paste), such as Ligurian machet and southern French mlets, still made today on the Italian and French Riviera.
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Missios, Symeon. "Hippocrates, Galen, and the uses of trepanation in the ancient classical world." Neurosurgical Focus 23, no. 1 (July 2007): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/foc-07/07/e11.
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✓Trepanation (ανατρησιζ) is the process by which a hole is drilled into the skull, exposing the intracranial contents for either medical or mystical purposes. It represents one of the oldest surgical procedures, and its practice was widespread in many ancient cultures and several parts of the world. Trepanation was used in ancient Greece and Rome, as described in several ancient texts. Hippocrates and Galen are two of the most prominent ancient Greek medical writers, and their works have influenced the evolution of medicine and neurosurgery across the centuries. The purpose of this paper is to examine Hippocrates' and Galen's written accounts of the technique and use of trepanation in the ancient Greek and Roman world. Examination of those records reveals the ancient knowledge of neurological anatomy, physiology, and therapeutics, and illustrates the state and evolution of neurosurgery in the classical world.
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Dobanovacki, Dusanka, Ljiljana Milovanovic, Andjelka Slavkovic, Milanka Tatic, Skeledzija Miskovic, Svetlana Skoric-Jokic, and Marija Pecanac. "Surgery before common era (B.C.E.)." Archive of Oncology 20, no. 1-2 (2012): 28–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/aoo1202028d.
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Based on skeleton examination, cave-paintings and mummies the study of prehistoric medicine tells that the surgical experience dated with skull trepanning, male circumcision and warfare wound healing. In prehistoric tribes, medicine was a mixture of magic, herbal remedy, and superstitious beliefs practiced by witch doctors. The practice of surgery was first recorded in clay tablets discovered in ancient rests of Mesopotamia, translation of which has nowadays been published in Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine. Some simple surgical procedures were performed like puncture and drainage, scraping and wound treatment. The liability of physicians who performed surgery was noted in a collection of legal decisions made by Hammurabi about the principles of relationship between doctors and patients. Other ancient cultures had also had surgical knowledge including India, China and countries in the Middle East. The part of ancient Indian ayurvedic system of medicine devoted to surgery Sushruta Samhita is a systematized experience of ancient surgical practice, recorded by Sushruta in 500 B.C.E. Ancient Indian surgeons were highly skilled and familiar with a lot of surgical procedures and had pioneered plastic surgery. In the ancient Egyptian Empire medicine and surgery developed mostly in temples: priests were also doctors or surgeons, well specialized and educated. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, the world?s oldest surviving surgical text, was written in the 17th century B.C.E., probably based on material from a thousand years earlier. This papyrus is actually a textbook on trauma surgery, and describes anatomical observation and examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous injuries in detail. Excavated mummies reveal some of the surgical procedures performed in the ancient Egypt: excision of the tumors, puncture and drainage pus abscesses, dentistry, amputation and even skull trepanation, always followed by magic and spiritual procedures. Various types of instruments were innovated, in the beginning made of stone and bronze, later of iron. Under the Egyptian influence, surgery was developed in ancient Greece and in Roman Empire. Prosperity of surgery was mostly due to practice in treating numerous battlefield injuries. Records from the pre-Hippocrates period are poor, but after him, according to many writings, medicine and surgery became a science, medical schools were formed all over the Mediterranean, and surgeons were well-trained professionals. Ancient surgery closed a chapter when Roman Empire declined, standing-by up to the 18th century when restoration of the whole medicine began.
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Horstmanshoff, Manfred. "Ancient medicine between hope and fear: Medicament, magic and poison in the Roman Empire." European Review 7, no. 1 (February 1999): 37–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798700003720.
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Any reader of Tacitus' Annals may have noticed that poison played a prominent part at the imperial court during the Early Principate. In this article seven cases of suspected poisoning, mentioned by Tacitus in his Annals, are analysed and commented upon in some detail. The use of poison in general is studied against the background of Roman society, culture and mentality. It is argued that modern ideas about physicians, pharmacists, poisons and drugs may induce anachronistic interpretations of the texts. If the ambiguous position of the doctor, the root cutter, the drug-seller, the magician and of their products is taken into account, some cases of poisoning prove to be much more equivocal than they seem at first sight. It is likely that they are the unintentional result of medical practice – or of black magic.
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Sullivan, Richard. "Proto-Surgery in Ancient Egypt." Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic) 41, no. 3 (1998): 109–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.14712/18059694.2019.174.
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This article investigates the evidence we have for the existence of proto-surgery in ancient Egypt during the Dynastic Period (c.3200 - 323 BC). Climate and chance have preserved medical literature as well as paleoarcheological specimens and these artefacts, along with extant Greek and Roman treatises appear to support the conclusion that protosurgery was practised in ancient Egypt (the prefix proto- designates an original or early form). Elements of proto-surgical development including analgesia and sedation, the incision, trephination, proto-surgery of trauma, mythical proto-surgery and antisepsis, drawing on primary sources, surviving artefacts and modern commentary are discussed. Where appropriate comparisons are made with proto-surgery in ancient Mesopotamia and the Bronze Age Aegean.
