Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Animal sacrifice – South Africa'

The dominant emphasis in Western models of bereavement is on the breaking of bonds with the deceased in order for healing to occur. Failure to let go often leads to a diagnosis of 'pathological grief'. This paper challenges the assumption that death invariably means that the bonds with the deceased have to be severed. Situating Western models of bereavement in a modernist context not only challenges the 'truth' claims of these models, but also facilitates a deconstruction of the elements that contribute to the emphasis on letting go. In contrast to these theories, two Xhosa rituals (umkhapho and umbuyiso) that seek to sustain the bond with the deceased person will be examined. Such rituals demonstrate that it is possible to both maintain the bond and for the bereaved person to move on with their lives. Despite different contexts, it will be argued that these Xhosa bereavement rituals have a contribution to make to Western models of bereavement and some implications for therapy will be explored.

The ongoing international atrocity of animal abuse is a persistent and widespread social problem within human society. The maltreatment of animals, particularly in rural impoverished contexts in South Africa continues to be a pertinent challenge facing local animal welfare organisations. Upon identifying the need to improve the conditions of animals living in the Darling community, the Swartland SPCA approached the evaluator in order to design a plausible humane education programme. The evaluator began this research by reviewing the history and underlying principles of humane education, the efficacy of humane education, as well as formalised humane education programmes. Findings from the review revealed that humane education programmes hold diminished capability for the achievement of improved animal welfare when implemented in isolation. Although these programmes aim to affect behavioural change in order to respond to the problem of animal welfare, behavioural change is not easily achieved with a simple intervention such as humane education. Thus, designing a programme for the Swartland SPCA based solely on the logic of humane education with the expectation of behavioural change was deemed problematic. Subsequently, the evaluator endeavoured to develop a novel programme design to target the problem of animal welfare in Darling. Increasingly, research points to the need for a multifaceted approach in dealing with the problem of animal maltreatment due to its complex nature as well as the fact that it is based on a large number of confounding personal, familial, social, cultural and psychological factors. To address this need, the evaluator, in consultation with the SPCA, identified a number of possible reasons as to why the problem of animal welfare was a prevalent issue within the Darling community. This highlighted the need for additional interventions that could be employed holistically to alleviate the problem of animal abuse. Given that this research concerns the welfare of animals in terms of human-directed behaviours, it was decided that humane education as a form of intervention should be investigated further in its ability to affect attitudinal change in conjunction with violence prevention and peer education / modelling interventions as additional programme components. In order to affect interpersonal violence at a behavioural level, a violence prevention component was selected with the hope that reductions in interpersonal violence may extent toward the reduction of violence and abusive behaviour towards animals. Finally, peer education / role modelling was selected as a means of involving community members in the promotion of animal welfare via the concepts developed from the humane education programme component. Since an improvement of animal welfare conditions is essentially dependant on the performance of individual behaviours, grounding the programme in a theory of behaviour change was identified as an important first step in the programme design. As such, Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour was utilised as a behaviour change model in order to guide the programme's design framework and to ensure that the programme components corresponded with theoretically identified mechanisms of behavioural change. It was anticipated that utilising a multidimensional programme design rooted in a theory of behaviour change would increase the likelihood of achieving the link between attitudinal change and behavioural change. Therefore, this evaluation provides the Swartland SPCA with a broad-based programme design which provides a variable-oriented insight into the proposed mechanisms of change and can be utilised as a framework in the adaption of programme components. It is envisioned that this tool be used by the programme stakeholders to decide on intended outcomes, select the programme activities, and further define the design details thereof. A number of recommendations are also made in order to assist with the successful implementation of this programme and its sub-components in the long term. These include lobbying for the inclusion of animal welfare and violence prevention content as part of national school curricula, obtaining a violence prevention partner organisation to assist with certain implementation considerations, and finally the importance of continuous community engagement and involvement prior to and during the programme’s roll out.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The main aim of this case study was to research the impact of the introduction of oxen for draught power on Eric Swarts’ Stellenbosch farm. The research objectives were designed to find out if the oxen helped to improve the quality of the soil, to determine their cost-effectiveness (compared to a tractor) and other social and managerial constraints and benefits associated with using them and also to make recommendations for small-scale farmers in developing countries. The literature review revealed that human society faces many serious sustainability challenges from ecosystem degradation and global warming, to massive poverty and social inequality. The global population is growing against a background of decreasing agricultural productivity due to degraded soils and the increased costs of farming. The adoption of farming methods that enhance ecosystem services and depend less on external inputs is therefore essential. Animal traction is still widely used among small-scale farmers in developing countries, but lacks policy and investment support to make it more efficient. There are currently widespread negative opinions about animal traction which regard it as a backward or old-fashioned technology. This research investigated the possibility of animal traction emerging as an affordable, environmentallyfriendly and appropriate technology for small-scale farming. The research is a case study with a qualitative, ethnographic research design in which participant observation was key in gathering research data. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was carried out to compare the cost-effectiveness of using oxen to either hiring or buying a tractor. The findings showed that oxen were a more cost-effective means of draught power than a tractor, not only in terms of capital costs but also maintenance and operational costs. The manure from the oxen was both an effective way of supplying crops with essential nutrients and improving soil biodiversity. The introduction of the oxen presented some challenges to the farmer concerning knowledge about how animals work and other managerial challenges, but these were overcome by learning through practice. It was found that the farmer will be able to make significant savings in soil-amendment costs and he can control the quality of the manure to suit his needs. It was concluded that small-scale farmers who choose animal traction over tractors as a means of draught power will realise many advantages in return.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoof doelwit van dié gevallestudie was om die impak van die ingebruikneming van osse as trekkrag op Eric Swarts se plaas te Stellenbosch na te vors. Die navorsingsteikens was ontwerp om uit te vind of die beeste gehelp het om die kwaliteit van die grond te verbeter, om hul lonendheid vas te stel (in vergelyking met ’n trekker) asook ander sosiale en bestuursbeperkings en -voordele wat met hul gebruik geassosieer word en ook met voorstelle vir kleinskaalboere in ontwikkelende lande voorendag te kom. Die literatuuroorsig navorsing het ontbloot dat die menslike samelewing met vele volhoubaarheidsuitdagings vanaf ekosistemiese agteruitgang en aardverhitting, tot swaar armoedigheid en sosiale ongelykhede gekonfronteer word. Die wêreld bevolking groei steeds ten spyte van die afname in landboukundige produktiwiteit as gevolg van verlaagde grondkwaliteit en die toenemende landboukoste. Die ingebruikneming van landboumetodes wat ekosistemiese dienste verhoog en minder staatmaak op eksterne insette is dus noodsaaklik. Dieretrekking word steeds algemeen in ontwikkelende landebenut, maar dit ontbreek beleids- en beggingsondersteuning om dit meer doeltreffend te maak. Daar is tans algemeen verbreide negatiewe sienswyse oor dieretrekksag wat dit as agterlike en oudmodiese tegnologie beskou. Dié navorsing het ondersoek ingestel om die moontlikheid van dieretrekking as ’n bekostigbare, omgewingsvriendelike en passende tegnologie vir kleinskaalboerdery vas te stel. Die navorsing is’n gevallestudie met kwalitatiwe, etnografiese navorsingsontwerp waarin deelnemerwaarneming kern is tot die insameling van data. ’n Kostewinsteanalise (KWA) was uitgevoer om die lonenheid van beeste te vergelyk met dié van of die huur of die koop van ’n trekker. Die bevindings het getoon dat beeste ’n lonender wyse van trekkrag as trekkers is, nie net in terme van kapitale koste nie, maar ook onderhouds en bedryfskoste. Die beesmis was beide ’n doeltreffende manier om die gevasse van nodige voedingstowwe te voorsien asook om grondbiodiversiteit te verbeter. Die ingebruikneming van beeste het sekere uitdagings vir die boere ingehou in verband met die kennis van hoe diere werk en ander bestuursuitdagings, maar dié was oorkom deur onderrig uit ondervinding. Daar was bevind dat die boer beduidende besparings kan maak aan grondaanvullingskoste hierdie jaar en dat hy die kwaliteit van die beesmis kan beheer om sy behoeftes dien. Die slotsom is dat kleinskaalboere wat kies om dieretrekking eerder as trekkers as trekkrag te gebruik, sal vele voordele hê.

Thesis (MPhil (Animal Sciences. Livestock Industry Management: Pig Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This mini-thesis describes the pig industry in South Africa which consists of a commercial intensive sector and an extensive sector that is also known as the small scale sector. Challenges in such as, marketing, feed, housing and genetics of small scale farmers are discussed. The objective of this study is to identify the problems experienced by the emerging/small scale pig farmers and to benchmark the production parameters of these farmers. Data was collected using questionnaires, telephone and site visits to farms/projects. The data collection was grouped into descriptions of small scale piggeries, feeding strategies, management programs, production parameters, regional constraints, marketing, comparisons between stud and commercial piggeries. The results were arranged into the following manner: general, regional constraints, description of small scale piggery facilities, feeding strategies of small scale farmers, management programs in small scale piggeries, production parameters of small scale piggeries in the Limpopo province, production parameters of stud and commercial piggeries, and the management strategy in a commercial piggery. Those piggeries having 5-30 sow units were interviewed. Results indicate that small scale farmers were found not to be sustainable in their production. The small scale farmers have no understanding of the pig industry, genetics and breeding of pigs, feeding strategies, and marketing channels for pigs. Typical problems experienced are: marketing is only done once or twice a year and not regularly as with any commercial piggery – a main problem identified here was access to the formal market. Typical production problems experienced were long farrowing intervals, small litter sizes, late weaning periods and low weaning percentages. This was attributed not only to mismanagement but also to bad infrastructure. Small scale piggeries typically have low cost sty’s that have inadequate floors, walls, roofing and very few of the piggeries has sufficient fresh water. Another problem experienced was poor growth which could be directly linked to the nutrition of the pigs. Most of the feed fed consisted of kitchen waste as balanced diets were perceived to be too expensive whilst access to suppliers, and transport (of both feed and pigs off to market) was generally lacking. Another major problem identified by the producers was insufficient scientific help from Government. Most producers also mentioned that they would welcome a mentorship program and help with the marketing and sourcing of funds. None the less, the pig owners all indicated that they wish to continue farming with pigs and that with the right help, they would be able to be successful.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie werkstuk beskryf die vark industrie in Suid-Afrika wat bestaan uit ‘n kommersiële intensiewe en ekstensiewe sektor wat ook bekend staan as die klein-skaal sektor. Uitdagings soos bemarking, voer, behuising en genetika van klein-skaalse boere word bespreek. Die doel van die studie is om die probleme te identifiseer wat ervaar word deur die opkomende/klein-skaalse boere asook om die produksie-parameters van die boere te bepaal. Data was versamel deur middel van vraelyste, telefoonoproepe asook besoeke aan die boere/projekte. Die dataversameling was op verdeel in beskrywings van klein-skaalse vark eenhede, voerstrategieë, bestuursprogramme, produksie-parameters, distriksbeperkings, bemarking, en vergelykings tussen stoet- en kommersiële-eenhede. Die resultate was gesorteer op die volgende manier: algemeen, distriksbeperkings, beskrywing van klein-skaalse varkeenhede, produksie-parameters van klein-skaalse varkeenhede in die Limpopoprovinsie, produksieparameters van stoet- en kommersiële varkeenhede, en die bestuurstrategie in ’n kommersiële varkeenheid. Ondehoude is gevoer met dié eenhede wat tussen 5-30 soê het. Resultate wys dat klein-skaalse boere nie volhoubaar is in hul produksie nie. Die klein-skaalse boere het geen kennis van die vark bedryf, genetika en teel van varke, voerstrategieë en bemarking van varke nie. Tipiese probleme wat ervaar word is: bemarking word slegs een of twee keer per jaar gedoen en nie gereeld soos met kommersiële eenhede nie – die hoof probleem wat geïdentifiseer is die toegang tot die formele mark. Tipiese produksieprobleme wat hier geïdentifiseer is, was lang kraam intervalle, klein werpsel groottes, laat speenperiodes en lae speenpersentasies. Dit was as gevolg van nie net misbestuur nie, maar ook as gevolg van slegte infrastruktuur. Klein-skaalse vark eenhede het gewoontlik goedkoop varkhokke met onvoldoende bevloering, mure, en dakke en baie min van die eenhede het genoegsame vars water gehad. Nog ’n probleem wat ondervind is, was die slegte groei van die varke wat direk gekoppel kan word aan die voeding van die varke. Meeste van die voer het bestaan uit kombuisvullis omdat gebalanseerde rantsoene beskou was as te duur, terwyl daar oor die algemeen ’n te kort was aan toegang tot verskaffers en vervoer (van beide voer en varke na die mark). Nog ’n groot probleem wat geïdentifiseer is deur die produsente was dat daar ’n tekort is aan wetenskaplike hulp van die Regering. Meeste van die produsente het ook genoem dat hul ’n mentorskapprogram sal verwelkom asook hulp met bemarking en befondsing. Nie te min, die varkeienaars het almal aangetoon dat hul graag met die varkboerdery sou wil aangaan en dat met die regte hulp sou hul suksesvol kan wees.

The aims of this research were to describe in rich phenomenological detail the recollected childhood experiences described by three South African adults of growing up with animals in the context of a traditionally African cultural perspective in South Africa; as well as to document the emotional, physical and social effects of inter-species relationships as described by these participants, in order to explore and situate these experiences in relation to broad international perspectives on the contribution of animals to human development. The question of how these described experiences correlate with broad international perspectives on the contribution of animals to human development comprised the hermeneutic of the study. Here it was found that the experiences of these South African individuals were generally in keeping with the trends found in the literature. Participants attributed to their childhood relationships with animals a variety of benefits. These benefits occur on a range of levels, from the physical to the cognitive, and the psychosocial. The emotional attachment of the participants to animals with whom they had interacted in childhood correlated with the nature of interspecies relationships as anticipated by the literature. Cultural differences in the conceptualisation of inter-species relationships, between western and traditionally African ideologies, appeared to influence the moral and ethical positions assumed by the participants, while the subjective nature of the described attachment between participants and animals remains qualitatively similar across cultures, when explored in relation to international research. The similarities between the experiences of the participants and international research findings lend credence to Wilson’s hypothesis that all human beings are potentially able to connect in deep and profound ways with their natural environment, and that this connection contributes to the development of social and cognitive skills, as well as constituting emotional support and stability. The research concludes with an examination of its own limitations and suggestions are made for further research.

Thesis (MTech (Business Administration))--Peninsula Technikon, Cape Town, 2002
The growing and declining demand of the different fish oil application markets. The price of heavy furnace oil compared to fish oil selling price. (Heavy furnace oil is used to generate energy) . The research also investigated the impact of low price fish oil substitutes on the South African fish oil producers. The most important substitute in the current South African majority market, the animal feed market, is vegetable oils. The research finding is that the South African fish oil producers must follow the vegetable oil selling price trend. The most important finding of the research is the high priority the fish oil quality achieves in all the fish oil market segments. The South African domestic market is limited in that it is only the animal feed market and the refinery. export market. The alternative market to sell to is the However, the international fish oil market perceives the South African fish oil to be of low quality. A mindset regarding the importance of fish oil quality has to start at the South African fish oil producers. It is vital that the South African fish oil producers institute quality systems to improve their fish oil quality. The South African fish oil producers must gear themselves to become globally competitive.

As limited prey availability and persecution by humans in response to livestock predation are key conservation concerns for the Cape leopard (Martins & Martins 2006), the present study aimed to provide more information regarding their feeding habits. The first objective was to determine whether the Cape leopard was subject to a change in their prey base and how they responded to the change. This was established by comparison of their current diet in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains, determined by using scat analysis techniques, with a previous dietary assessment (Norton et al. 1986). The second aim was to provide a preliminary assessment of the prey preference of the Cape leopard and examine the utility of camera trap surveys to determine leopard prey preference. Leopard diet in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains consisted largely of small- (1-10 kg) and medium-sized (10-40 kg) mammals; rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and klipspringers (Oreotragus oreotragus) were key prey items. In terms of regional variation in leopard diet, there was a significant difference in the average weight of prey utilized in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains. Despite the importance of prey availability of suitable size, their flexibility in terms of prey size utilization reflected their ability to switch to smaller prey to fulfil their dietary requirements, when prey is limited. The study suggested a dietary shift, with significant variation in prey species utilization in both regions. The shift did not appear to be in response to prey scarcity, but rather a reduction in key prey species, particularly the rock hyrax. The shift involved an increase in the number of species utilized, and only a very small increase in livestock predation in both areas. There was however no significant variation in prey size category utilization. This demonstrated their dietary flexibility, as well as the importance of suitable prey sizes rather than the presence of specific prey species to fulfil their dietary requirements. The camera trap survey revealed a strong correlation between the number of camera trap days and the number of photographs taken of identifiable species. Variation of this correlation between different habitats supported the notion that individual images are a better unit to determine sampling efficiency than trap days. The camera trap survey also showed that small rodent availability was underestimated by camera trap surveillance, which resulted in poor prey preference estimation. It was therefore suggested that camera trap surveys be restricted to the surveillance of larger prey species (> 1 kg). By excluding small rodents from the analysis, prey preference could be estimated for other species and prey size categories. Small- and medium-sized mammals were significantly preferred, whereas large mammals were significantly avoided by the Cape leopard.

