Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Animals – Botswana'

Human wildlife conflict is a considerable conservation challenge that threatens many carnivore species worldwide and is a result of complex socio-economic and ecological processes. An understanding of the drivers of conflict is essential for any efforts to achieve coexistence. This study investigated the levels of conflict, livestock management and tolerance amongst the farming communities of the Southern and Western Kalahari in Botswana. A questionnaire survey was completed with 310 farmers throughout the region. The majority of respondents regarded coexisting with carnivores as a challenge, with losses due to depredation perceived as the greatest problem facing farmers. Conflict was widespread throughout the study area, with some spatial variations for certain species. Cattle management levels were low and while smallstock management was better, the use of improved levels of management could reduce current levels of conflict. Tolerance levels were generally low with few respondents seeing the benefits of coexistence with carnivore species. The results indicated that farm type, gender, education level, source of income, livestock numbers, location and land use all have an effect on perceived conflict and tolerance levels and strongly interact with each other. In general cattleposts were characterised by higher proportions of females, lower education levels, more benefits derived from wildlife and veld products and fewer livestock than fenced ranches. They also experienced more conflict, carried out more management and had better tolerance levels. It could be that closer connections to the land and deriving benefits from natural resources resulted in more tolerance and this is certainly worth further investigation. An improvement in the use of effective methods of livestock management, targeted environmental education programs to develop a greater awareness for the conservation value of carnivores and a diversification of livelihoods to include benefits from natural resources have the potential to reduce conflict and improve tolerance in the Kalahari region.

The purpose of this thesis is to analyse the effects of post-independence modernisation policies within the cattle sector in Botswana and to suggest alternative ways of dealing with the challenge of development. The study pursues four research objectives which are: 1. to examine the environmental effects of cattle production by discussing the impacts of policies on disease control as well as changes in rangeland condition; 2. to discuss the social impacts of the modernisation approach to development by examining data on the distribution of cattle, the financial returns that accrue to owners, and the level of subsidies which the sector receives from the government; 3. to determine the degree of vulnerability of the Botswana cattle sector to decisions made outside the country by investigating the influence of the EEC and certain environmental groups on the beef industry. 4. to suggest a set of principles aimed at making development more ecologically sensitive, more beneficial to most people, and more self-reliant in terms of economic and political decisions. Modernisation theory according to Hirschman and Rostow contends that inter-dependence with capitalist economies is a prerequisite for development (primarily defined as economic growth and not addressing environmental issues); that the accumulation of wealth will lead to the reduction of poverty; and that all countries can benefit from the development process. By contrast, Dependency theory according to authors including Prebisch, Frank, Amin, and Sunkel has argued that inter-dependence with capitalist economies retards development; that the national accumulation of wealth does not lead to improved living conditions for much of the population; and that there is little prospect for economic growth in the peripheral countries. The analysis of policies and measures adopted by the Botswana government involving land reform, disease control, pricing and marketing policies and the use of subsidies reveals that economic growth and access to markets have been attained at the expense of both environmental quality and equity. Future policy for the livestock sector cannot ignore criticism of these impacts without jeopardising the beef trade which has largely been determined by the EEC. This European Community influence raises questions about the extent to which Botswana is in control of her development policy. Drawing largely from the work of Gardner, the thesis addresses the above concerns by suggesting a set of policy guidelines which identify both the ends and means of decision-making. This framework recognises that the goals of development must include ecological sustainability and economic and political self-reliance in addition to material benefits. Although it recognises the magnitude of the development problems, the thesis concludes by suggesting specific issues which should be investigated to improve living conditions in the country.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of