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Aston, Nigel. "Infidelity Ancient and Modern: George Horne Reads Edward Gibbon." Albion 27, no. 4 (1995): 561–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4052532.
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Historians examining the critical response to Edward Gibbon'sThe Decline and Fall of the Roman Empirehave remained largely true to the presentation Gibbon himself laid down in hisMemoirs: the primary focus is on the first volume of 1776 and the storm provoked by chapters fifteen and sixteen on the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire. But publication of Gibbon'sVindicationin 1779 neither marked the final crushing of his opponents, nor did it close down controversy: it merely led the troops of the orthodox to regroup. The appearance of volumes two and three in 1781, then volumes four to six in 1788, once again brought them out into the field, and their writings and critical preoccupations deserve serious attention. It is all too easy to overlook the high standard of Anglican apologetics throughout the eighteenth century and, indeed, the continuing role of the clergy as the guardians of the state's intellectual inheritance, especially its distinctively Christian character.
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Mori, Alfredo. "Misericord Injuries: Ancient and Modern." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 34, s1 (May 2019): s150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x19003364.
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Introduction:The Misericord, or stabbing pike, was a frequently used battlefield implement in medieval times. The misericord was used by battlefield clerics to relieve the suffering of irreparably wounded soldiers. Its cultural parallels include the Roman gladius, the Japanese wakazashi, and the eponymous Liston knife used in pre-Victorian era surgery in England.Methods:This demonstration will analyze modern misericord injuries in the light of the current epidemic of long knife (or zombie knife) attacks in London and the domestic terrorist threat in Australia.Discussion:A review of this weapon is pertinent to the projected low-technology, low-impact, and deep-penetrating wounds expected in urban terrorism in Australia and other cities globally. The talk will emphasize field discussion, demonstration, and disarming techniques against modern misericord-type weapons.
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Yang, Benson P. "Ancient Roman Mosaics at the Baths of Neptune, Ostia Antica, Italy." Spine 32, no. 3 (February 2007): i. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200702010-00001.
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Oksana V., Fedchenko. "Hearth in the Sacral Topography of a Roman House and Ritual Practice of Familia." Humanitarian Vector 16, no. 3 (June 2021): 167–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.21209/1996-7853-2021-16-3-167-175.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of the hearth as the most important sacred center of Roman dwelling interior space. It addresses such issues as the role of the hearth in a Roman family’s sacra privata; peculiarities of the ritual practice of paterfamilias, materfamilias and their children. Attention is paid to the pantheon of gods related to the hearth and rituals aimed at their veneration. The relevance of this study lies in addressing the religious component of Roman living space, which, unfortunately, is not a priority for the specialists in Roman history who focus more on social aspects analysis of the space of a Roman house. Historicism and scientific objectivity principles served as a methodological basis for the research, the comparative-historical method was also used. A study of Romans’ home religion made it possible to establish that all significant events in the family were accompanied by rituals at the hearth; they also turned to it for help in the event of a threat; the hearth could warn a family of danger ‒ it could “bleed” or be “overturned”. It is important to note that the sacredness of the hearth is also confirmed by the fact that they should have bring it from home and not light a fire on the spot. The paterfamilias’ daughters and not his wife, were involved in daily rituals at the hearth, probably due to their “purity” which they kept until marriage. Research result is the partial reconstruction of family’s sacred sphere, especially ritual practice. Conducting this reconstruction is very problematic and conditionally due to the lack of sources, but it is important to note that even a partial reconstruction allows us to define the main functions of participants in ritual practice and claim that family’s sacred sphere was primarily associated with the hearth, which was the basis of the ancient Romans’ sacra privata. Keywords: atrium, focus, ritual, paterfamilias, materfamilias, Lares, Penates, Vesta
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Faria, MiguelA. "Another medical journey to ancient Rome and Roman medicine with medical historian Plinio Prioreschi, MD, PhD." Surgical Neurology International 6, no. 1 (2015): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.158789.
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Bali, Sharadendu, and Maneshwar Singh Utaal. "Ancient origins of caesarean section and contextual rendition of Krishna’s birth." International Journal of Scientific Reports 2, no. 11 (October 22, 2016): 296. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/issn.2454-2156.intjscirep20163650.
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<p class="abstract">A Caesarean section is defined as “the surgical termination of pregnancy or delivery by operative opening of the uterus”. Caesarean sections ancestory can be traced back to the ancient (Graeco-Roman) world. Though there is very little information still extant about practices of this kind in antiquity, there are many folktales and popular stories from all over the world that tell of people being born in this fashion. Indian religious books describe the birth of Buddha through his mother’s right flank. Brahma was believed to be born through the umbilicus of his mother. Sage Sushruta, a founder of ancient Hindu medicine mentions the importance of performing a post-mortem caesarean section in his medical treatise “Sushruta Samhita”. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that knowledge and practice of this type of procedure was practiced in ancient Greece, ancient Rome and even ancient India. It is these early practices, from this part of the world, which are thought to have formed the foundations for what is known today in the modern Western medicine as the “caesarean section”. Therefore it is paramount to explore the practices and trace the history of this nature in the in more detail<span lang="EN-IN">. </span></p>
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Sitzia, Fabio. "The San Saturnino Basilica (Cagliari, Italy): An Up-Close Investigation about the Archaeological Stratigraphy of Mortars from the Roman to the Middle Ages." Heritage 4, no. 3 (August 16, 2021): 1836–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030103.