Although animal welfare workers overwhelmingly describe themselves as animal lovers the exigencies of day to day animal welfare work often require that they perform euthanasia of healthy animals as part of welfare shelter management, and animal population control. In this research study, the particular burdens placed upon seven South Animal welfare workers who are required to rescue, care for, nurture and rehabilitate the animals in their care; while simultaneously being required to kill these same – often physically and behaviourally healthy - animals after a specific period of time, or in response to various logistical, procedural and practical intricacies, ranging from lack of space and resources to an unavailability of suitable homes; are explored from an interpretative phenomenological approach using the Interpretative Phenomenological Method (IPA), and from a South African perspective. It was found that animal-loving individuals engaged in the care and subsequent euthanasia of healthy animals report experiencing profound personal, interpersonal and professional and ideological (dis)stress related to guilt, sorrow, moral unease and horror. Four themes emerged from interview data, which are discussed in relation to relevant research and literature. Experiences in a South African context were found to be very much aligned with those reported in previous research and literature pertaining to this topic. In particular, it was found that there is a need to articulate specifically, and precisely the nature of the act. It is proposed that the term “Agapéthanasia” would be appropriate and useful in this field.

The animal welfare legislation that is discussed in this Dissertation is just a sample of the available legislation from the chosen foreign jurisdictions and South Africa. The chosen foreign jurisdictions were chosen as a lens to gain a needed perspective on South African animal welfare legislation. The legislation chosen for discussion falls within particular categories that are discussed fully in the later chapters.i Despite the fact that the animal rights and animal welfare movements are recorded to date back as far as 500B.C, the majority of jurisdictions throughout the world still consider animals to be property that can be bought, traded, hunted and after they are killed, their remains kept as trophies or souvenirs. Within these jurisdictions (which includes South Africa and the other four chosen foreign jurisdictions – Kenya, India, Switzerland and the United States of America) there is a demonstrated lack of proper enforcement of the animal welfare/animal anti-cruelty legislation, regulations and industry rules, which is made worse by the actions of uncaring, abusive and/or ignorant people. South Africa is no better or worse to the four chosen jurisdictions in that it has similar anti-cruelty/animal welfare legislation. The lack of proper enforcement of this animal welfare legislation in South Africa should be of great concern as many studies have indicated that there is a link between animal abuse/cruelty and ‘human’ abuse. The same studies also indicate that animal abusers are at a greater risk of becoming violent criminals or of committing a violent crime. For example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has noted that most serial killers in the USA had a history of torturing, abusing and killing animals before they moved on to torturing, abusing and/or killing humans in their adult life. Needed changes to the animal welfare legislation and how people view animals should be made in South Africa to ensure that welfare of animals is protected. For example, the Government could educate people about animal welfare in order to overcome any ignorance that may be the cause of animal pain and abuse, as well as strengthening existing animal welfare legislation. The eradication of ignorance, as well as a necessary change in the current animal welfare legislation, will help to create a real change in how people view and treat i Chapter 5 and 6. [iii] animals. People will come to realise that animals exist in their own right and that they were not created to serve or to be exploited by man.

Arid and semi arid environments are characterised by extreme fluctuations in temperature and low rainfall which present significant challenges to the animals inhabiting these areas. Mammals, such as aardvarks (Orycteropus afer, Pallas 1766), excavate burrows in order to avoid predators and climatic extremes and are termed “ecosystem engineers” as they physically modify their environment and in doing so create new habitats and alter the availability of resources to other species. In this study I assessed the microhabitat conditions (maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and seed abundance) of aardvark burrows in relation to paired control sites. In addition, I evaluated the use of aardvark burrows by other vertebrate and invertebrate species and investigated the impact of aardvark burrow mounds on landscape scale floristic diversity. Maximum temperatures were significantly lower (p < 0.05) and minimum temperatures and midday humidity were significantly higher (p < 0.05) inside the burrows at the three study sites, Kwandwe Private Game Reserve (Kwandwe), Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP) and Tswalu Kalahari Reserve (Tswalu). There were no significant differences between the concentration of seeds, the average numbers of unique individual small mammals, trap success or small mammal species richness recorded inside the burrows compared to outside (p > 0.05). At all three sites, small mammal species diversity was higher in the burrows but this result was also not significant (p > 0.05 for all). Trap success and the number of individuals captured was higher at Tswalu than the other two sites (p < 0.05 for both). The different methods used in this study revealed a total of 25 mammal, seven bird, one amphibian and six reptile species utilising aardvark burrows. There were significant differences in insect community assemblages between the burrows and open control areas at Kwandwe and Tswalu (p < 0.05 for both) but not at MZNP (p > 0.05). The parasitic guild was more prominent inside the burrows than outside but their abundance was not as high as anticipated, possibly due to the placement of traps closer to the burrow entrances than the sleeping chambers. The complex structure of the burrows prevented the placement of traps in close proximity to the sleeping chambers. As expected, the amount of bare earth was significantly higher on active and recently abandoned burrow mounds compared to the old burrow mounds and reference plots at all three sites (p < 0.05 for all), with the exception of the active burrows at Tswalu. Overall, the different plot types were characterised by significantly different plant communities during all the seasons at MZNP, during three of the seasons at Kwandwe and only during winter at Tswalu. The total species richness recorded on the reference plots was higher than on the burrow mounds at all three sites. However, species diversity on the reference plots was not significantly higher than the burrows at any of the sites (p > 0.05 for all sites). Although the results were not significant, the overall species diversity at a site level was greater than the reference patches at Kwandwe and Tswalu (p > 0.05 for both). Aardvarks fulfil the criteria of a significant ecosystem engineer and their presence in arid and semi-arid environments is likely to be critical to the survival of other individual organisms and species, particularly when alternative burrowing animals are either absent or restricted in their activities. Thus, aardvark populations should be considered a conservation priority in arid and semi-arid ecosystems.

In this study, I investigated the interaction between two megaherbivores, the African elephant and white rhinoceros, that has the potential to impact grazing lawns of which white rhino are the creators and maintainers and elephants are potentially the modifiers. I hypothesized that as elephants browse, they discard a variety of coarse woody debris onto the ground; should this woody debris (of varying amounts and sizes) fall onto grazing lawns, white rhino either move them, consume grass around the woody debris or abandon the lawn entirely. If high levels of woody debris are deposited here, grazing by white rhino is likely to be prevented, at which time I predicted that mesoherbivores would have a competitive advantage in accessing forage that white rhino cannot. I examined the mechanistic links between different levels of elephant-deposited woody debris and grass response at a point scale and feeding patch spatial scale of grazing lawns in an African savanna. In addition, I assessed the response of mesoherbivores in terms of vigilance behaviour with increasing levels of predation risk posed by increasing levels of woody debris. I present the first evidence of an indirect effect of elephant on white rhino foraging behaviour. I demonstrate how increasing levels of woody debris lead to a decreasing probability of foraging by white rhino. I also demonstrate how the probability of foraging by mesoherbivores increases as the amount of forage increases. However, since this study took place during a severe drought where resources are extremely limited, I was unable to properly separate the effects of elephant-deposited woody debris from the severe lack of rainfall on grass response and subsequently herbivore foraging behaviour. Due possibly to the drought, mesoherbivores responded less or not at all to risk factors such as woody debris therefore woody debris was not a predictor of vigilance behaviour in my study. This study contributes to our understanding of how the impacts of elephants, as ecosystem engineers, have cascading effects on savanna ecosystems. My study showed that elephant impact mediates the foraging behaviour of white rhino during a drought. However, under average rainfall periods, my original hypothesized effect of the indirect impacts of elephants on white rhino foraging and grazing lawn dynamics could still hold. This key hypothesis that I was unable to test under ‘normal’ conditions due to the drought is still valid and functionally important for understanding the ecosystem processes driving grazing lawn formation, persistence and composition in African savannas where elephants and white rhinos coexist.

Two methods for predicting regions susceptible to invasion by alien aquatic animals were developed for southern Africa (excluding Zimbabwe and Mozambique). In the "traditional" (data-poor) approach, distributions of three categories of alien "indicator" species (warm mesothermal, cold stenothermal and eurytopic) were compared to seven existing biogeographical models of distribution patterns of various animals in southern Africa. On the basis of these comparisons a synthesis model was developed which divided southern Africa into seven regions characterised by their susceptibility to invasion by alien aquatic animals with particular habitat requirements. In the "data-rich," geographic information systems (GIS) approach, the distribution of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo trutta) in selected "sampled regions" was related to elevation (as a surrogate of water temperature) and median annual rainfall (MAR) (as a surrogate of water availability). Using concentration analysis, optimum conditions for trout were identified. Regions within a larger "predictive area" which satisfied these conditions, were plotted as a digital map using the IDRISI package. Using this method seven models of potential trout distribution were generated for the following regions: northern Natal (two); southern Natal/Lesotho/Transkei (three), eastern Cape (two) and western Cape (two). Since two of the models were used to refine the methods, only five models were considered for the final assessment. In a modification of the GIS method, another model of potential trout distribution, based on mean monthly July minimum air temperature and MAR parameters, was developed for the region bounded by 29º - 34º S and 26 º - 32°E. This model showed marked similarities to another model, developed for the region bounded by 29 º - 32°S and 26º - 32°E, which was based on elevation and MAR parameters. The validity of the models developed was assessed by independent experts. Of the six models considered, four received favourable judgements, one was equivocal and one was judged to be poor. Based on these assessments it was concluded that the GIS method has credibility and could be used to develop a "data-rich" model of the susceptibility of southern Africa to invasion by alien aquatic animals. This method represents an alternative to the bioclimatic matching approach developed by scientists in Australia. The GIS method has a number of advantages over the "traditional" method: it is more amenable to testing, has greater flexibility, stores more information, produces images of a finer resolution, and can be easily updated. The traditional method has the advantage of being less expensive and requiring a less extensive database.

The main millennium development goal is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger in the world by 2015. South Africa is one of the countries that signed this pledge at the millennium summit in 2000. The Department of Agriculture, has initiated a number of projects to assist farmers and communities with reaching this goal. In the Northern Cape, the commercialization of goats is one such anchor project. The major activities of this project is to train farmers in applied and appropriate production practices, assist them with accessing markets and supporting them with improved livestock. The main aim of this research was to evaluate whether the project has achieved its outcome and whether this outcome, is having an impact on the livelihoods of the farmers involved in the project. After reviewing the literature on evaluation research and programme evaluation across time, the different paradigms and approaches, participatory methodology was used in this study. A case study approach was applied to evaluate the outcomes and effects of the training received by farmers, as part of the commercialization of goats programme. The results of the study proved that the training received by members of the Campbell Agricultural Co-operative Enterprises, changed their goat production practices. The training also had a secondary impact. Trained farmers were imparting (technology transfer) their acquired knowledge to other members of the co-operative. This appeared very effective as all members of the cooperative were farming more scientifically. These changes to the production practices had a positive impact on the livelihoods of the farmers, as their animals were of a better quality and they were able to sell their animals at different markets and for better prices. This has however not commercialized their farming operations as they are still faced with many challenges. These challenges are the lack of a proper marketing structure, access to financial assistance, proper infrastructure and adequate transport for the animals to mention a few. If the Department of Agriculture and Land Affairs is serious about assisting these farmers to move from the status of “emerging farmer” to “commercial farmer” they will have to look at addressing the problems experienced with financial access and access to adequate and appropriate transport.

The giraffe at Nyaru were found to be browsers who made little use of graze during the study period. They utilized a diversity of 20 browse species. Two species, Acacia karroo and Acacia cyclops, formed the bulk of the giraffe diet throughout the year. A definite seasonal dietary shift was evident. A. karroo was favoured in summer and autumn and formed the main food species in spring, summer and autumn. A. cyclops was favoured throughout the study, but its contribution to the diet increased during winter when less A. karroo was consumed. This seasonal shift is related to the deciduous nature of Acacia karroo. Although a seasonal shift in species contribution to giraffe diet has been observed in many other giraffe feeding studies, no studies on giraffe feeding have been done in the Mosaic Thicket of the southern Cape. The ecological browsing capacity for giraffe in thicket was estimated to be between 0.020 BU/ha and 0.095 BU/ha. The browsing capacity for giraffe at Nyaru, based on the available phytomass 2–5 m above the ground, was estimated using those species that formed the bulk of the giraffe diet, and amounted to 0.063 BU/ha. A maximum of three giraffe could thus be stocked on the 157 ha of suitable giraffe habitat on Nyaru. This stocking rate recommendation lies within the range commonly recommended by local consultants for giraffe introductions into the southern Cape. Their recommendations are, however, not based on quantitative assessments such as performed in this study. The recommendation of this study should not be applied as a fixed ecological capacity for giraffe in thicket, but should be seen as a starting point in the adaptive management cycle. Ongoing monitoring of parameters, such as herbaceous composition and phytomass; as well as the condition of key browse species, is strongly advocated. A. karroo was browsed significantly more and carried significantly fewer pods per tree at a heavily used site compared to a lightly used site. Heavy browsing thus appears to affect the reproductive success of A. karroo significantly. Fewer pods are likely to lead to lower regeneration and thus reduced density of A. karroo. Whether A. karroo will maintain its dominance within the thicket vii community in the long run will be related to how individual plants survive and reproduce and if some can escape from herbivory. Fewer G. occidentalis were clumped with other species at the heavily used site compared to the lightly used site. This could possibly be attributed to the fact that intense browsing pressure at the heavily used site caused protective clumps to be eaten away, thus exposing G. occidentalis to higher ungulate browsing. Previous studies have found that nurse shrubs protect G. occidentalis against ungulate browsing. G. occidentalis was browsed significantly more at the heavily used site compared to the lightly used site. There was a general trend of fewer fruits at the heavily used site compared to the lightly used site, while fruits were absent on G. occidentalis growing alone at the heavily used site. This suggests a negative effect of heavy browsing on plant reproductive success and emphasizes the importance of nurse plants for the successful recruitment and hence long term prevalence of G. occidentalis in Mosaic Thicket.

The main objective of the current study was to determine the effect of distance travelled (DT), lairage duration (LDhr) and animal-related factors (animal class, breed, sex) on pre-slaughter stress indicators, carcass characteristics, nanostructure and technological properties of beef. The study was conducted in an Eastern Cape abattoir under the Buffalo City District Municipality. Six genotypes of cattle (Beefmaster, Bonsmara, Brahman, Holstein-Friesian, Non-descript and Nguni) brought for slaughter at the abattoir on different days were used in the study. Slaughter weight (SWT), warm and cold carcass weight (WCW and CCW), fatness and conformation of each animal were measured and recorded. Representative samples of blood plasma and meat quality from the Muscularis thoracis et lumborum (LTL) were collected at slaughter and 24 hours after slaughter, respectively. Heat shock proteins 70kDa (HSPA1A), glucose (GLU), cortisol (CORT), creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined from the blood plasma. The representative LTL muscle was used to determine ultimate pH (pHu), lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), meat temperature (Tm), Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF) and histological structure of beef. There were significant effects of distance on pHu, Tm, a*, b*, TL%, CK and LDH. Pearson correlations were observed between distance travelled (DT), creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ultimate pH (pHu), colour coordinates (L*, a* and b*) and Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF). Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the 1st (pHu), 2nd (Tm) and 3rd (L*) principal components were the critical meat quality attributes. Positive relationships between carcass weights and beef quality characteristics for bovine cattle where the cumulative percentage of the first six principal component`s (PC`s) (SWT, WCW, CCW, DP, pHu and Tm contributed to 93.4 % of the total variance. Significant correlation coefficients between DT (r = 0.15), LDhr (r = 0.29), Ta (r = -0.52), Tm (r = 0.26), L* (r = 0.33), a* (r = 0.32) and WBSF (r = -0.49) were observed. Meat from Brahman (BR), Non-descript (ND) and Nguni (NG) cows had visible skeletal muscle fibres which were thin and long indicating improved tenderness of beef. Exposing animals to longer hours of transportation did not only reduce glucose levels but also increased the expression of HSPA1A and levels of cortisol. The CK and LDH were not related to beef quality. Therefore, CK and LDH can be used as indicators of animal welfare in slaughter cattle but cannot be used to predict the quality of meat. Bulls were the heaviest, although heifers had the highest dressing percentage than cows. Furthermore, the nanostructure of beef indicated that heifers had the best muscle fibres, sarcomere length and visible intercalated discs. The observed nanostructures of Nguni genotype are an indication of tender meat. Beef from heifers of Nguni had visible and tender meat with traces of intramuscular fat while males had shorter sarcomere length and tougher meat.