Graduate

Remaining viable cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) populations in Africa are threatened by direct persecution through conflict with farmers and habitat degradation and fragmentation. Botswana is considered a stronghold for free roaming cheetahs in Africa, yet the country has had relatively limited research on its cheetahs, and information from the east of the country is lacking. Data on the current status of populations is thus required to make informed management decisions. My study provides estimates of population density, abundance, distribution and status for the demographically open cheetah population of the Northern Tuli Game Reserve (NOTUGRE) in Botswana. The effectiveness of two population monitoring methods, namely camera trapping and a photographic survey, were also investigated. Moreover, I report on the level of conflict between livestock farmers and predators on rural communal farmlands within and adjacent to NOTUGRE. Data were collected between May 2012 and November 2013. Results indicate a low population density of 0.61 ± 0.18 adult cheetahs per 100 km² and a minimum population size of 10 individuals (nine adults and one cub). Camera traps placed at cheetah scent-marking posts increased detection rates and provided ideal set up locations. This approach, together with Spatial Explicit Capture- Recapture (SECR) models, is recommended for future studies. The long-term studies that are required to better understand the status of cheetahs in Botswana do not exist. Thus, photographic surveys may provide an alternative method for providing baseline data on population numbers, distribution and demography. The third aspect of my study gathered information on levels of livestock loss and human tolerance of predators through the use of interviews (n = 80). Conflict with subsistence farmers is a concern as livestock depredation is relatively high (9.1% of total livestock owned) and farmers had an overall negative attitude towards conservation of large predators. My results suggest that human-predator conflict in this area is more complex than the direct financial loss from depredation. Hence, reducing depredation rates alone is unlikely to change farmer tolerance of wildlife on farmlands. Improved, responsible farm management, including self-responsibility for livestock rearing, and positive appreciation for wildlife are necessary. The NOTUGRE cheetah population requires further research to understand possible threats to the population. Furthermore, a better understanding of the connectivity between cheetahs of NOTUGRE, South Africa and Zimbabwe is required. The number of cheetahs within NOTUGRE is too small to sustain a viable population, hence conserving cheetahs outside of the protected area should be a priority for the conservation of the population. This can only be achieved through assistance and involvement from national authorities, local people and conservation organisations.

Thesis (PhD (Forest and Wood Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
Sustainable livestock production in semi-arid Botswana could be improved through tree planting on-farm to provide much needed protein and shade. Such action can be encouraged if the growth, productivity, nutritional value of trees and their contribution to mass gain of livestock are known.. A study at Malotwana investigated two indigenous species, Acacia galpinii and Faidherbia albida, and two exotic species, Leucaena diversifolia and L. leucocephala, at three spacings in a randomised complete block design replicated five times. The three spacings represented 400, 317 and 241 trees per hectare. The study was conducted over 6.5 years. Indigenous trees were sampled biennially and exotics annually to evaluate crown width, height, stem diameter, stem number and stem volume index. Complete plant harvesting of exotic trees at 2.5, 4.5 and 6.5 years evaluated agroforestry production. Leaves from all four species and pods of exotic species were analysed for chemical composition. Two groups of eight lambs were balanced for mass at selection for an on-farm feeding trial. Browse from exotic trees, comprising a 2:1 ratio of pods to leaves, was fed at 30% as supplement to hay to one group whose mean mass was contrasted with that of the control group fed sorghum bran at 30%. A. galpinii was a promising species, adaptable to planting away from its origin. Its crown width ranged from 5.86 m in high density plots to 6.08 m at low density and was significantly different among stands (p = 0.0406) at 6.5 years. Diameter at breast height (dbh) was significantly different among stands aged 6.5 years (p = 0.0003) and ranged between 10.38 cm at high density to 12.48 cm in low density plots, demonstrating a capacity to provide both shade and poles on-farm. At 4.5 years, F. albida attained a mean height of 4.5 m and 4.5 cm in dbh but suffered 67% mortality during a severe drought. Annual fodder production of 0.647 and 0.996 metric tonnes ha-1 for leaves and pods of L. diversifolia and 1.237 and 1.431 