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The manufacturing technology of historical mortars from the Roman to Medieval period apparently has not undergone evolutions. As reported in the literature, a quality decrease in the raw material occurred after the fall of the Roman Empire. During the Roman Age, the mortars presented the requirements of long durability due to hydraulic characteristics, and in later times, the production has only partially maintained the ancient requirements. To focus on the different production technologies between Roman and Medieval mortar, this research presents the case study of San Saturnino Basilica (Italy), where an archaeological mortar stratigraphy from Roman to Middle Ages is well preserved. An archaeometric characterization was performed to compare the mortars of the Roman period with the mortars of the Medieval period collected from the case-study monument. This comparison was carried out by measuring some physical-mechanical, mineralogical, petrographic and thermal features that give more information about the durability and resistance to mechanical solicitations and weathering. After the characterizations, contrary to what is reported in the bibliography, a better quality of Medieval materials than Roman ones is pointed out. This has been highlighted by higher hydraulicity, mechanical performance, and a more appropriated particle-size distribution of aggregates.
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Ramos, P. L., L. F. Costa, F. Louzada, and F. A. Rodrigues. "Power laws in the Roman Empire: a survival analysis." Royal Society Open Science 8, no. 7 (July 2021): 210850. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.210850.
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The Roman Empire shaped western civilization, and many Roman principles are embodied in modern institutions. Although its political institutions proved both resilient and adaptable, allowing it to incorporate diverse populations, the Empire suffered from many conflicts. Indeed, most emperors died violently, from assassination, suicide or in battle. These conflicts produced patterns in the length of time that can be identified by statistical analysis. In this paper, we study the underlying patterns associated with the reign of the Roman emperors by using statistical tools of survival data analysis. We consider all the 175 Roman emperors and propose a new power-law model with change points to predict the time-to-violent-death of the Roman emperors. This model encompasses data in the presence of censoring and long-term survivors, providing more accurate predictions than previous models. Our results show that power-law distributions can also occur in survival data, as verified in other data types from natural and artificial systems, reinforcing the ubiquity of power-law distributions. The generality of our approach paves the way to further related investigations not only in other ancient civilizations but also in applications in engineering and medicine.
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Fanous, Andrew A., and William T. Couldwell. "Transnasal excerebration surgery in ancient Egypt." Journal of Neurosurgery 116, no. 4 (April 2012): 743–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2011.12.jns11417.
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Ancient Egyptians were pioneers in many fields, including medicine and surgery. Our modern knowledge of anatomy, pathology, and surgical techniques stems from discoveries and observations made by Egyptian physicians and embalmers. In the realm of neurosurgery, ancient Egyptians were the first to elucidate cerebral and cranial anatomy, the first to describe evidence for the role of the spinal cord in the transmission of information from the brain to the extremities, and the first to invent surgical techniques such as trepanning and stitching. In addition, the transnasal approach to skull base and intracranial structures was first devised by Egyptian embalmers to excerebrate the cranial vault during mummification. In this historical vignette, the authors examine paleoradiological and other evidence from ancient Egyptian skulls and mummies of all periods, from the Old Kingdom to Greco-Roman Egypt, to shed light on the development of transnasal surgery in this ancient civilization. The authors confirm earlier observations concerning the laterality of this technique, suggesting that ancient Egyptian excerebration techniques penetrated the skull base mostly on the left side. They also suggest that the original technique used to access the skull base in ancient Egypt was a transethmoidal one, which later evolved to follow a transsphenoidal route similar to the one used today to gain access to pituitary lesions.
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Cilione, Marco, Silvia Marinozzi, and Valentina Gazzaniga. "Feet and fertility in the healing temples: a symbolic communication system between gods and men?" Medical Humanities 45, no. 1 (June 9, 2018): 21–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2017-011439.
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Anatomical ex-votos of feet have always been interpreted as representing the unhealthy part of the body for which patients were asking healing. However, according to the archaeological data and literary sources, another interpretation is also possible: the purpose of this article is to focus on the strong relationship between feet and fertility in the ancient world by cross-referencing the available archaeological evidence with the scientific data relating to this topic. That shed light on an important aspect of the Healing Temples in Greek and Roman medicine.
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Floris, Piergiorgio, Maria Pina Dore, and Giovanni Mario Pes. "Does the longevity of the Sardinian population date back to Roman times? A comprehensive review of the available evidence." PLOS ONE 16, no. 1 (January 5, 2021): e0245006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245006.