Constructivist approaches to teaching and learning are a well established component of the landscape of educational research, especially in Science education. This research took as its starting point the limited amount of social constructivist research available in the field of Environmental Education and responded to calls for further research. The research was designed within an interpretive tradition, as a critically phenomenological enquiry employing two methods; single case studies and a focus group. Data collection used progressively focused interview questions to proceed through a series of individual interview stages, starting with a simple description of conceptualisations and moving to deeper analysis of influences on, and use of conceptualisations. The focus group was designed as a forum to explore the pedagogic issues connected to the 'social negotiation of learning', based on data and insights gained from earlier interview stages. The goals of the study were to record data on the conceptualisations of animals perceived as significant by a group of Tsonga speaking students, and to seek insights into the formative influences on those conceptualisations. The research question, namely what contribution can social constructivist approaches to teaching and learning make to Environmental Education? guided an interpretation of the above data in terms of a range of social constructivist theories of learning. Theories of Radical and Social Constructivism as applied in Science education, although dominant orientations for educational research in constructivist learning, were challenged and found inappropriate as a basis to inform methodologies for Environmental Education. Instead Lave's (cited in O'Loughlin, 1992) socio-cultural approach to learning was explored as the basis to create a more useful perspective on an environmental education situation. Finally it was concluded that Lave's socio-cultural approach to learning may be a useful guide to helping a teacher- elicit the full range of conceptualisations present in an environmental education situation, but is not ultimately effective if no challenge and change comes about. Consequently, a socially critical constructivist teaching and learning approach was suggested In conclusion I commented on the interpretive research methodology employed and suggested an example of a socially critical methodology that could take this investigation further.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Fluctuations and a general decline in the ratio between wool and meat prices resulted in marked changes in the South African sheep industry. Commercial producers now exploit other mechanisms such as terminal crossbreeding of Merino-type with meat type breeds or dual-purpose breeds to attain short-term benefits resulting from price fluctuations between wool and mutton without compromising the wool-producing capacities of ewe flocks. Most components of lamb production have low heritability. However, heterosis can be achieved by mating wool-type breeds with specialist meat breed rams. Genetic improvement of livestock depends on defining breeding objectives, estimation of genetic parameters and accurately identifying the right animals to be used for future breeding. Genetic parameters for traits of economic importance in terminal sire sheep breeds that could be used on Merino-type ewes in commercial operations in South Africa had not been published for the national flock apart from a preliminary study having been conducted by Olivier et al. (2004). Selection objectives were poorly defined due to lack of parameter estimates for variance and covariance components. Against this background, this study obtained pedigree information and live weight data from the National Small Stock Improvement Scheme for the Dormer, Ile de France and Merino Landsheep and estimated non-genetic factors and genetic parameters influencing early growth traits. Genetic and phenotypic trends for early growth traits were constructed for the three breeds to monitor genetic progress. Non-genetic factors influencing early growth traits in the Dormer, Ile de France and Merino Landsheep were estimated using data obtained from the National Small Stock Improvement Scheme of South Africa. The original data sets for the Dormer, Ile de France and Merino Landsheep consisted of the following number of records respectively: 52 202, 35 553 and 7 772. However, pre-weaning weights were available for the Ile de France and Merino Landsheep breeds only and post-weaning weights were available only for the Dormer breed. The data sets were complicated to such an extent that smaller data sets had to be generated to analyse for fixed effects. The traits that were analysed were birth weight, pre-weaning weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight. The fixed effects, identified as having a significant effect (P < 0.01) on early growth traits were sex of lamb, birth type, age of dam, contemporary groups, age at which the trait was recorded and month of birth and year of birth in the Merino Landsheep breed. Although some significant interactions were found, they were subsequently ignored owing to their very small effects. In all three breeds, male lambs were significantly (P < 0.001) heavier than female lambs and single-borne lambs were significantly heavier at birth than multiple borne lambs. The age of dam had a significant curvilinear regression on all early growth traits in all three terminal sire sheep breeds. It was concluded from the study that the influence of non-genetic factors on early growth traits should be adjusted for or eliminated statistically in genetic evaluations to get accurate genetic parameter estimations. (Co)variance estimates for birth weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight were obtained for the Dormer breed using restricted maximum likelihood procedures (REML). Direct heritabilities (h2) in single-trait analyses were 0.21 ± 0.03, 0.23 ± 0.02 and 0.29 ± 0.05 for birth weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight, respectively. Direct heritabilities of 0.28 ± 0.04, 0.55 ± 0.06 and 0.32 ± 0.02 for birth weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight respectively were obtained using three-trait analysis. Direct maternal genetic effects (m2) were excluded from the analyses because of the failure to partition maternal effects into maternal genetic and maternal permanent environmental effects (m2 and c2). This culminated as a consequence of poor data and population structures emanating from the loss of genetic links across flocks due to the random entrance and exit of flocks from the recording scheme. Maternal permanent environment was estimated at 0.15 ± 0.02, 0.13 ± 0.02 and 0.20 ± 0.03 for birth weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight respectively using single-trait analysis. The correlation between direct effects and maternal effects (ram) was excluded from the analyses due the structure of the data. Genetic, phenotypic and environmental correlations between early growth traits were low to moderate. The medium to high heritability estimates for early growth traits obtained in the study led to the conclusion that Dormer sheep can successfully be used in terminal crossbreeding programs to improve meat production characteristics. Direct heritability estimates were 0.31 ± 0.14, 0.09 ± 0.02 and 0.14 ± 0.003 for birth weight, pre-weaning weight and weaning weight respectively using single-trait analysis for the Ile de France breed. Maternal effects were significant for all the traits studied despite the failure to properly partition them into their components due to the loss of genetic linkages across generations emanating from poor data structure. Genetic, phenotypic and environmental correlations were estimated using three-trait analysis and were found to be low to moderate for early growth traits. Direct genetic and maternal permanent environmental ratios were also computed and they did not differ much from the results obtained using single-trait analyses. The reasonable genetic parameter estimates obtained in the study led to the conclusion that the Ile de France can be selected to use as sires in crossbreeding programs. Genetic parameters were estimated for early growth traits in the Merino Landsheep breed. REML estimates of birth weight, pre-weaning weight and weaning weight were obtained using animal models in single-trait analyses. The direct heritability estimate for birth weight was 0.23 ± 0.13 using an animal model with additive direct genetic effects and dam permanent environmental effects as the only random factors. The dam permanent environmental effect for birth weight amounted to 0.10 ± 0.07. Direct heritability for pre-weaning weight was 0.36 ± 0.05 and the dam permanent environmental effect 0.56 ± 0.03. Weaning weight was estimated using an animal model that contained direct additive effects and dam permanent environmental effects. The direct heritability estimate for weaning weight was 0.17 ± 0.03. Maternal genetic effects were estimated to be 0.02 ± 0.01. Genetic and phenotypic trends were constructed for early growth traits in the Dormer, Ile de France and Merino Landsheep breeds. The traits that were considered were birth weight, pre-weaning weight, weaning weight and post-weaning weight. However, pre-weaning weights were available for the Ile de France and Merino Landsheep breeds only and post-weaning weights were available only for the Dormer breed. The Dormer exhibited significant improvement in the phenotypic and genetic aspects of early growth traits during the 17 years of evaluation (1990-2007). The average predicted direct breeding values of birth weight decreased by 0.055 % during the evaluation period. The predicted direct breeding value for weaning weight increased by 0.12 % during the 17 year period. Post-weaning weight improved by 0.32 % per annum. The Ile de France registered an increase in the predicted breeding value of birth weight which amounted to 0.025 % per annum. Averaged direct breeding values for pre-weaning weight increased at an annual rate of 0.23 %. and that of weaning weight increased by 1.21 %. In the Merino Landsheep the predicted direct breeding value for birth weights decreased by 0.04 % per annum and pre-weaning and weaning weights increased by 0.36 % and 0.10 % respectively. The trends were obviously biased due to inconsistencies in data structure and very few records available for analysis in this breed. In conclusion, it was evident that the additive genetic variation was available for all the early growth traits in all the three breeds. Although adequate genetic variation for substantial genetic progress was available, only modest rates of progress were attained for all the traits in all three breeds. The only possible exception was weaning weight in the Ile de France breed, which improved at > 1 % per annum. At least all changes were in the desired direction. Breeders should be encouraged to record data consistently, as one of the major shortcomings in the data for all breeds were a lack of continuity in the submission of data to the NSIS. More informative analyses ought to be feasible if this requisite could be met.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wisselende en algemene afname in die prysverhouding van wol tot vleis het merkbare veranderinge in die Suid-Afrikaanse skaapbedryf teweeggebring. Kommersïele produsente maak nou gebruik van ander metodes soos terminale kruisteling van Merino-tipe ooie met vleis tipe vaars of dubbel-doel rasse om korttermynvoordele uit die wisselende wol en vleis pryse te behaal, sonder om die wol-produksie potensiaal van die ooi-kudde te benadeel. Die meeste van die lamproduksie eienskappe het ‘n lae oorerflikheid. Nietemin, kan heterose wel behaal word deur die kruisteling van wol-tipe rasse met spesialis vleisramme. Genetiese verbetering van vee is afhanklik van die beskrywing van die teeltdoelwitte, die akkurate beraming van genetiese parameters en die noukeurige identifikasie van die geskikste diere vir toekomstige teling. Genetiese parameters vir ekonomies belangrike eienskappe van terminale ramrasse wat gebruik kan word op Merino-tipe ooie in die kommersiële skaapbedryf in Suid-Afrika is nog nie gepubliseer vir die nasionale kudde nie, behalwe vir ‘n voorlopige studie wat gedoen is deur Olivier et al. (2004). Seleksiedoelwitte is nie duidelik beskryf nie a.g.v ‘n tekort aan akkurate parameterberamings vir (ko)variansie komponente. Hierdie studie het dus stamboominligting en lewende gewig data verkry vanaf die Nasionele Kleinveeverbeteringsskema vir die Dormer-, Ile de France- en die Merino landskaaprasse en nie-genetiese faktore sowel genetiese parameters vir vroeë lamgewigte beraam. Genetiese en fenotipiese tendense vir vroeë lamgewigte is vervolgens opgestel vir drie rasse om genetiese vordering te evalueer. Die oorspronklike datastelle vir die Dormer, Ile de France en die Merino Landskaap het uit die volgende aantal rekords bestaan, onderskeidelik: 52 202, 35 553 en 7 772. Voor-speen gewigte was net beskikbaar vir die Ile de France- en die Merino Landskaaprasse, en na-speen gewigte was net beskikbaar vir die Dormerras. Die beperkings in die datastelle het genoodsaak dat dat kleiner datastelle ontwikkel moes word om die vaste effekte te analiseer. Die eienskappe wat ge-analiseer was, was geboortegewig, voor-speengewig, speengewig en naspeengewig. Die vaste effekte wat vroeë lamgewigte betekenisvol (P < 0.01) beïnvloed het, was geslag van die lam, geboortestatus, ouderdom van die ooi, kontemporêre groep, die ouderdom waarop die eienskap aangeteken is en (in sommige gevalle) die maand en jaar van geboorte. Alhoewel daar sommige betekenisvolle interaksies was, is dit nie in die finale modelle ingesluit nie, omdat dit min tot die verklaarde variasie bygedra het. In al die rasse het ramlammers swaarder (P < 0.001) geweeg as ooilammers. Enkelinge was ook swaarder (P<0.001) as meerlinge. Die ouderdom van die moer van die lam het ‘n beduidende kromlynige invloed op alle vroeë lamgewigte by al drie terminale ramrasse gehad. Die gevolgtrekking van hierdie studie is dat die invloed van nie-genetiese faktore op vroeë lamgewigte in ag geneem moet word, of dat dit moet statisies elimineer word in die genetiese evaluasie om akkurate genetiese beramings te verkry. (Ko)variansie beramings vir geboortegewig, speengewig en na-speengewig is deur gebruik te maak van die “restricted maximum likelihood procedures” (REML) vir die Dormerras verkry. Die direkte oorerflikheid (h2) wat verkry was deur die mees geskikste diere model in ‘n enkel-eienskap analise te gebruik was onderskeidelik 0.21 ±0.02, 0.23 ±0.02 en 0.29± 0.05 vir geboortegewig, speengewig en na-speengewig. Direkte ooreenstemende oorerflikheid wat uit die drie-eienskap analise was 0.28±0.04, 0.55±0.06 en 0.32±0.02 onderskeidelik vir geboortegewig, speengewig en na-speengewig. Direkte maternale genetiese effekte (m2) is uitgesluit vanaf die analise weens die onvermoë om die maternale effekte te verdeel in maternale genetiese effekte en maternale permanente omgewings effekte (m2 en c2). Dit was a.g.v onvolledige data en populasiestrukture wat gelei het tot die gebrek in genetiese bande oor kuddes, wat ontstaan het weens kuddes wat slegs tydelik data tot die skema bygedra het. Maternale permanente omgewingeffekte is geskat op onderskeidelik 0.15±0.02, 0.13±0.02 en 0.20±0.03 vir geboortegewig, speengewig en na-speengewig met die gebruik van die enkel-eienskap analise. Die korrelasie tussen direkte effekte en maternale effekte (ram) is uitgesluit a.g.v die gebrekkige struktuur van die data. Genetiese-, fenotipiese- en omgewingskorrelasies tussen die vroeë lamgewigte was laag tot matig. Die matige tot hoë oorerflikheidberamings vir vroeë lamgewigte uit hierdie studie het gelei tot die gevolgtrekking dat Dormer skape suksesvol gebruik kan word in terminale kruisteel programme om vleisproduksie te verbeter. Direkte oorerflikheid skattings was 0.31±0.14, 0.09±0.02 en 0.14±0.003 vir die geboorte gewig, voor-speen gewig en speen gewig onderskeidelik met die gebruik van ‘n enkel-faktor analise vir dir Ile de France skaap ras. Maternale effekte was beduidend vir al die eienskappe wat bestudeer was , ten spyte van die onvermoë om dit behoorlik te verdeel in hul komponente weens die verlies van genetiese bande dwarsoor die generasies wat uitvloei vanaf ‘n swak data struktuur. Genetiese, fenotipiese en omgewings korrelasies was geskat deur gebruik te maak van ‘n drie-faktor analise en was gevind om laag tot matig te wees vir die vroeë groei eienskappe. Direkte genetiese en maternale permanente omgewings ratios was bereken en dit het nie veel verskil van die resultate verkry deur die enkel-faktor analise. Die aanvaarbare genetiese parameter skattings verkry in hierdie studie het gelei tot die gevolgtrekking dat die Ile de France geselekteer kan word as teelramme in kruisteel programme. Genetiese parameters was geskat vir vroeë groei eienskappe in die Merino Landskaa ras. REML skattings van geboorte gewig, voor-speen gewig en speen gewig was verkry deur diere modelle in enkel-faktor analises. Die direkte oorerflikheid skatting vir geboorte gewig was 0.23±0.13 met die gebruik van die diere model met additiewe direkte genetiese effekte en ooi permanente omgewings faktore as die enigste ewekansige faktore. Die ooi permanente omewings effek vir geboorte gewig was 0.10±0.07. Direkte oorerflikheid vir voor-speen gewig was 0.36±0.05 en die ooi permanente omgewings effek 0.56±0.03. Speen gewig was geskat deur die gebruik van ‘n diere model wat die direkte additiewe effekte en die ooi permanente omgewings effekte bevat het. Die direkte oorerflikheids skatting vir speen gewig was 0.17±0.03. Maternale genetiese effekte was geskat as 0.02±0.01. Genetiese en fenotipiese tendense is verkry vir vroeë lamgewigte in die Dormer-, Ile de France- en Merino Landskaaprasse. Die eienskappe wat oorweeg is, was geboortegewig, voor-speengewig, speengewig en naspeengewig. Voor-speengewigte was net beskikbaar was vir die Ile de France- en die Merino Landskaap rasse en die na-speense gewigte net vir die Dormerras. Die Dormer het beduidende verbetering vertoon in die fenotipiese en genetiese aspekte vir vroeë lamgewigte gedurende die 17 jaar van evaluasie (1990-2007). Die gemiddelde voorspelde direkte teeltwaarde van speen gewig het met 0.12% per jaar gestyg gedurende die 17- jaar periode. Na-speen gewig het met 0.32% per jaar verbeter. By die Ile de France het ‘n toename in die voorspelde teelwaarde van geboortegewig (0.025% per jaar) voorgekom. Gemiddelde direkte teelwaardes vir voor-speengewig het toegeneem teen ‘n jaarlikse tempo van 0.23% en speengewig het met 1.21% per jaar toegeneem. In die Merino Landskaapras het die voorspelde direkte teelwaarde vir geboortegewig met 0.04% per jaar gedaal, terwyl voor-speen- en speengewigte met 0.36% en 0.10% onderskeidelik toegeneem het. Die tendense was ooglopend gekompromiteer weens probleme met die data struktuur, en a.g.v van die relatief min rekords wat beskikbaar was vir die analise in die ras. Dit was duidelik dat die additiewe genetiese variasie beskikbaar was vir al die vroeë groei eienskappe in al die drie rasse. Alhoewel voldoende genetiese variasie vir wesentlike genetiese vordering beskikbaar was, is daar slegs matige vordering verkry vir al die eienskappe in al drie rasse. Die enigste moontlike uitsondering was speengewig in die Ile de France ras, wat met 1.21 % per jaar gestyg het. Alle veranderinge was minstens in die gewensde rigting. Telers word versoek om data deurlopend en akkuraat aan te teken , aangesien een van die groot tekortkominge met die data van al die rasse ‘n tekort aan deurlopendheid in die indiening van die data aan die NISS was. ‘n Meer verteenwoordigende analise sal uitvoerbaar wees, as daar aan al die bogenoemde aanbeveling voldoen kan word.