for L. leucocephala was recorded in years of average rainfall. Yields of 0.3 and 0.59 metric tonnes ha-1 were recorded for both species in the driest year. Equally good agroforestry production was obtained from both low and high density stands suggesting that low density plantings, which foster higher plant survival and reduce disease incidence, are best suited to the semi-arid conditions of Botswana. The crude protein of leaves ranged between 16.26 (L. diversifolia) and 25.25% (F. albida). They were highly digestible with more than twice the calcium content livestock require. Crude protein and digestibility measures were significantly different among leaves and varied significantly at different spacings (p<0.0001). Pods of the exotic species contained significantly more protein than the leaves (p<0.0001). Lambs supplemented with browse gained 102.33 g per animal per day while the control group gained 83.95 g. There were significant differences between groups during growth (p<0.05). Growing of A. galpinii, complemented with L. diversifolia and L. leucocephala, can supply short and long term feed, and greatly enhance livestock production while diversifying farm feed sources

This study analyses the faunal remains of four Iron Age sites from eastern Botswana, namely Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18, Thabadimasego and Dukwe 25. Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18 and Thabadimasego date to the 9th century AD, and Dukwe 25 to the 15th century AD. The sites are significant as they date to critical time periods during which we see shifts in the socio-political organisation, towards increasing social complexity in the 9th century AD, and the establishment of powerful states in the 15th century AD. By comparing the results of Phoenix 17, Phoenix 18, Thabadimasego and Dukwe 25, it will also be possible to examine whether these sites point to regional, chronological or socio-cultural variability. Other sites in eastern Botswana together with the sites in this study, can give broad understanding into animal exploitation patterns during these time periods, specifically the relative use, social use and exploitation of animals. Understanding animal exploitation patterns can assist researchers in exploring the impact these communities had on their environment. In particular, how they reacted and responded to diverse environments, rich in wild fauna, such as the Makgadikgadi.
Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Anthropology and Archaeology
MA
Unrestricted

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2008.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Research conducted on beef cattle in Botswana investigated both growth and reproduction. These studies however, did not specifically determine the influence of the different environmental factors on growth in the Tswana and Composite beef cattle breeds. The establishment of a national beef herd recording and performance testing scheme requires knowledge on the appropriate adjustment methods of field data for the fixed effects such as sex of calf and age of dam. A fair comparison of birth and weaning weights between male and female calves, and calves born from young, mature and old dams will be derived from these adjustment factors. There is no information on adjustment factors for the Tswana and Composite cattle breeds in the country. Genetic parameters for growth traits in these breeds are not known and are needed for the implementation of the performance scheme in Botswana. The Composite breed resulted from a controlled crossbreeding programme using the Simmental, Brahman, Tswana, Tuli and the Bonsmara breeds. The Tswana animals are indigenous to the country and were sourced locally at the beginning of the growth evaluation trial in the two breeds. The objectives of the study were to use data collected from Tswana and Composite cattle breeds to estimate the influence of non-genetic factors on growth traits in the two breeds; to develop adjustment factors for the effects of sex of calf and age of dam; and to estimate genetic parameters (heritabilities and genetic correlations) for future genetic evaluations in both breeds. Data were collected over the period 1988 to 2006. A total of 2 257 records for the Composite breed and 5 923 records for the Tswana breed were available for analyses. Growth characteristics of interest in this study were birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW), pre-weaning average daily gain (ADG1), 18 months weight (18MW) and post-weaning average daily gain (ADG2). Study 1 indicated that non-genetic effects of breed of calf, sex of calf, month and year of birth, previous parous state, weight of cow at parturition, age of dam, and age of calf at weaning significantly affected BW, WW, 18MW, ADG1 and ADG2 in both breeds. The Composite breed had higher BW, ADG1 and WW whereas the Tswana had higher ADG2 and 18MW. Pre-weaning growth rate increased with an increase in the age of the dam, reaching a peak in mature (5-12 years) cows and declined in cows 13 years and older. Conversely, post-weaning