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The discovery early in this century of the exceptional longevity of the Sardinian population has given new impetus to demographic studies of this phenomenon during the classical period. In the 1970s, it was hypothesised that the average mortality rate in Roman Sardinia was lower than in metropolitan Rome itself, postulating an ancient precedent for the remarkable longevity observable nowadays in the island’s population. In the present study, the available evidence was examined in order to test this hypothesis. Literary, juridical, epigraphic, papyrological, anthropological and archaeological sources regarding the population of the Roman Empire, including Sardinia, were retrieved by accessing Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar databases, as well as regional libraries, regardless of time limitation, and were independently reviewed by the authors. For Roman Sardinia, only funerary epitaphs were retrieved, in contrast with the numerous sources available for the whole Roman Empire. Inscriptions revealing the existence of three alleged nonagenarians, two centenarians, two ultracentenarians and one supercentenarian were found, corresponding to 2% in a total of 381 inscriptions. The majority were located in a highly Romanised rural area of central-western Sardinia. However, the ages reported in the epitaphs may be inaccurate because of the influence of confounders such as age rounding, approximations and/or amplifications, and are unrelated to the total number of inhabitants. In conclusion, the funerary evidence, the only available data from Roman Sardinia, is too weak to estimate the life expectancy of the local ancient population and cannot offer valuable arguments to support the hypothesis that exceptional longevity has been a Sardinian trait since Roman times.
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Szolc-Nartowski, Bartosz. "Interdyktalna ochrona swobody żeglugi morskiej i zasobów morza." Gdańskie Studia Prawnicze, no. 3(43)/2019 (November 4, 2019): 55–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.26881/gsp.2019.3.04.
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The Author presents issues related to the legal status of the sea and its shores in ancient Rome, the course of interdict proceedings and individual interdict as legal tools developed by the Roman jurisprudence and praetor to protect the freedom of sea navigation and the use of sea coasts and sea resources.
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Gurunluoglu, Aslin, Raffi Gurunluoglu, and Tatevik Hakobyan. "A medieval physician: Amirdovlat Amasiatsi (1420–1495)." Journal of Medical Biography 27, no. 2 (January 16, 2017): 76–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967772016682726.
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We aimed to acquaint the reader with a medieval physician, Amirdovlat Amasiatsi, who lived and practiced in the 15th century Anatolia. Amirdovlat wrote several books on medicine mainly focusing on phytotherapy and pharmacology using medicinal plants, animal-derived products and minerals. All his works were written in Middle Armenian, spoken Armenian language of the time. In his writings, Amirdovlat described unique recipes that represent a portrayal of medical knowledge and practice at the time in Anatolia where he lived and worked. He discussed the physical and therapeutic properties as well as geographic distributions of various plants and minerals, using different languages, mainly Turkish, Greek, Arabic, French and Persian. Amirdovlat’s works not only enhanced our understanding of Armenian medical practices but also provided great deal of information on those of Ancient Greco-Roman as well as Islamic world, demonstrating close relationship of Armenian medicine with Greco-Roman and Islamic medicine. Amirdovlat accomplished this by amalgamating the past and contemporary practices of his time. In this regard, Amirdovlat’s works, in particular “Useless for the Ignorant”, are very unique playing a significant role in preserving traditions and heritage of different cultures.
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Bradley, Mark. "OBESITY, CORPULENCE AND EMACIATION IN ROMAN ART." Papers of the British School at Rome 79 (October 31, 2011): 1–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068246211000018.
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This article explores the significance of sculptural and painted representations of ‘overweight’ and ‘underweight’ body types in the visual culture of Roman Italy from the fourth centurybcthrough to the late Empire, and considers the relationship of this imagery to Greek and Hellenistic precedents. In spite of the topical character of fat in 21st-century sociology, anthropology and medical science, obesity and emaciation in the ancient world remain almost completely unexplored. This article sets out to examine the relationship of fat and thin bodies to power, wealth, character and behaviour, and seeks to identify patterns and continuities in the iconography of fleshiness and slenderness across a stretch of several hundred years. Such bodies could be evaluated in a number of different ways, and this article exposes the diverse — and sometimes contradictory — responses to body fat in the art and culture of the Roman world. It first examines the significance of obesity and emaciation in language, literature and medicine, and then discusses visual representations under three headings: ‘Fertility’; ‘The marginal and the ridiculous’, examining the relationship between body fat, humour and figures at the edge of civilized society; and ‘Portraits’, exploring fat and thin in the portraiture of real-life individuals in the realms of philosophy, Hellenistic rulership, Etruscan funerary art and Roman public sculpture.
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Sarischouli, Panagiota. "Hope for Cure and the Placebo Effect: The Case of the Greco-Egyptian Iatromagical Formularies." Trends in Classics 13, no. 1 (June 1, 2021): 254–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tc-2021-0009.