The animal healthcare practices of most communal farmers involve the use of both conventional and ethnoveterinary medicines. This study presents information on the animal healthcare practices of stock farmers in Hertzog, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It also presents the findings on the social, economic and political aspects surrounding animal healthcare. The research applied two theories namely structuration theory and the Context, Practice and Belief (CPB) framework. Interviews and participant observation were used to collect data. The communal farmers widely used conventional medicines however, proper administration methods were not followed. Ethnoveterinary medicines were used to prevent and treat disease, even by the younger stock farmers. The stock farmers used ethnoveterinary medicines mainly because of the lack of finance to purchase the conventional medicines, even though the latter was preferred. The stock farmers actively participated in state programmes but felt that they needed more state veterinarian visits and state provided medications because they could not afford private veterinarians and conventional medicines. Therefore, this study attempts to contribute to an understanding of the use of ethnoveterinary medicine and communal farmers’ animal healthcare practices.

Effects of pre-slaughter sheep handling and animal-related factors on Creatine Kinase levels and physico-chemical attributes of mutton By Chulayo Amanda Yucca The objective of the study was to determine the effects of pre-slaughter sheep handling and animal-related factors on Creatine kinase (CK) levels and physico-chemical characteristics of mutton from South African sheep breeds. One hundred and seventy-three castrated male sheep from four breeds (15 Dormer, 46 South African Mutton Merino, 77 Dorper and 35 Blackhead Persian) were used. The animals were grouped according to age categories. The grouping was as follows: Group 1 (6 ≤ 8 months), Group 2 (9 ≤ 12 months) and Group 3 (13 ≤ 16 months). Blood samples for CK determination were collected at exanguination using disposable vacutainer tubes. Representative samples of the Muscularis longissimuss thoracis et. lumborum (LTL) muscle were taken for the determination of ultimate pH (pHu), colour (L*-lightness, b*- redness and a*- yellowness), thawing and cooking losses and meat tenderness. Significant (P<0.01) breed effects were observed on CK levels with Dormer having the highest CK values. Significant linear relationships were observed between pre-slaughter condition and CK levels. There were positive correlations between colour coordinates L* and b* (r =+0.22) and between a* and b* (r =+0.63). Cooking loss and Warner Braztler Shear Force (WBSF) values were positively correlated (r =+0.29). The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed a significant variance for CK and between physico-chemical characteristics of mutton. There were no relationships between CK levels and physico-chemical characteristics of mutton. Significant breed and age effects on pHu, L, a*, b*, thaw %, CL and WBSF of mutton were observed. iv It was concluded that, pre-slaughter conditions affect CK levels and physico-chemical characteristics of mutton. However, there were no relationships between CK levels and physico-chemical characteristics of mutton.

Thesis (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the present study, the systematic status, aspects of the evolutionary biology and phylogenetic relationships among species of the African freshwater crab genus Potamonautes in South Africa are examined. Systematic research between allopatric populations of P. brincki, using allozyme and morphometric data has revealed the existence of a new undescribed freshwater crab species occurring in mountain streams of the Cape Peninsula. This species is described in the present study. In addition, the diagnostic value of carapace dentition patterns in the taxonomy of freshwater crabs is explored among two toothed river crab species from South Africa. The latter study utilized P. warreni and P. unispinus where considerable variation in the dentition pattern of the former species has been recorded. Fixed differences in allozyme loci demonstrated that these two taxa should indeed be considered separate, yet closely related species, while the morphometric data failed to reveal this taxonomic separation. The holotype of P. warreni is re-described. The relationship of hybrid taxa between P. depressus and P. clarus populations are investigated. Evident from this study is that populations that occur equidistant from the two parental taxa have undergone extensive introgressive hybridization. Considering the pronounced sequence divergence and the occurrence of fixed allozyme loci between populations, it is postulated that the hybrid populations should be considered to be on a unique evolutionary trajectory worthy of conservation. The population genetic structure of P. calcaratus is examined as this species is unique in its occupation of water holes. Results demonstrate that the genetic population structure is the result of recent colonization and moderate gene flow among populations. Phylogenetic relationships between the southern African freshwater crab fauna is investigated with the use of sequence data from two mitochondial genes (12 S rRNA and 16 S rRNA), allozymes and morphology in an attempt to firstly, test the usefulness of freshwater crabs as biogeographic indicators, secondly to explore the relationship among hybrid taxa, and thirdly to examine Bott's (1955) subgeneric divisions. Results demonstrated that freshwater crabs can be used as biogeographic indicators, that hybrid taxa are phylogenetic ally closely related and that Bott's subgeneric divisions have no systematic basis. Among the three data sets, the sequence data provided the best resolution, while the phylogenetic inferences derived from the allozyme data and the morphology was limited.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word die sistematiek, aspekte van die evolusionêre biologie en filogenetiese verwantskappe tussen spesies van die varswater krap genus Potamonautes ondersoek in Suid Afrika. Navorsing op geografies geisoleerde populasies van P. brincki word met behulp van allosieme en morfometriese data ondersoek en dui daarop dat daar 'n nuwe onbeskryfde spesie op die berge van die Kaapse Skiereiland voorkom. Die nuwe spesies word beskryf in hierdie studie. Die diagnostiese waarde van tand patrone in varswater krappe word tussen twee spesies P. warreni en P. unispinus ondersoek. Genetiese data dui daarop dat alhoewel P. warreni morfologies baie naverwant is aan P. unispin us, is genoegsame verskille in allosiem lokusse wat daarop dui dat die twee taksa volwaardige spesies is. Die holotipe van P. warreni word herbeskryf. Die verwantkap tussen populasies van twee hibried taksa, P. depressus en P. clarus, word ondersoek. Resultate van hierdie studie dui daarop dat noemenswaardige verskille voorkom tussen die twee hibridie taxa en dat die hibriede populasies geneties verskillend is. 'n Argument word aangevoer vir die beskerming van hibriede taksa. Die populasie genetika van P. calcaratus word ondersoek en vergelyk met vorige studies. Die data dui daarop dat minimale geen vloei tusses populasies is en dat die populasie struktuur waarskynlik die resultaat is van onlangse kolonisasie. Die filogenetiese verwantskap tussen die suider Afrikaanse krappe word ondersoek met DNA, allosieme en morfologiese karakters met drie hoofdoele. Eerstens om die gebruik van varswater krappe as biografiese indikatore te toets. Tweedens om die verwantskap van hibriede taksa te ondersoek, en derdens om die status van Bott (1955) se subgenera te bepaal. Resultate dui daarop aan dat varswater krappe wel gebruik kan word as biografiese indikatore. Hibridieserende taxa naverwant is derdens en dat Bott se subgenera geen taksonomiese basis het nie. Die DNA data het die beste resolusie gebied vir die filogenetiese vrae, terwyl die allosieme en morfologiese data 'n laer resolusie bedied het, en meer beperk was.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of the frequency of supplementary feeding on the production of South African Mutton Merino (SAMM) ewes grazing wheat stubble. One hundred and sixty ewes were randomly divided into two groups that consisted of four groups each. Eight camps were grazed for 138 days during which lambing occurred. Four groups of 25 ewes each grazed a 17 ha camp at a stocking density of 5.8 ewes/ha and four groups of 15 ewes each grazed a 12 ha camp at a stocking density of 5.0 ewes/ha. A combination energy/protein supplement was made available to the ewes as a lick. Two of the groups received no supplementary feed (control), two groups received 200 g/ewe/day, two groups received 400 g/ewe every second day and two groups received 600 g/ewe every third day. The smallest decrease in weight during the feeding period was observed in the ewe group that received supplementation every day as well as the ewe group that received supplementation every second day, but no significant differences were observed between these two groups. The smallest decrease in weight over the total feeding period was observed in the three ewe groups that received supplementation (P < 0.1), while the ewes that received none (control groups) lost the most weight during the same period. All supplemented groups performed significantly better than the unsupplemented control group in terms of the liveweight change over the feeding as well as the total period. No significant differences occurred in the lambing percentage, weaning percentage, birthweight, 42-day weight and survival rate of the lambs due to the different feeding regimes. It was concluded that supplementation to ewes every third day or every second day is an economically feasible option and will reduce labour and transport costs. In the second study the effect of stocking density on canola stubble composition and subsequently the production of SAMM ewes on this type of stubble was investigated. Forty-eight ewes were randomly divided into four groups that grazed canola stubble at a stocking density of approximately 1.5, 3.5, 5.5 and 7.5 ewes/ha for 152 days. The ewes did not receive any supplementation and were weighed every 14 days. Parturition occurred during the last week in March 1997 until the first week in May 1997, and the lambs were weighed at birth, and every 14 days thereafter. Stubble samples were collected from the paddocks during the first part of the trial (January and February) and at the end of the trial (April and May) by cutting ten replicate quadrates per paddock and were analysed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and in vitro digestibility of organic matter (IVDOM). The live weight of the ewes at a stocking density of 5.5 ewes/ha decreased significantly, while the ewes at a stocking density of 1.5 ewes/ha gained weight. The ewes at a stocking density of 3.5 ewes/ha had the lowest weight loss (P = 0.01). Stocking density did not affect the birthweight of the lambs significantly. The CP concentration of the stubble decreased with an increase in stocking density, while the ADF and NDF concentration of samples were significantly higher at the higher stocking density. In the third study the supplementation of rumen inert fat or starch on the production of ewes grazing wheat stubble, was investigated. Fifty-six SAMM ewes were randomly divided into four groups of 14 ewes each, grazing the wheat stubble at a stocking density of 4.6 ewes/ha. Each group was supplemented with 250 gJewe daily for the last six weeks of pregnancy, which was increased to 360 gJewe during the first four weeks of lactation. Supplementation was supplied on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays for a 70-day period. The CP concentration of the supplement varied between 16.7 % and 19.6 %, while the total digestible nutrient (TDN) content varied between 52.0 % and 76.7 %. No significant difference (P > 0.05) occurred between the live weights of ewes during the last six weeks of pregnancy, the first four weeks of lactation, or the total feeding period. The ewes in the 50 % fat plus 50 % maizemeal group lost less weight (P :s; 0.08) during lactation than the ewes that received maizemeal as their main energy source. The study indicated that there was no significant advantage in the live weight change of the ewes during the experimental period, when compared to the group that received wheat bran (control group). In the fourth study the economic advantage of supplementation to SAMM ewes grazing wheat- or oat stubble were studied. Three hundred and sixteen ewes were divided into four flocks, of which two grazed oat stubble and two wheat stubble. Each of these four flocks was again subdivided into four subdivisions of which two subdivisions received supplementation and two none. Four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 83 days, and the other four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 44 days after which it was increased to 300 g/d for 37 days (81 days in total). The ewes were weighed monthly. The final bodyweight of the ewes that received supplementation was significantly higher than those that received none. Over the feeding period, the ewes that received supplementation had a significant lower weight loss in comparison to the ewes that did not receive supplementation. The 42-day weight of the lambs improved significantly due to supplementation, but no significant increase was indicated in the birthweight, weaning weight and survival rate of the lambs whose mothers received supplementation. In the fifth study the influence of supplementary feeding to ewes and creep feeding of their lambs on the production of both the ewes and lambs were studied. One hundred and sixty eight ewes were divided into two groups of 68 and 100 ewes that grazed a 12.9 and 18 ha camp respectively. Each of these ewe groups was subdivided into four groups of which two ewe groups received supplementation and two none. Within each ewe group two groups of lambs received creep feeding and two received none. A two (supplementation of ewes) by two (creep feeding of lambs) factorial design was used. Supplementation was supplied at 200 g/d for the first 69 days and 300 g/d for the next 120 days to ewes. Lambs received an average ofO.58 kg creep feed per day for 96 days. It was concluded that the live weight change (LWC) of the ewes during the experimental period was not affected significantly by creep feeding of their lambs. Ewes that received supplementation maintained higher live weights than their counterparts for most of the feeding period, although final weights at the end of the experimental period did not differ significantly. The average daily gain (ADG) of the lambs whose mothers received supplementation tended to be higher than that of mothers that received no supplementation, while the ADG of the lambs that received creep feeding was significantly higher than the lambs that received none. In the sixth study the carry-over effect of supplementation in the previous year on the production of the ewes in the following year was studied. Three hundred and sixteen ewes were divided into four flocks, of which two grazed oat stubble and two wheat stubble. Each of these four flocks was again subdivided into four subdivisions of which two subdivisions received supplementation and two none. Four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 83 days, and the other four subdivisions received 200 g/d for 44 days after which it was increased to 300 g/d for 37 days (81 days in total). The ewes were weighed monthly. Results indicated that birth status (lambs born per ewes mated) of lambs showed a tendency to increase in 1999 due to supplementation in 1998, while weaning status was not significantly affected. Due to multiple births in the supplemented groups, the birthweight and weaning weight of lambs was negatively affected by supplementation. The study concluded that supplementary feeding in the previous year did not have significant carry-over effects in the following year. However, the effect may have been influenced by the fact that mature animals were used in the study, while the pasture availability during the non-productive stage will also affect possible carry-over effects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Eksperiment is uitgevoer om te bepaal wat die invloed van die frekwensie van byvoeding op die produksie van Suid-Afrikaanse Vleismerino (SAVM) ooie wat koringstoppel bewei, sal wees. Eenhonderd-en-sestig ooie is ewekansig in twee groepe verdeel wat bestaan het uit vier groepe elk. Die agt kampe is vir 138 dae bewei waartydens die ooie ook gelam het. Vier groepe bestaande uit 25 ooie het 'n 17 ha kamp teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.8 ooie/ha bewei en die ander vier groepe bestaande uit 15 ooie het 'n 12 ha kamp teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.0 ooie/ha bewei. 'n Kombinasie energie/proteïen aanvulling in die vorm van 'n lek is aan die ooie beskikbaar gestel. Twee van die groepe het geen aanvullende voeding ontvang nie (kontrole), twee groepe het 200 g/dag/ooi ontvang, twee groepe het 400 glooi elke tweede dag ontvang en twee groepe het 600 glooi elke derde dag ontvang. Die kleinste daling in liggaamsgewig tydens die voerperiode is waargeneem in die ooie wat elke dag sowel as elke tweede dag byvoeding ontvang het, alhoewel geen betekenisvolle verskille tussen dié twee groepe waargeneem is nie. Die kleinste daling in gewig tydens die totale voerperiode is waargeneem in die drie groepe wat byvoeding ontvang het (P < 0.1) terwyl die groepe wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie (kontrole) die meeste gewig tydens dieselfde periode verloor het. Al die groepe wat byvoeding ontvang het, se liggaamsmassa verandering oor die voerperiode asook die totale periode was betekenisvol beter as die kontrole groep Geen betekenisvolle verskille is gevind by lampersentasie, speenpersentasie, geboortegewig, 42-dae gewig en oorlewing van lammers nie. Daar is bevind dat die byvoeding aan ooie elke derde of elke tweede dag ekonomies geregverdig is en 'n moontlike afname in arbeid- en vervoerkostes mag meebring. In die tweede studie is die invloed van weidigtheid op die samestelling van kanolastoppel en die produksie van SAVM-ooie op hierdie tipe stoppelondersoek. Agt-en-veertig ooie is ewekansig in vier groepe verdeel en het kanolastoppel teen 'n weidigtheid van ongeveer 1.5, 3.5, 5.5 en 7.5 ooie/ha vir 152 dae bewei. Die ooie het geen byvoeding ontvang nie en is elke 14 dae geweeg. Die ooie het gelam vanaf die laaste week in Maart 1997 tot die eerste week in Mei 1997. Die lammers is met geboorte geweeg en daarna elke 14 dae. Stoppelmonsters van die kampe is versamel gedurende die eerste deel van die studie (Januarie en Februarie) asook aan die einde van die studie (April en Mei) deur tien kwadrate per kamp te sny en is daarna ontleed vir droë materiaal (DM), ruproteïen (RP), suur bestande vesel (SBV), neutraal bestande vesel (NBV) en in vitro verteerbaarheid van organiese materiaal (lVVOM). Die liggaamsgewig van die ooie teen 'n weidigtheid van 5.5 ooie/ha het betekenisvol afgeneem, terwyl die ooie teen die weidigtheid van 1.5 ooie/ha toegeneem het in massa. Die ooie teen 'n weidigtheid van 3.5 ooie/ha het die kleinste gewigsverlies getoon (P = 0.01). Die geboortegewig van die lammers is nie betekenisvol deur weidigtheid beïnvloed nie. Die RP-konsentrasie van die stoppel het afgeneem met 'n toename in weidigtheid, terwyl die SBV en NBV -konsentrasie van die monsters betekenisvol hoër was by die hoër weidigtheid. In die derde studie is die byvoeding van rumen inerte vet of stysel aan ome wat koringstoppel bewei ondersoek. Ses-en-vyftig SAVM ooie is ewekansig in vier groepe van 14 elk verdeel en het koringstoppel teen 'n weidigtheid van 4.6 ooielha bewei. Elke groep het daagliks byvoeding teen 250 glooi tydens die laaste ses weke van dragtigheid ontvang, waarna dit vermeerder is tot 360 glooi tydens die eerste vier weke van laktasie. Byvoeding is op Maandae, Woensdae en Vrydae vir 70 dae voorsien. Die RP-konsentrasie van die byvoeding het gevarieer tussen 16.7 % en 19.6 % terwyl die totale verteerbare voedingstof (TVV) konsentrasie gevarieer het tussen 52.0 % en 76.7 %. Daar was geen betekenisvolle verskille (P > 0.05) tussen die liggaamsmassa van die ooie gedurende die laaste ses weke van dragtigheid, die eerste vier weke van laktasie, of die totale voerperiode nie. Die ooie in die 50 % vet plus 50 % mieliemeel groep het minder gewig (P ~ 0.08) gedurende laktasie verloor as die ooie wat mieliemeel as hulle hoof energiebron ontvang het. Die studie het getoon dat daar geen betekenisvolle toename in die liggaamsgewig van die ooie tydens die eksperimentele periode was in vergelyking met die groep wat koringsemels (kontrole) ontvang het nie. In die vierde studie is die ekonomiese voordeel van byvoeding vir SAVM ooie wat koringof hawerstoppel bewei het ondersoek. Driehonderd-en-sestien ooie is in vier groepe verdeel,waarvan twee hawerstoppel en twee koringstoppel bewei het. Elk van hierdie vier groepe is herverdeel in vier subdivisies waarvan twee byvoeding ontvang het en twee geen. Vier subdivisies het 200 gld vir 83 dae ontvang, terwyl die ander vier subdivisies 200 gld vir 44 dae ontvang het, waarna dit verhoog is na 300 gld vir 37 dae ('n totaal van 81 dae). Die ooie is maandeliks geweeg. Die finale liggaamsgewig van die ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het betekenisvol hoër was as die ooie wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie. Tydens die voerperiode het die ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het 'n betekenisvolle laer gewigsverlies getoon in vergelyking met die ooie wat geen byvoeding ontvang het nie. Die 42-dae gewig van die lammers het ook betekenisvol toegeneem, maar geen verskil is waargeneem in die geboortegewig, speengewig en oorlewingstempo van lammers wie se moeders byvoeding ontvang het nie. In die vyfde studie is die invloed van byvoeding aan ooie en kruipvoeding aan hulle lammers op die produksie van beide die ooie en lammers bestudeer. Eenhonderd-agt-en-sestig ooie is onderskeidelik in twee groepe van 68 en 100 verdeel wat twee kampe van 12.9 en 18 ha respektiewelik bewei het. Elkeen van hierdie groepe is onderverdeel in vier groepe waarvan twee groepe byvoeding ontvang het en twee groepe geen. Binne elke ooi groep het twee groepe lammers kruipvoeding ontvang en twee geen. 'n Twee (byvoeding aan ooie) by twee (kruipvoeding aan lammers) faktoriaal ontwerp is gebruik. Byvoeding aan die ooie is verskaf teen 200 gld vir die eerste 69 dae en 300 gld vir die volgende 120 dae. Lammers het 0.58 kg kruipvoer per dag vir 96 dae ontvang. Daar is bepaal dat die liggaamsgewig-verandering van die ooie gedurende die eksperimentele periode nie betekenisvol beïnvloed is deur kruipvoeding van die lammers nie. Ooie wat byvoeding ontvang het het 'n hoer liggaamsgewig vir die grootste deel van die voerperiode gehandhaaf, alhoewel die finale gewigte aan die einde van die eksperimentele periode nie betekenisvol verskil het nie. Die gemiddelde daaglikse toename (GDT) van die lammers wie se moeders byvoeding ontvang het, het geneig om hoër te wees as die lammers wie se moeders geen byvoeding ontvang het nie, terwyl die GDT van die lammers wat kruipvoeding ontvang het was betekenisvol hoër as die lammers wat geen kruipvoeding ontvang het nie. In die sesde studie is die oordrageffek van byvoeding in die vorige jaar op ooie se produksie in die opvolgende jaar ondersoek. Driehonderd-en-sestien ooie is in vier groepe verdeel,waarvan twee hawerstoppel en twee koringstoppel bewei het. Elk van hierdie vier groepe is herverdeel in vier subdivisies waarvan twee byvoeding ontvang het en twee geen. Vier subdivisies het 200 gld vir 83 dae ontvang, terwyl die ander vier subdivisies 200 gld vir 44 dae ontvang het, waarna dit verhoog is na 300 gld vir 37 dae ('n totaal van 81 dae). Die ooie is maandeliks geweeg. Resultate het aangedui dat die geboortestatus (lammers gebore/ ooie gepaar) van lammers 'n tendens getoon het om toe te neem in 1999 as gevolg van byvoeding in 1998, terwyl speenstatus nie betekenisvol beïnvloed is nie. Byvoeding in 1998 het die geboortegewig en speengewig van lammers verlaag omdat dit 'n groter aantal meerlinggeboortes veroorsaak het. Die studie het bevind dat byvoeding in die vorige jaar nie 'n betekenisvolle oordrageffek in die volgende jaar teweeg gebring het nie. Die resultate mag egter beïnvloed gewees het deurdat volwasse diere in die studie gebruik is, terwyl die beskikbaarheid van weiding tydens die stadium wanneer die ooie nie gereproduseer het nie ook die moontlike oordrageffek kon beïnvloed het.

This dissertation assesses the impact of animal traction on rural household food security. Since rural communities do not have sufficient agricultural capital to purchase improved agricultural technologies for better crop production, and often lack knowledge and skills to apply improved technologies low-cost alternatives must be sought. For these reasons, animal traction has been seen by researchers as an affordable, easy-to-use, sustainable and appropriate operation for crops production in rural areas. Animal traction has been long used and it continues to be used in rural areas to improve food insecurities. But the system confronts a number of constraints that impede the development of its full potential and these should be addressed in order to reap the full benefits of agricultural restructuring in the rural areas. A study was carried out in Damane rural village under Ntsika Yethu Municipality in the Eastern Cape where animal traction is very popular. A total of 80 small-scale farmers were interviewed by means of structured questionnaires to collect data from adopters and non-adopters of animal traction. A wide range of analytical techniques were employed to assess the impact of animal traction on household food production. Descriptive statistics was employed for analyses of demographic, agricultural production process of the surveyed households and challenges encountered by households. Multiple Linear Regression was applied to determine the factors affecting animal traction use and the extent to which they contribute to gross farm production. The results of the multiple linear regressions showed that animal traction played a significant role in the total output of all the crops produced last season. The results of the t- tests showed that animal traction was the most effective technology compared to the simple hand-tools such as fork, fork spade and hoes. The binary logistic regression was employed to test the probability that resource poor households would adopt animal traction technology. It is therefore recommended that government should support animal traction users by providing all the necessary resources for development of animal in rural South Africa.

The current legal framework pertaining to animals does not sufficiently address the welfare of animals. The Animal Protection Act 71 of 1962 does not specifically regulate the welfare of animals contained in research laboratories. Animals utilized for experimental research purposes endure tremendous “unnecessary suffering” due to legislative inaptitude. Experimental animals suffer inherent abuses associated with experimental research because of the methods, procedures and processes relevant to the experiments. The most controversial method of experimental research is vivisection. The method of vivisection is not only invasive but also causes “unnecessary suffering” to animals. The non-inherent abuses animals suffer during confinement in a laboratory solely relates to uncontrolled and unregulated conduct of staff. Continuing the application of the current legislative framework may also be detrimental to the health and well-being of humans. Animals are specifically utilized as objects of science in research laboratories. The data obtained from research experiments conducted on animals are for the benefit of humankind rather than the animals. Scientific research concluded that not only are invasive methods of research conducted on live animals generally regarded as useless but extrapolating data from animals to humans can also be misleading, unnecessary and dangerous. False results and questionable methodologies are some of the other problems that seem to require urgent attention. Ethically, neither human nor animal should be utilized at the expense of the other and therefore it would be reasonable to recommend that legislative reform takes place. The human perception of animals in terms of the relationship we have with them is the reason why legislative inaptitude in terms of animal welfare exists. The current approach followed is the philosophy of Utilitarianism. Utilitarians believe that neither humans nor animals have rights but interests. Utilitarianism focuses on the permissibility of an act (the use of animals) by weighing the benefits of such an act to the costs suffered because of such act. If the benefits outweigh the costs suffered, the act is permissible. The application of Utilitarianism seems to be the crux of our legislative inaptitude. The human perception and view of animals must therefore be re-directed to develop a sufficient legal framework in terms of animal welfare. A solution offered is to apply an alternative interpretation to the concept of “dignity” (capabilities approach) and progressive realisation. In terms of this solution a species capabilities in terms of its value, capabilities and worth are considered. Inherent to its value, capabilities and worth, is its “dignity”. Once the alternative interpretation of “dignity” is acknowledged, the progressive realisation of its interests can be achieved.
Thesis (LLM)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Broad base black economic empowerment redresses historical and social inequalities in a manner that does not have a negative impact on existing enterprises. Transforming existing agribusinesses create opportunities for black businessmen to contribute to the economy of the country. The Balanced Feed Manufacturers Association was established in 1945 when the need for better structuring in the industry and a mouthpiece for the feed industry to liaise with inter alia the government, was identified. The Association was closely involved in various aspects of the feed industry. The animal feed industry forms part of the agricultural sector which has a set of rules to ensure Black Economic Empowerment in the industry. The AgriBEE Framework was established in July 2004. This draft AgriBEE framework therefore, is intended to assist all existing and potential future stakeholders and partners in the Agricultural Sector to engage in a meaningful dialogue and course of action. This will, in the shortest time possible, enables the erasing of the negative effects of our history of a dual sector and achieve outputs that can contribute to the higher society ideal of a better life for all. It also intends to assist black citizens who may have lost hope of ever participating in the agricultural sector as a consequence of alienation with a comprehensive framework for approaching new opportunities that now exist (Department of Agriculture July 2004). AgriBEE is based on two core sets of interventions. The first is related to the use of various Government instruments to promote empowerment. The second is the establishment of partnerships with the private sector. AgriBEE is neither possible nor sustainable without effective partnership. Government's strategy for black empowerment equity looks beyond readdressing past inequalities and aims to position B-B BEE as a tool to broaden the country's economic base and accelerate growth, job creation and poverty eradication. This is achieved using a balanced approach that includes contributions and measures that readdress ownership, management, employment equity, skills development, preferential procurement, enterprise development and other residual elements of the B-B BEE scorecard. Thereupon it draws attention to the fact that South Africa's economy performs below its potential because of the low level of income earned and generated by the majority. No economy can grow by excluding any part of its people, and an economy that is not growing cannot integrate all of its citizens in a meaningful way. As such, this strategy stresses a B-B BEE process associated with growth, development and enterprise development and not merely the redistribution of existing wealth. B-B BEE is a specific government policy to advance economic transformation in order to enhance the economic participation of black people. There is a danger, recognized by the government, that B-B BEE will simply replace the old elite with a new black one, leaving fundamental inequalities intact. At the centre of transformation, is situated a B-B BEE strategy. It must seek to readdress the imbalances of the past by distributing ownership, management and control of the country's economic resources among the majority of citizens and to ensure broader and meaningful participation in the economy by black South Africans. The success of this endeavour is required to achieve sustainable development and prosperity for all.
Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are endangered; there are only ~5000 individuals remaining worldwide. Consequently, black rhinos are managed as a metapopulation in southern Africa. This means that even though several sub-populations of black rhinos are geographically separated, they are managed as a single population. This is achieved by interchanging genetic material between the sub-populations. The main aim of the metapopulation management approach is to increase black rhino numbers in the sub-region. The Rhino Management Group (RMG), formed in 1989, was tasked with setting scientifically defensible demographic targets for the remaining black rhino sub-populations in southern Africa. In the same year, the RMG set fecundity rate at 25% and stated that each black rhino sub-population should achieve a minimum growth rate of 5% per year. The black rhino population in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is of international importance as it has historically been a significant donor population for the translocation of black rhinos to establish new subpopulations elsewhere in the sub-region. However, the black rhino population at HiP is performing poorly in terms of reproductive success. My study was initiated to assess the reproductive life-histories of the black rhino population at HiP and to determine whether the population was meeting the demographic targets set by the RMG. I also wished to assess the use of space by black rhinos in HiP as a potential explanation for the observed reproductive output. Detailed life-history information for known black rhinos (n = 120) was used to investigate reproductive success between 1998 and 2012. The mean age at sexual maturity (ASM) was determined as 12 years, which is higher than the ASM found in black rhino populations that are considered to be performing poorly (ASM = ~ 7 years). The intercalving interval (ICI) was three years, nine months; this was also longer than the ICI of most black rhino populations. Further, the 2012 black rhino population at HiP had a growth rate of 6.4%, and the population comprised 60% adults, 23% sub-adults and 13% juveniles. Such demographics are usually observed in stable populations and it is possible that poor habitat quality could be resulting in the delayed ASM and longer ICI’s at HiP. In addition, 5% of the population is removed annually as part of the Black Rhino Range Expansion Program (BRREP) to establish new sub-populations. This could also be negatively influencing the reproductive performance of the HiP population. To determine the home range and habitat use of black rhinos at HiP, field data from 13 individual adult black rhinos (n = 9 females and 4 males) over a two-year period (2011-2012) were analyzed. Black rhino female home ranges were slightly smaller (15.4 ± 12.9 km²) than the home ranges of males (23.3 ±14.0 km²) and both sexes utilized similar habitats in the centre of the park. In addition, both the male and female black rhinos were found closer to rivers and drainage lines than expected. However, the assessment of black rhino space use in HiP was limited by a small sample size, making inferences of the impact of space use on reproductive success difficult. Nevertheless, my study suggests that food availability likely influences the location and sizes of black rhino home ranges at HiP. I believe that my study forms the first step in understanding the factors that influence the reproductive success and habitat use patterns of the current black rhino population at HiP. The information produced by my study should enable park management to identify future research to be conducted at HiP, which will yield more robust data for making informed black rhino management decisions at HiP and elsewhere.