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Abstract The present paper focuses on healing rituals from Greco-Roman Egypt, where medicine and religion were inextricably linked to each other and further connected to the art of magic. In Pharaonic Egypt, healing magic was especially attributed to the priests who served a fearsome goddess named Sekhmet; although Sekhmet was associated with war and retribution, she was also believed to be able to avert plague and cure disease. It then comes as no surprise that the majority of healing spells or other types of iatromagical papyri dating from the Roman period are written in Demotic, following a long tradition of ancient Egyptian curative magic. The extant healing rituals written in Greek also show substantial Egyptian influence in both methodological structure and motifs, thus confirming the widely accepted assumption that many features of Greco-Egyptian magic were actually inherited from their ancient antecedents. What is particularly interesting about these texts is that, in many cases, they contain magical rites combined with basic elements of real medical treatment. Obviously, magic was not simply expected to serve as a substitute for medical cure, but was rather seen as a complementary treatment in order to balance the effect of fear, on the one hand, and the flame of hope, on the other.
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Kaspruk, Lyudmila Ilyinichna. "Some interesting facts from the history of medicine." Spravočnik vrača obŝej praktiki (Journal of Family Medicine), no. 12 (December 20, 2020): 64–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/med-10-2012-08.
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A huge number of unexpected and interesting facts are associated with the history of the development of medicine, some of them are generally known, while the majority of people might have never even heard of others. Sometimes these facts led to the greatest discoveries, for example, in the case of the discovery of penicillin, and in other cases they could go completely unnoticed. Today we invite you to find out who invented the quarantine, which cough medicine was considered the most effective for many years, and what is the «placebo» effect, which, as it turned out, works even on dogs. It may be of interest to you that not long ago, a little over 100 years ago, mercury was considered a cure for all diseases, and it was proposed to treat syphilis by infecting a patient with malaria. In the days of ancient Rome, every wealthy Roman had to have his own slave doctor, and the higher the professionalism of the forced doctor was, the more authority his owner enjoyed. Did you know, for instance, that the first contraceptive came to us from Ancient Egypt? At that time, it was a fragment of a spongy soft core of papyrus, saturated with an acidic substance that kills sperm. The substance was made from sour milk and crocodile excrement — indeed, the most common ingredients were used, which could be easily found in every Egyptian backyard.
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Touwaide, Alain. "Foreign vs. Local New Horizons, and Ancient Dilemmas and Strategies?" Early Science and Medicine 14, no. 6 (2009): 765–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/138374209x12542104914046.
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AbstractCapitalizing on the data presented in the three papers in this issue, the comments and conclusions here elaborate on the concept of transfer of knowledge in the field of materia medica and pharmacy. They evidence different mechanisms in three contexts, the Holy Roman Empire, the Western world and China, and trace the possible ancient roots of the phenomena under consideration. In so doing, they contextualize the processes under study in the three essays, and suggest also a possible new interpretation of the practice of science from the Late Middle Ages to the Scientific Revolution.
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Iniesta, Ivan. "Pandemics in ancient Greek and Roman coinage: medical memories at the service of hope." Internal Medicine Journal 50, no. 12 (December 2020): 1574–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/imj.15111.
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Ramoutsaki, Ioanna A., Ioannis A. Ramoutsakis, Chariton E. Papadakis, and Emmanuel S. Helidonis. "Therapeutic Methods Used for Otolaryngological Problems during the Byzantine Period." Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 111, no. 6 (June 2002): 553–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000348940211100612.
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Evidence of herbal, animal, and chemical substances from the natural world used in medicines for otolaryngological problems, including opium, hyoscyamus, barley, honey, dried beans and peas, olives, fruits, Agaricus, castoreum, cassia, and afronitron, was traced in the Byzantine medical treatises, mainly from the 4th century ad to the 15th century ad. The texts of Antyllus, Orivasios of Pergamos, Aetios of Amida, Alexander of Tralles, Paul Aeginitis, Leon Iatrosophistis, Theophanis Nonnos, Nickolaos Myrepsos, Michael Psellos, and others strongly suggest the influence of ancient Greek and Roman medicine, but at the same time stress original medical thought. The main otolaryngological problems encountered in that period were loss of hearing, purulent otitis, rupture of the tympanic membrane, pharyngitis, laryngitis, rhinitis, acute tonsillitis, seasickness, vertigo, fracture of the nose, and cancers of the ear, larynx, nose, and oral cavity. The tradition stating that remedies were the final products of substance combinations, started in the classical period (5th and 4th centuries bc), is presented clearly and in detail in Byzantine prescriptions related to otolaryngology.
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Maragh, Janille M., James C. Weaver, and Admir Masic. "Large-scale micron-order 3D surface correlative chemical imaging of ancient Roman concrete." PLOS ONE 14, no. 2 (February 6, 2019): e0210710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210710.
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Váradi, Ágnes. "Assumption of medical risks and the problem of medical liability in the ancient Roman law." Orvosi Hetilap 149, no. 44 (November 1, 2008): 2091–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/oh.2008.28477.