Bibliography: pages 171-197.
Avian remains in coastal archaeological samples from Eland's Bay Cave, Die Kelders Cave 1 and Nelson Bay Cave in the Cape Province, South Africa, cover the periods between 80 000 and 40 000 B.P. and 18 000 and 300 B.P. Results of modern comparative surveys indicate that beached birds provide a predictable food supply. Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample nonparametric tests confirmed the close resemblance between the relative proportions of seabirds in archaeological and beached assemblages and earlier assumptions that the composition of seabird samples in archaeological sites could not otherwise have been achieved. It is shown that this simple but effective practice has a history going well into the Middle Stone Age. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for differences between the relative proportions of skeletal elements of Cape cormorants preserved in archaeological and modern jackal accumulations provided a useful means of drawing attention to possible activity of jackals and/or domesticated dogs. Recognition that diagenesis in some earlier samples may mimic the characteristics of modern jackal samples has established the need to extend the comparison of skeletal elements to additional species and to study the relative durability of avian skeletal elements. Similar comparison with the proportions of modern mammalian and avian predator prey species and size (mass) categories provided no indication that black or martial eagles might have contributed to the samples. Similarly, present knowledge of Cape eagle owls argues against their being likely inhabitants of caves suitable for occupation by people. It is concluded that people were the primary accumulators of the assemblages studied and that the role of small food items in prehistoric subsistence can be addressed with greater confidence. Correspondence analysis was used to determine the existence of seasonality in the modern beached seabird samples. The profiles of the archaeological samples are plotted in relation to months in which they were most likely to have been collected. Seasonal evidence from species not subjected to the correspondence analysis supported these results. The results obtained closely supported the hypothesis for seasonal exploitation of the coast. It was also possible to indicate that visits were probably of short duration and that their timing varied. Exploitation of seabirds did not coincide with the period of maximum availability of beached birds. Comparison of the avian evidence with that from seals, Cape dune mole rats and steenbok/grysbok suggested that small food items comprised part of a seasonal strategy that made maximum use of a range of seasonal resources. Evidence for significant local environmental change in addition to, and in support of, existing information has been obtained. Fluctuations in marine, freshwater and terrestrial birds at Eland's Bay Cave have been related to evidence for changes in terminal Pleistocene and Holocene sea levels and the position of the coast, and in the morphology of Verlorenvlei. At Die Kelders Cave 1 between 80 000 and 40 000 B.P., previously drier conditions were ameliorating and mixed scrub and grass and freshwater existed on the coastal foreland in the vicinity of the cave. Fluctuations in frequencies of seabirds indicate that the sea level rose slightly and then receded during the period of deposition. At Nelson Bay Cave samples indicate the approach of the coast after the Last Glacial Maximum, the disappearance of grassland and its replacement by scrub and bush as significant elements of the vegetation. Freshwater birds did not respond as expected, however, indicating that their interpretation at Nelson Bay Cave is complex and not consistent with evidence for wetter or drier conditions. A possible link has been shown to exist between fluctuations of albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters at Nelson Bay Cave and the intensity of wind patterns which are related to oceanic and atmospheric circulation. Further investigation should establish whether seabirds would provide an index of climatic conditions without support from other sources.

Thesis (MPhil (Animal Sciences. Livestock Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Information from 200 randomly selected egg project beneficiaries was obtain during 2008 to evaluate the impact of managerial factors on the sustainability of poverty alleviation egg laying projects in the Vhembe district, with special reference to the three municipalities (Mutale, Makhado, and Thulamela). A high proportion (80%) of the beneficiaries was poor rural women. The majority of these beneficiaries are old and illiterate. A high proportion of the beneficiary households is composed of extended families and headed by unemployed women. The majority of beneficiaries are sole breadwinners. The majority relies on agriculture and social grants as a source of income. All the beneficiaries indicated that the project increased the household income as a result of the revenue collected from the sale of eggs. From the study, 96% of the projects were initiated by Government, while only 3.52% were initiated by the beneficiaries themselves. A very high proportion of the beneficiaries (88.94%) was not given any opportunity to decide about the type of the project they were interested in. This also included a high proportion (60.61%) of beneficiaries who indicated they were not interested in starting an egg laying project. A high proportion of beneficiaries (60.71%) were not satisfied with the project, and 51.52% indicated is because of lack of funds and the remainder been because of lack of support from the government. A proportion (53.77%) of beneficiaries indicated that they are visited only once a week by extension officers. A high proportion of the beneficiaries (73.23%) rated the support that they get from the extension officers as poor. A high proportion of the beneficiaries received 36 layers, and only 3.02% were having more than 36 layers. About 69.35% of the beneficiaries didn’t know the causes of mortalities of their layers. This also confirmed the high proportion (65.85%) of beneficiaries who indicated that they were not trained to identify and treat diseases. About 73.87% of the beneficiaries rated the performance of the project as good. About 53.27% of the beneficiaries indicated that the project can sustain itself. A proportion of beneficiaries (52.76%) indicated the sustainability indicator as good market of the products.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Inligting van 200 lukraak geselekteerde eierprojek begunstigdes is tydens 2008 ingesamel, met die doel om die invloed van bestuursfaktore op die volhoubaarheid van armoede verligtings eierproduksie projekte in die Vhembe distrik, met spesiale verwysing na die drie munisipaliteite Mutale, Makhado en Thulamela. ‘n Groot proporsie (80%) van die begunstigdes was arm landelike vroue. Die meerderheid van hierdie vroue was oud en ook ongeskool. ‘n Groot proporsie van die begunstigde huishoudings bestaan uit direkte en verlangse familielede, met dié huishoudings wat werklose vrouens as familiehoofde het. Die meerderheid van die begunstigdes is ook die alleen broodwinners. Die meerderheid van die huishoudings maak staat op landbou en welsyn toekennings as ‘n bron van inkomste. Al die begunstigdes ht aangedui dat huishoudelike inkomste toegeneem het as gevolg van die verkoop van eiers geproduseer in die projekte. In die studie was 96% van die projekte deur die Regering geïnisieer, terwyl 3.52% van die projekte deur die begunstigdes self geïnisieer is. ‘n Groot proporsie van die begunstigdes (88.94%) was nie die geleentheid gegun om ‘n keuse te kan uitoefen oor die projek wat hulle wil doen nie. Hierdie laasgenoemde proporsie het ook die begunstigdes (60.61%) ingesluit wat aangedui het dat hulle nie in eierlê projekte belanggestel het nie. ‘n Groot proporsie van die begunstigdes (60.71%) was ontevrede met die projek, met 51.52% van hierdie groep wat dit aan ‘n tekort van fondse toegeskryf het. Die oorblywende 9.19% het dit aan ‘n gebrek van ondersteuning vanaf die Regering se kant toegeskryf. ‘n Proporsie van die begunstigdes (53.77%) het aangedui dat hulle een keer per week deur ‘n voorligtingsbeampte besoek word. ‘n Groot proporsie (73.23%) het die kwaliteit van ondersteuning deur die voorligtingsbeamptes as swak beoordeel. ‘n Groot proporsie van die begunstigdes het 36 lêhenne ontvang, met slegs 3.02% wat meer as 36 lêhenne ontvang het.Ongeveer 69.35% van die begunstigdes was onseker oor die redes vir die afsterwe van hulle lêhenne. Dit ondersteun die groot proporsie (65.85%) van die begunstigdes wat aangedui het dat hulle geen opleiding om siektes te kan identifiseer en te behandel, ontvang het nie. Ongeveer 73.87% van die begunstigdes het die projek as goed gereken, met 53.27% wat gevoel het die projek kan ditself onderhou. ‘n Proporsie (52.76%) van die begunstigdes het die bemarkingswaarde van hulle produk as ‘n volhoubaarheidsindikator beskou.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis investigates the population structure of a number of ungulate species occurring within Rooipoort private reserve. Specifically the study serves to make estimates of the ratio of males to females and calves to cows within each species population under observation, based on the data collected. Data were also analysed to ascertain the distribution patterns of the species in question, in relation to vegetation type and habitat. Distribution data were additionally compared to distribution data collected at an earlier period on Rooipoort, to determine whether any change has occurred in distribution patterns of the ungulates concerned. Through analysis of both sex/age data and distributional data, one of the main objectives of the study was to determine the most appropriate time of the year, length of time and managment costs involved to undertake sex/age counts on Rooipoort. Results of the study were also compared to existing population models of ungulates on the reserve. Results obtained from data concluded that a single monthly sex/age count or, in some cases, even three consecutive monthly counts, to determine age ratios, would be insufficient to deliver a reliable estimate of population structure. A number of counts would have to be carried out throughout the year in order to make reliable estimates. Distribution data revealed that all habitat/vegetation types on Rooipoort would have to be covered in order to effectively sample all of the species in question.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gegewens is ook ontleed om die verspreidingspatrone van hoefdiersoorte te bepaal met betrekking tot plantegroeitipe en habitat. Die verspreidingsdata is ook vergelyk met vorige ..studies wat op Rooipoort gedoen is om te. bepaal. of enige. veranderings in die verpreidingspatrone van die hoefdiere onder bespreking plaasgevind het. Een van die hoof doelwitte van die studie was om.. deur ontleding. van beide die geslags/ouderdom data en die verspreidingsdata, die mees geskikte tye van die jaar, die tydsduur en bestuurskoste te bepaal, om geslags/ouderdomstellings op Rooipoort uit te voer. Resultate van die studie is ook met vertroude populasiemodelle op die reservaat vergelyk. Die dataontledings het aangeduidat 'n enkele maandlikse geslags/ouderdoms telling, of, In sekere gevalle, selfs drie agtereenvolgende maandlikse tellings, om ouderdomsverhoudings te bepaal, nie voldoende sal wees om 'n vertroubare beraming van die bevolkings struktuur te maak. n' Aantal tellings moet gedurende die yaar uitgevoer word om vertroubare beramings te kan doen. Verspreidingsdata het bevestig dat alle habitate en plantegroeitipes op Rooipoort bemonster moet word om alle spesie effektief te bemonster.

This study was conducted to determine livestock production, rangeland management and the mineral levels of soils, grass and cattle blood serum in two communal areas (Kwezana and Dikidikana). A total of 77 farmers from both Kwezana and Dikidikana were interviewed to determine farmers’ perceptions. Soil and grass sampling was done at three sites in each communal area. Soil and grass samples were analysed for N, Ca, Mg, K, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Bo. Three, two and half year old Nguni heifers were randomly selected from each communal area and blood samples were collected for the analysis of Ca, Mg, K, Cu and Fe. Soil, grass and blood samples were all collected in two seasons (winter and summer). The results of the study revealed that feed availability was the major constraint in livestock production as indicated by 83 percent of thefarmers at Kwezana and 88 percent at Dikidikana. At both villages less than 20 percent practiced supplementation and grazing management. From both villages, 83 percent of the farmers did not know the forage species preferred by their cattle. The second study revealed significant seasonal variations in soil N in both study areas while forage N exhibited seasonal variations (P<0.05) only at Dikidikana. Spatial variation (P<0.05) in soil Mn was apparent in both seasons at Dikidikana and in summer at Kwezana. At Dikidikana forage P varied (P<0.05) both seasonally and spatially. In both study areas, there was a positive correlation (P<0.05) between soil and forage levels of Cu and Zn. The blood serum of animals from both study areas had higher (P<0.05) K and Na in winter than in summer. Farmers do not understand the composition of their rangelands but are concerned about cattle nutrition during winter. Indeed the mineral status of soils, forages and Nguni cattle blood serum tend to vary not only seasonally but also spatially. There is need therefore to assist the farmers to understand these changes in order to find ways of managing the rangelands in a way that will manipulate both seasonal and spatial variations in soil nutrients for the benefit of the grazing livestock. Further research is required to determine the digestibility of the forages and the amount of energy available from these forages for the grazing livestock.