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Az egészség védelme, különösen a balesetből és betegségből eredő kockázatok viselésének és a károk megtérítésének szabályozási igénye már a római jog időszakában is megjelent, különböző jogintézmények szabályozási rendszerébe ágyazva. Egységes szabályozási előkép hiányában a különböző személyi körök egészségében, testi épségében beállt károsodásokat érdemes kiemelni: a vizsgálat során ki kell térnünk a rabszolgákat, a filius familiasokat és a szabad embert ért sérülések, betegségek jogi minősítésének bemutatására. A Digesta fragmentumaiból származó esetek nemcsak konkrét jogi problémákat vetnek fel, hanem messzebb mutató elméleti kérdések kiindulópontjai is lehetnek. Így például joggal vetődhet fel a kérdés: Ha a haláleset rossz gyógyszerezés következménye, felel-e az orvos? Része volt-e az utókezelés az orvos gyógyítótevékenységének a római jog értelmezésében? Mindezeknek a kérdéseknek a megválaszolása nem szakadhat el a római jog komplex felelősségi rendszerének bemutatásától, valamint a szerződéses és szerződésen kívül okozott károk megtérítésének, a lex Aquilia intézményének, illetve a felelősségi rendszer alapjainak ismertetésétől. Az egyes esetek elemzése során kitérek a ma már klasszikusnak számító római jogi szakirodalom álláspontjára, továbbá a kortárs hazai és külföldi szerzők nézeteire is. Ezen példák bemutatása egyrészt a deliktuális felelősség kialakulásának egy sajátos állomását tárja fel, másrészt hozzájárulhat a modern egészségügyi felelősség fogalmának elméleti szintű továbbfejlesztéséhez.
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Papavramidou, N., and H. Christopoulou-Aletra. "Medicinal use of leeches in the texts of ancient Greek, Roman and early Byzantine writers." Internal Medicine Journal 39, no. 9 (September 2009): 624–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.01965.x.
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Weissenrieder, Annette, and Gregor Etzelmüller. "Embodied Inner Human Being." Religion & Theology 21, no. 1-2 (2014): 20–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15743012-02101004.
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In this paper we take issue with George H. van Kooten’s recent argument that Paul’s concept of inner human being has a background in ancient philosophical treatises as a metaphor of the soul. We argue that its Greco-Roman physiological meaning was decisive in its adoption by Paul and that the split between ancient medicine and philosophy was not essential in antiquity. Ancient medical-philosophical texts did not focus on the core or center of a person but rather sought a deep understanding of his or her inner aspects. These texts sought to understand how it is that we can discover bodily information about this inner person and to what degree the relationship between the inner and outer person can be interpreted. At the same time, however, we are discussing Walter Burkert’s evolutionary understanding of Pauline’s concept of the inner and outer human being. Paul’s definition of the inner human being corresponds to recent anthropological concepts of embodiment insofar as the visible outer human being has an inside which, according to Paul, is not detached from the body, but must be grasped from a physical perspective.
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Lemos, Izabel Cristina Santiago, Jéssica Pereira de Sousa, Denise Bezerra Correia, Luiz De Beltrão Lima Junior, Marta Regina Kerntopf, and George Pimentel Fernandes. "Aspectos Místicos e Científicos Acerca do Uso do Sangue em Diferentes Culturas da Antiguidade e na Contemporaneidade." UNICIÊNCIAS 21, no. 1 (August 24, 2017): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.17921/1415-5141.2017v21n1p35-38.
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Acerca da utilização do sangue em diversas culturas e etnias desde tempos remotos é notório que este fluido não tem sua importância somente em práticas medicinais, mas também em rituais religiosos. O objetivo do presente estudo é realizar levantamento bibliográfico acerca do uso do sangue em diferentes culturas da antiguidade e descrever o atual uso do sangue como agente terapêutico. O estudo é uma revisão narrativa/ clássica de literatura, em que foi consultada a Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde - BVS, utilizando as bases de dados Medline; Lilacs, Wholis e PAHO. Usando os descritores em Ciências da Saúde - DeCS: História da Medicina; Civilização; Religião e Ciência; Egito; Mundo Grego; Mundo Romano; Mundo Árabe; Medicina Tradicional Chinesa e Sangue. Deste modo, fica claro que o uso do sangue por civilizações antigas esteve relacionado às tradições religiosas, sendo compreendida sua relação direta com a vida humana, embora desconhecidas suas propriedades e composição. Ainda hoje alguns povos guardam esses traços históricos na incorporação de práticas cotidianas relacionadas ao uso do sangue. Conclui-se que esse fluido já foi e continua sendo empregado, em diversas práticas culturais, sendo o objeto de estudo de suma importância para a medicina contemporânea, como evidenciado pelo procedimento de hemotransfusão e de análises laboratoriais.Palavras-chave: Sangue. Religião e Ciência. Conhecimentos. Atitudes. Prática em Saúde.AbstractRegarding the use of blood in various cultures and ethnic groups since ancient times is well known that this fluid is important not only in medical practices, but also in religious rituals. The aim of this study is to accomplish a literature review about the use of blood in different antiquity cultures and describe the current use of blood as a therapeutic agent. The study is a narrative/classical literature review, which Virtual Health Library (VHL) was consulted, using the “databases” Medline; Lilacs Wholis and PAHO and the descriptors in Health Sciences (Decs): Historyof Medicine; Civilization; Religion and Science; Egypt; Greek world; Roman world; Arab world; Traditional Chinese Medicine and Blood. Thus, it becomes clear that the use of blood by ancient civilizations was related to religious traditions, being understood its direct relationship to human life, yet unknown its properties and composition. Even today some people keep these historical traces when incorporation their everyday practices related to the use of blood. It is concluded that this fluid has been and continues to be used in diverse cultural practices, being an important object of study for contemporary medicine, as evidenced by blood transfusion procedure and laboratory analysis.Keywords: Blood. Religion and Science. Health Knowledge. Attitudes. Practice
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Nefyodkin, Alexander. "Unknown Ancient sources of Byzantine military treatises." Hypothekai 5 (September 2021): 64–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.32880/2587-7127-2021-5-5-64-82.
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The article is a preliminary attempt to attribute two lists of sources from Byzantine military treatises: the first one comes from the “Taktica” by the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912), and the second — from “Taktika” by Nicephorus Ura-nus, the Byzantine strategist and dux of Antioch (1000s). A num-ber of these sources are clear enough — they are the military treatises of Arrian (“Techne Taktike”), Aelian (“The Tactical Theory”), Onosander (“Strategikos”), Polyaenus (“Strategems”), Syrianus Magister, Maurice (“The Strategikon”), Nikephoros II Phokas (“The Praecepta Militaria”), as well as the unpreserved work of the great Carthaginian commander Hannibal. Also, there is no particular doubt about Uranus's use of the writings of the moralist Plutarch of Chaeronea. Mena, mentioned in the list of Leo's “Taktica”, can be compared with a participant of the dia-logue “Menae patricii cum Thoma referendario: De scientia po-litica dialogus” (first half of the 6th century). A further compari-son of this “Dialogue” with Leo’s “Taktica” can bring some clar-ity to this issue, because Uranus made only minor changes to the text of its original source. Uranus himself made extensive use of historical sources, and brought them into the title. In general, Uranus used the historical works of Diodorus Siculus (“Histori-cal Library”), Dio Cassius Cocceianus (“Roman History”) and Polybius (“The Histories”), as well as the works (letters, diaries) of Alexander the Great or a novel about him. A separate article will be devoted to the attribution of the work of Artaxerxes. Three sources from the lists are still unclear: Pelops, Alcibiades, and Heraclides. Some light on their attribution can be cast after the publication of the “Taktika” by Nicephorus Uranus, which is yet to be done, although the first 14 chapters were published four centuries ago (in 1617).
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Ahmadian-Attari, Mohammad Mahdi, Solat Eslami, Leila Dargahi, and Ahmad Ali Noorbala. "Common herbal treatments for senile dementia in ancient civilizations: Greco-Roman, Chinese, Indian, and Iranian." Journal of Medicinal Plants 1, no. 73 (March 1, 2020): 37–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.29252/jmp.1.73.37.
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Bernardini, Federico, Giacomo Vinci, Emanuele Forte, Stefano Furlani, Michele Pipan, Sara Biolchi, Angelo De Min, et al. "Discovery of ancient Roman "highway" reveals geomorphic changes in karst environments during historic times." PLOS ONE 13, no. 3 (March 23, 2018): e0194939. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194939.
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Zubair, Khan Nazia, Shaikh Saleem Ahmad, Wasim Ahmad, Mohd Zulkifle, and Shahnawaz. "Resources of IlmulAmraz during early Abbasid caliph (7th-9th C.E) up to the work of Al-Razi." Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science 20, no. 2 (February 1, 2021): 228–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjms.v20i2.51528.
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Aim and Objective:The literature of Ilmul Amraz occupies a pedestal position in Unani medicine.The literature, however, is scattered among many manuscripts and requires being collected and compiled for better understanding and comprehension of disease concepts of Unani medicine. The material has been collected from the original resourcesof early Abbasid caliph (from7th-9thC.E) till the period of Al-Razi and briefly introduced in this article.
Material and Methodology: The proposed literary research is conducted through ‘input-processing-output’ approach. The literature has been collected from different classical texts, reference books and various digitalized mode.
Conclusion: The present review article underlines the contributions of Arab physicians, their original works, innovations, and practical experiences. The impact of theoretical contribution of Al Razi manifests in ancient Greco-Roman theory of diseases.
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol.20(2) 2021 p.228-233
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Mezzabotta, Margaret R. "What wasulpicum?" Classical Quarterly 50, no. 1 (May 2000): 230–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cq/50.1.230.