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the most common large predators, free roaming outside of protected areas across most of South Africa. Leopard persistence is attributed to their tolerance of rugged terrain that is subject to less development pressure, as well as their cryptic behaviour. Nevertheless, existing leopard populations are threatened indirectly by ongoing transformation of natural habitat and directly through hunting and conflict with livestock farmers. Together these threats may further isolate leopards to fragmented areas of core natural habitat. I studied leopard habitat preferences, population density, diet and the attitudes of landowners towards leopards in the Little Karoo, Western Cape, South Africa, an area of mixed land-use that contains elements of three overlapping global biodiversity hotspots. Data were gathered between 2010 and 2012 using camera traps set up at 141 sites over an area of ~3100km², GPS tracking collars fitted to three male leopards, scat samples (n=76), interviews with landowners (n=53) analysed in combination with geographical information system (GIS) layers. My results reveal that leopards preferred rugged, mountainous terrain of intermediate elevation, avoiding low-lying, open areas where human disturbance was generally greater. Despite relatively un-fragmented habitat within my study area, the leopard population density (0.75 leopards/100km²) was one of the lowest yet recorded in South Africa. This may reflect low prey densities in mountain refuges in addition to historical human persecution in the area. Currently local landowners are more tolerant of leopards than other wildlife species with incidents of conflict involving leopards being rare relative to black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas), baboons (Papio hamadryas), caracals (Caracal caracal) and porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis). Although current levels of conflict between leopards and stock farmers are low, leopards do depredate livestock, which constitute 10-15% of their diet. Improved livestock husbandry measures and co-operation between conservation authorities and farmers are necessary to mitigate such conflict and balance economic security with biodiversity conservation in the region. Leopards are the only remaining top predators throughout much of the Little Karoo and the Western Cape and as such are predicted to play a critical role in ecosystem structure and the survival of other species. Current high levels of connectivity between areas of suitable leopard habitat bode well for the conservation status of leopards within this region and future conservation efforts need to ensure that narrow corridors linking such habitat are preserved. The potential for leopards to serve as both an umbrella and a flagship species for biodiversity conservation suggests that long term monitoring of this population would be a conservation priority for the Little Karoo.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2008.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of South African production system (feedlot {FL-} or free-range {FR-}) and gender (ewes, rams or castrates) on growth and carcass characteristics of Dorper sheep. Male lambs (castrates and rams) grew twice as fast as ewes (P<0.05) under FL-conditions while much smaller differences were observed between gender groups in FR-lambs. FL-lambs produced heavier carcasses (P=0.0003) with higher dressing percentages (P<0.05) and greater carcass fatness levels (P<0.052) than FR- lambs. No differences attributable to production system were found on meat tenderness (as indicated by Warner Bratzler shear force strength) and on the intramuscular lipid concentration. In contrast, sensory evaluation results suggested that meat from FL-lambs was juicier and more tender than meat from FR-lambs. The sensory panel could not distinguish between FL and FR meat as far as the attributes of aroma and flavour were concerned. Cholesterol results indicated that for intermuscular fat, higher cholesterol levels were observed for FL-lambs than for FR-lambs. The level of palmitic acid (C16:0) was significantly higher (P=0.0375) in the Longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of FL-lambs. For intramuscular fat from the Biceps femoris (BF) muscle, g-linolenic acid (C18:3n-6) was higher (P<0.0001) in FL- lambs. Results for intramuscular BF further indicated that ram lambs had the highest (P=0.0019) palmitic acid (C16:0) and sum of TUFA (P=0.0014), castrates had the highest (P=0.0260) α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) and g-linolenic acid (C18:3n-6), while ewe lambs had the highest (P=0.0014) SFA concentrations. Linoleic acid (C18:2n-6c) was significantly higher (P=0.0067) in the subcutaneous fat of FL-lambs while FR-lambs had more linolenic acid (C18:3n-3). For the kidney fat, FR-feeding increased (P < 0.05) stearic (C18:0), linolelaidic (C18:2n-6t), α-linolenic (C18:3n-3) and homo-g-linolenic acid (C20:3n-6) percentages. Conversely, linoleic acid (C18:2n-6c) was increased (P=0.0372) by FL-feeding. For the intermuscular fat, FR-lambs had higher linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) and SFA (P=0.0113 and P=0.0341) compared to FL-lambs. On the other hand, the sum of TUFA for the intermuscular fat was higher (P=0.0341) in FL-lambs compared to FR-lambs. Results from the study imply that the consumer may not necessarily be able to discern between meat from FR- or FL-lambs, although they may possibly discriminate against the increase in visible fatness of FL-lambs. No clear advantage of production system in terms of human health could be demonstrated as far as the proximate chemical composition and the fatty acid composition of the meat was concerned. The faster growth and the associated shorter production cycle of FL-lambs could be an advantage under certain production systems. However, it needs to be weighed against the cost of concentrate feeding and the preference consumers are likely to develop for lamb produced in natural environments.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om Suid Afrikaanse produksiestelsel (voerkraal {VK-} of veld {VD}) en geslag (ooie, hamels of ramme) op die groeivermoë en karkaseienskappe van die Dorperskape te bepaal. Manlike lammers (ramme and hamels) het twee keer vinniger (P<0.05) as ooilammers onder VK-toestande gegroei, terwyl kleiner verskille tussen geslagsgroepe by VD-diere waargeneem is. VK-lammers het swaarder karkasse (P=0.0003), hoër uitslagpersentasies (P<0.05) en meer karkas vet (P<0.052) as VD -lammers vertoon. Geen verskille as gevolg van produksiestelsel is op die sagtheid van vleis (soos aangedui deur Warner-Bratzler skeurkragwaardes) en die binnespierse vetinhoud gevind nie. Daarenteen het sensoriese analises aangedui dat vleis van VK-lammers sappiger en sagter as vleis van VD- lammers was. Die sensoriese paneel kon nie verskille aangaande die aroma en geur van vleis tussen VK- en VD-vleis onderskei nie. Cholesterolvlakke was hoër vir VK-lammers as by VD-lammers. Die vlak van palmitiese suur (C16:0) was hoër (P=0.0375) in die Longissimus dorsi (LD) spier van VK-lammers. Vir binnespierse vet van die Biceps femoris (BF) spier was g-linoleniese suur (C18:3n-6) hoër (P<0.0001) in VK-lammers. Resultate vir binnespierse vet van die BF spier het verder bewys dat ramlammers die hoogste (P=0.0019) palmitiese suur (C16:0) and totale onversadigde vetsure (P = 0.0014) getoon het, hamels die hoogste (P=0.0260) α-linoleniese suur (C18:3n-3) en g-linolenese suur (C18:3n-6) getoon het terwyl ooilammers die hoogste (P=0.0014) versadigde vetsuurvlakke getoon het. Linoliese suur (C18:2n-6c) was hoër (P=0.0067) in die onderhuidse vet van VK-lammers terwyl VD-lammers meer linoliese suur (C18:3n-3) gehad het. Resultate vir niervet het getoon dat VD-voeding die persentasies van steariese (C18:0), linoleladiese (C18:2n-6t), α-linoleniese (C18:3n-3) and homo-g-linoleniese suur (C20:3n-6) verhoog (P<0.05) het relatief tot VK-voeding. Linoliese suur (C18:2n-6c) is deur VK-voeding verhoog (P=0.0372). Vir intermuskulêre vet het VD-lammers hoër linoleniese suur (C18:3n-3) en versadigde vetsure (P=0.0113 en P=0.0341) as VK-lammers gehad. Die totale onversadigde vetsure vir tussenspiere vet was hoër (P=0.0341) in VK-lammers in vergelyking met VD-lammers. Resultate van hierdie studie dui daarop dat verbruikers nie noodwendig tussen vleis van VD- en VK-lammers sal onderskei nie, alhoewel hulle dalk teen die sigbaar vetter vleis van VK-lammers kan diskrimineer. Geen definitiewe voordeel in terme van menslike gesondheid kon op grond van die chemiese samestelling van die vleis bevestig word nie. Vinniger groei van VK-lammers, en die korter produksiesiklus wat daarmee verband hou, mag onder sekere produksie stelsels ʼn voordeel wees. Die voordeel moet teen die hoër koste van VK-voeding en die voorkeur van verbruikers vir lam produksie in natuurlike omgewing opgeweeg word.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Picturesque Cape Town is the epitome of an urban/nature interface but one within which chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) face slander for transgressing both the socially constructed human/animal and nature/culture divide, and/or the actual, physical borderlines associated with these divides. The difficulties associated with retaining baboons in nature, because of their ability to traverse physical boundaries, have led to human–baboon conflict. Even though research focusing on baboon biology on the Cape Peninsula is abundant, comparatively little attention has been paid to the human aspects of the conflict. By making use of a social constructionist theoretical framework, I wished to establish what attitudes and values play a defining role in different social constructions of chacma baboons, specifically those who often cross the urban/nature divide; what these different social constructions are; whether they differ among the various stakeholders that were included in this research; and whether there is a willingness amongst stakeholders to adjust to, accommodate, or at least understand “other” social constructions. The research is strongly motivated by a suggestion in the literature that human–human conflict underpins human–wildlife conflict. The main data collection method used in this research project was personal, semi-structured interviews with members of various stakeholder groups that are involved in the Cape Peninsula’s “baboon debate”, i.e. governmental institutions, nongovernmental organisations, researchers, representatives of residential associations, local residents and journalists. In order to increase the trustworthiness of my data and to gain an enhanced understanding of the complex social interactions, practices and belief systems which are embedded within human–baboon conflicts, I also analysed the discourse embedded in numerous forms of documentation that refer to the Cape Peninsula’s baboons. The findings from this research provide evidence that conflicts over beliefs and values, conflicts of interest, and conflicts over process are the prominent underlying causes of human– human conflict regarding baboons and baboon management on the Cape Peninsula. Conflicts over beliefs and values seem to underpin all types of human–human conflict regarding baboons on the Cape Peninsula, as human–baboon conflict is riddled with the Cartesian dualisms of urban (or culture) versus nature; human versus animal; biocentrism versus anthropocentrism; and rationalism versus affective social action. The opposition between the two ontologies of rationalism and affective social action, which reflect divergent ways of thinking about baboons and are central to individual’s support of certain baboon-management techniques, is especially pronounced. Moreover, the ability of the Cape Peninsula’s baboons to transgress the nature/culture, and even the human/animal, borderline not only leads to conflict between humans and baboons, but also among humans. This thesis recommends that, in order to effectively address human–human conflict over beliefs and values, as well as human–baboon conflict, the numerous stakeholders on the Cape Peninsula should identify a common significance of baboons. While I would refrain from declaring that human–human conflict is the actual source of human–baboon conflict, addressing the human dimensions of human–wildlife conflict remains an important though neglected issue.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Skilderagtige Kaapstad is die toonbeeld van ’n stedelike/natuur skeidingsvlak, maar een waarbinne die Kaapse bobbejane (Papio ursinus) beswadder word, omdat hulle die sosiaalgekonstrueerde mens/dier en natuur/kultuur skeidslyn en/of die werklike, fisiese grens wat met hierdie skeidslyn geassosieer is, skend. As gevolg van hul vermoë om fisiese grense te oorkruis, het die probleme met die inperking van bobbejane in die natuur tot mens–bobbejaan konflik gelei. Ondanks die feit dat navorsing met die fokus op bobbejaan-biologie op die Kaapse Skiereiland volop is, is relatief min aandag geskenk aan die menslike aspekte van die konflik. Deur gebruik te maak van ’n sosiaal-konstruksionistiese teoretiese raamwerk, wou ek vasstel watter ingesteldhede en waardes ’n bepalende rol speel in verskillende sosiale konstruksies van Kaapse bobbejane, veral diegene wat dikwels die stedelike/natuur skeidingsvlak oorkruis; wat hierdie verskillende sosiale konstruksies is; of hulle verskil tussen die verskeie rolspelers wat ingesluit is in hierdie navorsingsprojek; en of daar ’n bereidwilligheid is onder belanghebbendes om aan te pas by “ander” sosiale konstruksies, dit tegemoet te kom, of ten minste te verstaan. Die navorsing is sterk gemotiveer deur ’n voorstel in die literatuur dat mens–mens konflik mens–wildlewe konflik onderskraag. Die hoof data-insamelingsmetode wat in hierdie navorsingsprojek gebruik is, was persoonlike, semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude met lede van verskillende belanghebbende groepe wat betrokke is in die Kaapse Skiereiland se “bobbejaandebat”, d.w.s regeringsinstellings, nieregeringsorganisasies, navorsers, verteenwoordigers van residensiële verenigings, plaaslike inwoners en joernaliste. Ten einde die betroubaarheid van my data te versterk en om ’n beter begrip te ontwikkel van die ingewikkelde sosiale interaksies, praktyke en oortuigings wat ingebed is in mens–bobbejaan konflikte, het ek ook die diskoers ontleed wat ingebed is in talle vorme van dokumentasie wat verwys na die Kaapse Skiereiland se bobbejane. Die bevindinge van hierdie navorsing verskaf bewyse dat konflikte oor oortuigings en waardes, konflikte van belang, en konflikte oor prosesse die prominente onderliggende oorsake van mens–mens konflik rakende bobbejane en bobbejaanbestuur op die Kaapse Skiereiland is. Konflikte oor oortuigings en waardes blyk onderliggend te wees aan alle vorme van mens–mens konflik ten opsigte van bobbejane in die Kaapse Skiereiland, aangesien mens–bobbejaan konflik deurtrek is met die Cartesiese dualismes van stedelike (of kultuur) teenoor die natuur; mens teenoor dier; biosentrisme teenoor antroposentrisme; en rasionalisme teenoor affektiewe sosiale aksie. Die teenoorgesteldheid tussen die twee ontologieë van rasionalisme en affektiewe sosiale aksie, wat uiteenlopende maniere van dink oor bobbejane weerspieël en sentraal is tot individue se ondersteuning van sekere bobbejaanbestuurtegnieke, is veral ooglopend. Verder lei die vermoë van die Kaapse Skiereiland se bobbejane om die natuur/kultuur en selfs die mens/dier grenslyn te oorkruis, nie slegs tot konflik tussen mense en bobbejane nie, maar ook tussen mense. Hierdie tesis beveel aan dat, ten einde mens–mens konflik rakende oortuigings en waardes, asook mens–bobbejaan konflik, aan te spreek, moet die talle belanghebbendes in die Kaapse Skiereiland ’n gemeenskaplike betekenis van bobbejane identifiseer. Terwyl ek myself sou weerhou om te verklaar dat mens–mens konflik die wesenlike bron van mens–bobbejaan konflik is, bly die menslike dimensies van mens–wildlewe konflik ’n belangrike, dog verwaarloosde kwessie

The development of conservation and management programs for an animal population relies on a knowledge of the number of individuals in an area. In order to achieve reliable estimates, precise and accurate techniques for estimating population densities are needed. This study compared the use of direct and indirect methods of estimating kudu (Trage/aphus strepsiceras), bush buck (Trage/aphus scriptus), common duiker (Sy/vicapra grimmia), and blue duiker (Philantamba manticala) densities on Shamwari Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. These species prefer habitats of dense forest and bush for concealment and are therefore not easily counted in open areas. Herein direct observation counts were compared to indirect sampling via pellet group counts (clearance plots, line transects, variable-width transects, and strip transects). Clearance plots were examined every 2 weeks, while all other methods were conducted seasonally, from August 2002 until August 2003. The strip transect method provided the lowest density estimates (animals per hal ranging from 0.001 for bushbuck to 0.025 for common duiker, while direct observations yielded the highest estimates, ranging from 0.804 for bush buck to 4.692 for kudu. Also, a validation of methods was performed against a known population of kudu during which the DISTANCE method yielded the most accurate results, with an estimated density of 0.261 that was within the actual density of 0.246 to 0.282. In addition, the DISTANCE method was compared to helicopter counts ofkudu and its estimates were found to be approximately 2.6 times greater than the helicopter count results. When the assessment of the methods was made, the cost, manpower and effort requirements, coefficient of variation, and performance against a known population for each method were taken into consideration. Overall, the DISTANCE method performed the best with low cost, minimal manpower and effort requirements, and low coefficient of variation. On Shamwari Game Reserve, the DISTANCE method estimated 0.300 kudu, 0.108 bushbuck, 0.387 common duiker, and 0.028 blue duiker per ha, which, when extrapolated to the total number of animals present within subtropical thicket habitat, estimated 1973 kudu, 710 bush buck, 2545 common duiker, and 184 blue duiker.

This study presents the results of a study on introduced giraffe diet and feeding effects within the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Five sites were selected over a moisture gradient from the mesic east to the arid west of the Eastern Cape to describe giraffe diet and provide baseline data for feeding effect experiments. At each site faecal samples were collected seasonally and diet composition determined by microhistological analysis. Plant species availability was measured using the point intersect method in order to compare plant availability to plant consumption to determine diet preferences. Giraffe diet across the sites showed a unimodal response to rainfall by utilising fewer species in drier areas where plant availability is low and increasing the number of species consumed as the rainfall increases. In higher rainfall areas, giraffe reduced the number of plant species fed upon because of the high availability of important species that reduces the need for a varied diet. Across all sites, plant availability was dominated by woody plant species (more than 90 percent at each site). A total of 57 plants species were recorded as being eaten across the five sites. Several PDI (Principle Diet Items) plant species (Acacia karroo, Schotia afra, Pappea capensis and Euclea undulata) were eaten across sites. Over all the sites, significantly preferred species were Asparagus striatus, Schotia latifolia, Asparagus suaveolens, Commelina benghalensis, Viscum rotundifolium, and Acacia cyclops. Acacia karroo, Schotia afra, Pappea capensis, Rhus crenata, A. tetracantha, and Grewia robusta were utilised in proportion to their availability. Euclea undulata, Rhus longispina and Putterlickia pyracantha were avoided. Feeding effects were tested by erecting exclosures around trees, covering one half of each tree. Ten trees were selected for these manipulative experiments which ran from September 2003 to February 2005. The number of branches, number of leaves, branch orders, branch diameter, branch length, leaf length and leaf width were measured for ten samples per side (enclosed vs. exposed) and analysed using a Wilcoxon matched pairs test and tested for effect size using Cohen’s d. Although no significant differences were detected between the sides measured, the effect size indicated differences in all measurements between sides ranging from low to moderate. Leaf length was greater on the outside of exclosures and showed a moderate difference between the sides in terms of the d-value with the p-value (0.059) tending towards significance. Although leaf width was higher on the inside of exclosures, it only showed a moderate difference for d with no statistical significance. Leaf area was higher on the inside of exclosures and tended to significance (p = 0.059) and similarly the d value indicated moderate differences between the sides in terms of effect size. Similarly branch length was higher on the inside of exclosures although not significantly, the p-value (0.07) approached significance. The effect size for branch length also showed a moderate difference between the sides. The number of branches and the number of leaves showed no statistical differences between the sides although the p-value (0.059) for the number of branches, as well as number of leaves (p = 0.07) approached significance. For both these variables, effect size showed a moderate difference. Giraffe showed diversity in their diet selection across sites but mainly fed upon available species. Some preferred species were however less available and this preference could possibly result in increased pressure on the selected plant species Exclosure experiments showed no significant differences in leaf and shoot characteristics although all measurements showed differences in terms of effect size meriting further investigation. It is concluded that giraffe impact on sites may be reduced if populations are properly managed however, high densities of giraffe could lead to similar vegetation impacts as observed in other areas where giraffe have been introduced and potentially change vegetation structure and plant community composition.

Human-wildlife conflict frequently involves carnivores, mainly because of their large home ranges and dietary requirements. As such, carnivores tend to be the first animals to be lost in human-dominated ecosystems. This is significant because the removal of carnivores can alter the functionality of ecosystems. However, the conservation of carnivores depends as much on the socio-political and socio-economic landscapes as it does on the ecological one. The consolidation of vast, un-fragmented conservation areas in Africa and the world is unlikely. Thus, unravelling the factors (both biological and sociological) responsible for and influencing human-predator conflict is critical for carnivore conservation. The Winterberg district in the Eastern Cape, South Africa has been a sheep (Ovis aries) farming stronghold for nearly 200 years. Consequently, conflict between farmers and predators is commonplace and depredation of livestock by caracals (Caracai caracal) remains a perennial problem. However, the extent of this human-predator conflict (including a reliable assessment of caracal density) has not been quantified. This study used camera trapping to estimate the density of caracals (a nonindividually recognisable species) in the Winterberg and a structured questionnaire to gauge the general attitudes of the farmers of the region. Caracal density was estimated to be 0.20 caracals/km². This estimate equates to a population of approximately 54 caracals across the entire district. Therefore, caracals do not appear to occur at high densities in the Winterberg. However, the survey of the residents of the Winterberg Conservancy revealed that predators were rated as the greatest problem faced by farmers in the area. Although not significant, it also showed that the size of a respondent's property and sheep mortality due to caracals had the greatest probability of affecting attitudes towards predators. The farmers lost less than 10% of their stock to caracal depredation on an annual basis. Therefore, the general perception that predators were the most important factor in stock loss in the area does not appear to be fully supported by my data. The Winterberg is a male-dominated, multigenerational society and it is likely this propagates certain perceptions towards predators which are a reflection of long-held family traditions and beliefs. Such situations can result in reactions which are disproportionate to the actual scale of the problem. However, my study was limited to a sub-set of the landowners in the Winterberg. Thus, more intensive assessments of caracal space use and community attitudes towards predators are recommended.

Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv and Cons Biol)
The human population in sub-Saharan Africa has been increasing due to decreases in mortality rates and increases in average human age; in turn increasing poverty and pressure placed on agriculture and agricultural production. However, livestock production in South Africa, and globally, is declining due to disease and parasite prevalence, lack of feed, poor breeding, marketing management, change in nutrition in both livestock and humans, rapid urbanization, encroachment on wildlife and unfavourable climatic conditions brought about by global change. One unintended consequence has been the emergence and spread of transboundary animal diseases and, more specifically, the resurgence and emergence of zoonotic disease. Zoonotic diseases are sicknesses transmissible from animals to humans, resulting from direct contact or environmental reservoirs. Previous studies have identified small-scale farmers as the group most prevalent to contracting zoonotic diseases, especially those working in a communal dispensation. Therefore, this study focused on the communal farming area of Steinkopf in the semi-arid Namaqualand region of South Africa. Steinkopf is one of the largest Act 9 areas, with communal land tenure and a mixed farming system, sheep and goats, on about 759 ha. Steinkopf is divided into two rainfall regions, the Succulent Karoo (winter rainfall region) and the Nama Karoo (summer rainfall region). This study aims to identify and characterise the bacterial microbial communities found in the topsoil layer and faecal matter (dung) within the winter and summer rainfall regions of Steinkopf communal rangeland using Next-generation sequencing. Further, the aim is to assess whether pathogenic bacteria are present within the rangeland and what their potential impact on the local farming community might be if present. A high-throughput sequencing technique (Next-generation sequencing) was used to amplify 16S rRNA targeting the V3-V4 hypervariable regions. The phylotypes produced were 37 phyla, 353 families and 634 genera of which the most abundant bacterial phyla were Planctomycetes, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes and the most abundant genera were Gemmata, Akkermansia and Arthrobacter. Alpha diversity indices showed a variation in species diversity, evenness and richness between soil and dung samples, it shows a higher species richness, evenness and unique OTUs detected in summer soil samples and at natural water holes. Through these analysis soil samples were regarded as superior to dung samples within this particular environment and for this particular study. Natural water holes were identified as a safer option when compared to man-made water holes as there are natural systems in place that combat the spread and growth of harmful bacterial microbes. It was found that seasonality has a great impact on the development and growth of environmental bacterial microbiota and that the current randomness of grazing routes and migrations within the Steinkopf communal rangeland is not a detriment but instead acts as a benefits to environmental and livestock health. Furthermore, a total of three pathogenic bacteria were identified however, they occurred at relatively low abundances. It can thus be concluded that this study thoroughly describes the usefulness of using a high-throughput sequencing technique such as Next-generation sequencing when amplifying a small sample size in order to achieve a large volume of information; and that currently the Steinkopf communal rangeland is not subjected to or at risk of a potential zoonotic threat.

Thesis (MTech (Nature Conservation))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.
Largely due to anthropogenic causes, biodiversity and particularly species diversity is changing at an extraordinary rate, with declines in species abundance, community composition and extinction risk being of crucial concern. Monitoring of state variables of biodiversity such as species richness and occupancy are of significant importance in determining the severity of threats placed on species, populations and communities. As a non-invasive monitoring method camera traps are noted as being an effective, accurate and rapid means of compiling species richness estimates of medium to large terrestrial mammals. However, crucial elements of camera trap survey design are rarely empirically addressed, which has questioned the need for a standardised camera trapping protocol. Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) is a protected area that is under serious anthropogenic pressure through urban and peri-urban development. Although it is the last refuge for a number of large mammal species on the Cape Peninsula, current mammalian species richness knowledge within the TMNP are limited. Accurate and current species richness estimates are therefore needed within TMNP and more specifically the Cape of Good Hope (CoGH), which exclusively hosts a number of medium and large mammal species. The aims of this study were to optimise a camera survey protocol for the Peninsula region, with a focus on camera density, placement and survey duration that will enable accurate estimations of medium to large mammal species richness and occupancy.

The conservation of leopards in the Eastern Cape Province requires a holistic approach that considers both predator-human interactions as well as the biology of the carnivore. Numerous studies have been conducted on leopards within protected areas; however more information regarding the species is needed outside these areas to facilitate effective management of predators. The spatial ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus) were studied in the Baviaanskloof and GAENP in the Eastern Cape. The Baviaanskloof is an extensive area of mountainous terrain (approximately 2665km²) which has a mosaic of land uses, and leopards move from conservation areas to farmland where they come into contact and conflict with farmers. This study examined the spatial ecology of leopards living on farmlands adjacent to protected land. The space utilization and activity patterns of six leopards were analysed. These animals were caught and released on farmlands in the Baviaanskloof (n=4) or translocated (n=2) when not possible to release on site. The animals were caught by means of fall-door, walk-in traps and fitted with Vectronic GPS collars that facilitated the collection of high quality GPS fixes from each animal. Data was collected using VHF and UHF telemetry to download data. An understanding of spatial requirements in areas with different land use, and the extent of overlap of space use with other leopards allow, for the first time in the region, the calculation of possible maximum population size. Analysis of range size was carried out using two methods: minimum convex polygon, and Kernel Utilization Distribution. Finally, a key predictor of space use is prey availability. I assessed the prey base using a grid of camera traps. The studied leopards revealed large range utilization with minimal overlap. The activity patterns suggest there is no preference between diurnal and nocturnal activity patterns and the population density was estimated between 0.3 - 1.3 leopards per 100km². Large home range sizes and low population densities suggest that leopards require large areas of suitable habitat, and that conservation efforts need to be extended beyond protected areas to ensure the long-term viability of leopard populations in such areas.

This study was conducted in the old arable land located in Lushington communal area in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The objectives of the study were to assess the effect of legume introduction on biomass yield, forage and soil mineral levels of the arable lands planted to four leguminous pastures in four seasons. Planting was done in March and October 2008 in Lushington. All legumes were subjected to grow under rain fed conditions. Trifolium vesiculosum (arrowleaf clover), Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza), Trifolium repens (white clover) and Lotus corniculatus (birdsfoot trefoil) are the four forage legume species that were sampled for the purposes of this study. The four legume species persisted out of the fourteen species that were initially tested for adaptability and persistence in the environmental conditions of Lushington communal area. The legumes, grasses and soils from these legume plots were sampled to determine the effect of legume introduction on the forage yield, mineral contents of the companion grasses and soils over four seasons. Plant and soil samples were collected once in spring (November) 2013, summer (February), autumn (March) and winter (May) 2014 for biomass production, macro and micronutrients determination. Results indicated that legume inclusion and season affected (P < 0.05) the total dry matter (TDM) yield production. Plots with Lespedeza cuneata had the highest TDM (1843 kg/ha) and control plots had the least dry matter production (1091 kg/ha). Summer season provided the highest (P < 0.05) TDM compared to the other seasons. Both legume and grass quality was also affected (P < 0.05) by legume inclusion in different seasons. Accordingly, grasses harvested from Trifolium repens plot showed higher CP level (10.90 percent) than those harvested from other plots whereas the lowest grass CP content (6.90 percent) was measured in the control treatment. L. cuneate had the highest (P < 0.05) CP level (11.00 percent) and T. repens had the least CP (6.63 percent) level. Grasses harvested in autumn had the highest (P < 0.05) CP level (12.50 percent) and those harvested in winter had the least CP level (4.60 percent). Similarly, all legume pastures harvested in spring had superior (P < 0.05) CP (10.80 percent) levels and those harvested in winter had the least CP (3.50 percent) level. Legume inclusion had an effect (P < 0.05) on both grass and legume macro nutrient contents. Trifolium repens plot had the highest grass K (1.07 percent), Ca (1.50 percent) and Mg (1.83 percent), whereas there were lower K (0.12 percent), Ca (1.25 percent) and Mg (1.08 percent) contents in grasses harvested from the control and T. vesiculosum plots, respectively. In legumes, macro nutrient concentrations: K (0.68 percent), Ca (1.75 percent) were superior in the T. vesiculosum plot in comparison to other plots. Season also affected (P < 0.05) both grass and legume macro nutrient content. There was higher K (0.90 percent), Ca (1.30 percent) and Mg (0.94 percent) content in grasses harvested in autumn whereas there were lower levels in winter harvests. In legumes, superior K (0.74 percent) and Mg (1.87 percent) content were attained during spring while the least were measured in winter (0.07 percent) and autumn (0.75 percent), respectively. Likewise, both legume inclusion and season had an significant effect (P < 0.05) on the forages micronutrient levels. During spring, there was superior soil P content (36.28 mg/kg) while during autumn; there was less P (22.58 mg/kg) content. The highest SOC level (1.49 percent) was measured in the T. repens plot whereas the lowest SOC (1.15 percent) was attained in the control plot. The results of this study showed that grass legume mixtures produced forages with high nutrient content and herbage yield. Legume planting in the old arable lands has a potential to improve soil quality parameters such as soil P and SOC content.

Thesis (M.Sc. ( Zoology)) --University of Limpopo, 2013
The fieldwork for this study was carried out from October 2008 to October 2010, under the supervision of Professor D. Engelbrecht of the Department of Biodiversity at the University of Limpopo. Professor Engelbrecht kindly agreed to provide me with raw breeding data of the same population collected during 2008. This study represents original work by the author and where work of other authors has been used; they are duly acknowledged in the text and listed as references. Chapter 1 is a general introduction to the family Alaudidae in which their characteristics and taxonomy are discussed. This is followed by a brief overview of the general biology and ecology of larks of the world in general, followed by a more specific emphasis on the genus Spizocorys, and finally the Pink-billed Lark. In this section, gaps in the available knowledge of Pink-billed Larks are highlighted. This chapter culminates in the aim and objectives of this study. In Chapter 2 the various aspects of the breeding biology of the Pink-billed Lark are reported. This includes, amongst others, aspects such as breeding seasonality, clutch sizes, roles of the sexes during the breeding cycle and breeding success. Chapter 3 provides the results of a morphometric study of museum study skins from across the species range. This includes an analysis of sexual size dimorphism and geographical variation of the different subspecies. This chapter also provides a brief description of the timing and pattern of moult and the various vocalizations of the Pink-billed Lark. Chapter 4 concludes the dissertation with a summary of the results of this study and highlights avenues for future research on the species and the family. The format of Chapters 2 and 3 takes the form of research papers that can be submitted for publication with minimum editing. Chapter 2 has been published in the Journal of African Zoology (see below). Chapter 3 is in preparation for submission to a peer-reviewed journal. As such, there is some repetition in the introductory paragraphs and concluding remarks of chapters 2, 3 and 4. To give this manuscript a degree of uniformity, the literature cited in all chapters has been formatted according to the manuscript requirements of the Journal of African Zoology, and a reference list appears at the end of the dissertation. Tables and figures are arranged at the end of each chapter.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for carting in a peri-urban area. A survey was conducted among 71 donkey owners in Joza, a peri-urban area near Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on socio-economic importance, health and welfare aspects of donkeys used for transport. Two hundred and seventy-one donkeys used for carting were assessed through direct observation of health and behaviour parameters to determine their welfare status. Results revealed that donkeys are indeed of immense value to people, being used daily (54.93%) for income generation activities and at least once per month (7.08%) for domestic chores. Most of the respondents (32%) earned R 600.00 per week while 11% earned at least R 200.00 per week from carting using donkeys. Donkeys were used for carting of goods (90.14%) more than for manure (16.9%). Gender and age of owners significantly (P < 0.05) influence perceptions on source of income while education level influenced their perceptions on carting firewood, goods and water. Results on management practices and health problems encountered by working donkeys showed that most of the owners managed their animals poorly. Most donkeys were being beaten (74.65%) during work, made to travel long distances (43.66%), worked long hours (52.11%) without adequate water (59.10%) and feed supplements (83.10%). Wounds (95.97%), coughing (75.65%) and lameness (64.79%) were some of the health problems encountered by donkeys. Significant relationships (P ˂ 0.05) were observed between owners’ perceptions on management practices and health problems encountered by donkeys. Among the observed animals, 61% were thin and mostly apathetic (26.2%) than medium and fat animals. Responses to observer approaches were significantly associated with sex and body condition score (BCS), with stallions in good body condition being more aggressive. Donkeys having a BCS of 3-5 avoided chin contact either by kicking out or moving away. Results further showed that most of the donkeys were suffering from external injuries, with the hindquarters (39.85%), shoulder (32.10%) and spine (21.77%) being the mostly affected areas. The prevalence of wounds on tail-base, belly, flank and neck were seen in less than 13% of the animals. The prevalence of wounds was influenced by age and BCS of the animals. Young donkeys with good BCS were less affected than old donkeys. Lameness, poor coat condition, external parasites, abnormal mucous membrane and dental problems were observed in less than 30% of the animals. It was concluded that donkeys play a pivotal role economically and socially to the livelihoods of people in a peri-urban area (Joza) in terms of income generation and transportation. However, these animals are experiencing multiple health and welfare problems. Therefore, more access to veterinary services, training on donkey use and management, health and welfare promotion programs are of paramount importance in solving the problem of poor health and welfare in donkeys.

Thesis (MSc (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
As with any form of intensive agriculture, there are potential environmental impacts associated with the management and housing of livestock on dairy farms. Within the field of dairy farming, particular focus falls to the issue of environmental degradation of water resources, as this form of pollution is currently a major environmental issue around the world. Conventional agricultural practices involving the application of chemical fertilizers to land and crops are causing environmental problems as a result of poor management practices. Dairy wastewater and manures could however be a valuable resource for agricultural producers in the form of an alternate fertilizer for their crops. Waste application as a fertilizer is more environmentally friendly than chemical fertilizers, and could drastically reduce costs for farmers, whilst alleviating storage and management problems often associated with farmyard manures (FYM). The application of organic wastes, notably livestock manures, to land has historically been important for maintaining soil fertility on farms in terms of nutrient status and organic matter levels, as well as helping to reduce soil erosion and improve waterholding capacity. The research sought to investigate the environmental and economical feasibility of using dairy wastewater and manures as an alternative form of fertilizer within agriculture in South Africa.

Thesis (MTech (Nature Conservation))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015.
The klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus subsp. oreotragus) population became extinct on the Cape Peninsula in 1930. Being re-introduced into Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) in 1999 it became one of the species of special conservation concern to monitor in the Park. Most klipspringer territories are known by Park management but the distribution of all potentially suitable habitats for this species in the Park is not known. The main aim of this study is to produce a distribution range map that is representative of all potentially suitable habitats for the klipspringer within TMNP, through the use of a species distribution modelling tool. Since only presence data were available for this study, a popular presence-only modelling tool namely maximum entropy (MaxEnt) was used. The use of MaxEnt in species distribution modelling has become popular as it has proven to provide robust predictions of a species’ geographic distribution. Klipspringer occurrence data and five environmental variables namely altitude, slope, aspect, vegetation, and distance to urban edge were used as model input. Occurrence data were sourced through existing databases and employing a stratified random sampling technique of dividing the Park into different habitat subtypes to survey the Park for more klipspringer occurrences. These habitat subtypes consisted of a variety of vegetation communities or vegetation types and altitudinal and slope ranges available in the Park. Grid size for all the raster layers used was 10x10 m. Spatial filtering of one point per 100 m² grid was used to eliminate clumping of points. Six models were run at different regularisation multiplier (RM) values namely 0.25, 0.5, default (1), 2, 4 and 7. To assist in better understanding of the spatial extent of the occurrence data and the areas inhabited by the klipspringer, home range analyses were carried out. This was done through kernel density estimation in the Geospatial Modelling Environment (GME). All six bandwidth parameters in GME namely smoothed cross validation (SCV), biased cross-validation (BCV), a second BCV algorithm, plug-in estimator, least squares cross validation and the likelihood cross validation (CVh) were tested. The smoothed cross validation and likelihood cross validation bandwidth algorithms provided the best visual output of klipspringer home ranges and territories. Home range sizes from the SCV output ranged from about 3 – 11 ha across the study area, and home range size for the CVh output ranged from 0.6 – 2.5 ha. The output from the CVh algorithm was interpreted as territories rather than home ranges, as it is based on a univariate kernel unlike, the SCV algorithm that produces rotated bivariate kernels. iv The default regularisation multiplier of 1 provided the best probability distribution output, whilst values lower than the default tended to underestimate the prediction and those values higher than the default were tending towards overestimations. Response curves for the default RM also gave the most ecologically meaningful responses of the klipspringer to each environmental variable. Model evaluation in the form of area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC AUC) showed that all models performed well. Therefore, the choice of the “best” model was based on the ability to provide ecological interpretation, on the shape of the response curve and the probability distribution maps. Consequently, the default RM model was considered the best, with an AUC score of 0.903. Altitude and vegetation contributed the most to suitable habitat and therefore indicates that klipspringer in the Park do prefer high altitudinal areas with the right vegetation to feed on. Suitable altitudinal ranges are from 400 m.a.s.l. and higher and ericaceous fynbos is the most preferred vegetation community. Slope, aspect and distance to urban edge played a less important role in suitable klipspringer habitat. The probability map and an additional binary map produced at the 10 percentile training logistic presence threshold showed that suitable habitat for the klipspringer occurs in all three sections of the Park in different proportions. These maps can be used by Park management to prioritise conservation efforts and future re-introductions.
National Research Foundation