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The Latin wordulpicumis attested thirty-one times. The literary texts in which the term occurs range in date from the second century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. It denotes a plant used in antiquity both as a foodstuff and as an officinal substance in human and animal prescriptions, but discussions ofulpicumin the work of classical scholars show that there is no agreement about its identity. This lack of clarity consequently obfuscates the understanding of the passages in which reference is made to the plant. Furthermore, those students of ancient medicine, botany, and horticulture who depend on translations receive an inaccurate and even misleading impression of the original Latin sources. I propose to demonstrate the present unsatisfactory state both of translations of the term and of efforts by classical scholars to identify the plant, then to review the data supplied by the ancient sources. Following this, I shall suggest that what Latin writers referred to asulpicumis, in fact, the plant known to modern botanists asAllium ampeloprasumL., ‘great-headed garlic’. Finally, I shall investigate its function in the Roman diet and pharmacopeia.
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Greco, Gabriele, Virginia Mastellari, Chris Holland, and Nicola M. Pugno. "Comparing Modern and Classical Perspectives on Spider Silks and Webs." Perspectives on Science 29, no. 2 (March 2021): 133–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/posc_a_00363.
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Abstract Spiders have always fascinated humankind as whilst they are often reviled, their product, the web and its silk, are commonly viewed in awe. As such, silks’ material properties and the fear and fascination surrounding the animals that spin it are seen to play an important role in the development of many cultures and societies. More recently this is even more so with the formalization of this inspiration in scientific and technical communities through biomimetics. The aim of this work is to reflect on the beginnings of our relationship with silk and discuss concepts associated with spider silks and webs in ancient Greek and Roman times whilst comparing this with our current understanding of the field. In this way, ancient texts, namely Greek and Latin ones, are found to intersect with modern advanced disciplines, ranging from architecture to medicine to physics. This allows us not only to understand how natural observation has evolved from antiquity to today, but also how such a highly interdisciplinary research network has been spun by some shared conceptual threads.
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Gvozdeva, Inna Andreevna. "Veteran’s estate as a category of roman land surveying." RUDN Journal of World History 13, no. 3 (September 2, 2021): 299–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8127-2021-13-3-299-309.
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The purpose of this paper is to investigate how did form veterans landowning in the Roman land surveying. The main sources on the problem are the treatises of Roman land surveyers (1-2 centuries AD). They contain information about the principles of surveying of land plots for Roman retirees and about right guarantees the veterans had. The task of this article is reconstruction of the process of civic assignations in Ancient Rome and highlighting of features of this action when land was granted to the veterans. At the end of 2nd century BC the limitatio has become the most common way of land division thank to activities of brothers Gracchi. The limitatio assumed the creation of dividers that organized space: Decumanus maximus and Cardo maximus . Their intersection created four parts of the future Ager Colonicus for veterans. The limits parallel to the main ones turned the colony field into a clearly organized boundary grid with a square unit of area - centuria, within which the land plots (intended for tillage, horticulture, viticulture) were formed for veterans. Since the time of Caesar and Augustus, the question of adding grazing land to the arable land was decided in the Roman land surveying art. The most desired types of non-arable land was not only forests, pastureland and relicta but also subseciva - remainders from land division. Those vacant centuriae were a good arable land which the state temporarily allocated to new settlers on a lease basis. In the cadastre, a special right of remainders (ius subsecivorum) was created, unifying the lease relations. Thus, the farm of the Roman veteran consisted of fertile land suitable for all types of agricultural activities, as well as different categories of land, which contributed to the development of property and ownership relations.
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Yannopoulos, Stavros, Christos Yapijakis, Asimina Kaiafa-Saropoulou, George Antoniou, and Andreas N. Angelakis. "History of sanitation and hygiene technologies in the Hellenic world." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7, no. 2 (February 14, 2017): 163–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.178.
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Sanitation and hygiene technologies have existed in ancient Hellas since the Bronze Age (ca. 3200–1100 bc), when extensive sewerage and drainage and other elaborate sanitary structures were known in Minoan palaces and towns. Classical and Hellenistic periods should be considered as the most progressive eras in the design of sanitary engineering. At that time anatomically shaped toilet seats are found in several sites since many private houses and public buildings have them. As cities grew in size the pressure of larger populations resulted in the construction of communal toilets with seats that were more densely packed together. Drainage and sewerage systems and sanitary installations reflect high cultural and technological levels and they are associated with contemporary observations and ideas about hygiene and medicine. Before the Hellenic advances, medicine was entirely confined to religious beliefs and metaphysical rituals. In the early Roman period, the knowledge of the ancient world on hygienic matter was incorporated in legislative rules. Despite the weakening of this legislation through the ages, the sanitation practices kept being applied even via a technical tradition of the masons. Later various rulers of the Hellenic world (Europeans or Ottomans), introduced their practices (traditional/scientific) sanitation in the greater Helladic regions.
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Biggs, Robert D. "Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco‐Roman Medicine. Edited by H. F. L. Horstmanshoff and M. Stol. Studies in Ancient Medicine 27. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2004. Pp. xv + 407. $148." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 66, no. 2 (April 2007): 147–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/519046.
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