growth rates declined as age of dam advanced but increased in old (13 years and older) dams. Male calves were heavier than female calves for all the growth traits. Birth weight increased as calving season progressed whilst a decrease in WW was observed over the same period. Heifers gave birth to lighter calves when compared to mature multiparous dams. The Composite breed can therefore be considered for weaner production under ranch conditions while the Tswana can be reared under extensive systems due to its adaptability to the environment. Additive correction factors for effects of sex of calf and age of dam on BW and WW were studied separately for the Tswana and Composite in study 2. The least squares means procedure was used to derive age groups and the adjustment factors. The three age groups were young (4 years and below) dams, mature (5-12 years) dams and older (13 years and above) dams. Male calves were heavier than their female counterparts. The sex of calf adjustments for BW and WW were 2.75 and 8.21 kg in the Tswana, and corresponding values for the Composite 2.84 and 10.11 kg, respectively. Birth weight and WW increased as age of dam increased, reached maximum in mature dams and declined in older dams. Age of dam adjustment factors for BW in the 3, 4 and 13+ years age groups for the Tswana were 1.74, 0.96 and 1.87 kg, respectively. The corresponding values for the Composite were 2.28, 0.94 and 2.06 kg, respectively. Age of dam adjustment factors for weaning weight in the Tswana were 10.36 and 5.46 kg for age groups 3-4 and 13+ years, respectively. Adjustment factors for WW in the Composite were 13.84, 3.20 and 9.58 kg for age groups 3, 4 and 13+ years. The differences in adjustment factors obtained between the two breeds emphasize the need to compute and apply these factors within breed. Study 3 involved the estimation of genetic parameters for BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW and ADG2. Single-trait and multi-trait analyses were used in the estimation of (co)variance components by fitting an individual animal model (AM) and the animal maternal model (AMM) for the two breeds. Direct heritabilities for BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW and ADG2 in the Tswana were 0.45, 0.32, 0.37, 0.31 and 0.31, respectively from a single-trait AM analysis. Fitting the AMM resulted in direct heritabilities of 0.31, 0.20 and 0.16 for BW, WW and ADG1, respectively, while the maternal heritabilities were 0.11, 0.15 and 0.21, respectively. For the Composite the direct heritabilities for BW, WW and ADG1 were 0.58, 0.32 and 0.30, respectively with single-trait AM. Partitioning using the AMM resulted in the direct heritabilities for BW, WW and ADG1 of 0.55, 0.17 and 0.14, respectively, while corresponding maternal effects were 0.09, 0.15 and 0.15, respectively. The genetic correlations between direct and maternal effects were positive and ranged from 0.20 to 0.89. When using the multi-trait analysis and fitting the AM, the direct heritabilities for the Tswana were 0.45, 0.37, 0.34, 0.39 and 0.31 for BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW and ADG2, respectively. Genetic correlations between the growth traits ranged from 0.16 to 0.97. Direct (and maternal) heritabilities for BW, WW and ADG1 were 0.31(0.11), 0.19(0.15) and 0.14(0.17), respectively, in the Tswana. Correlations between direct heritabilities for BW, WW and ADG1 ranged from 0.45 to 0.95, while maternal effects ranged from 0.12 to 0.99. The magnitude of the heritabilities indicates an existence of the opportunity to make genetic progress through selection in both breeds. Selection based on WW seems to be the ideal procedure to bring genetic improvement in the Tswana without detrimental long term effects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Navorsing wat op die vleisbeesrasse in Botswana gedoen is, het hoofsaaklik op beide groei en reproduksie gehandel. Hierdie studies het egter nie spesifieke gefokus op die bepaling van die invloed wat verskillende omgewingsfaktore op die groei van saamgestelde (d.i. Composite) en die Tswana vleisbeesrasse het nie. Die bepaling van ʼn nasionale vleisbees rekordhouding- en prestasietoetsskema verg kennis van die mees gepaste metode om velddata vir vaste effekte soos geslag van die kalf en ouderdom van die moeder aan te pas. Hierdie aanpassingsmetodes sal lei tot die regverdige vergelyking van geboorte- en speengewigte tussen manlike en vroulike diere, sowel as van kalwers gebore van jong, volwasse of ou moeders. Tans is daar geen inligting oor aanpassingfaktore vir die Tswana en saamgestelde vleisbeesrasse in Botswana bekend nie. Geen genetiese parameters vir groei-eienskappe vir geeneen van die rasse is beskikbaar nie en word benodig vir die implementering van die prestasie skema in Botswana. Die saamgestelde ras is die produk van ʼn beheerde kruisteeltprogram, wat onderskeidelik die Simmental, Brahman, Tswana, Tuli en die Bonsmara beesrasse ingesluit het. Die Tswana ras is inheems aan Botswana en vanaf plaaslike bronne vir die groei evaluasie studie bekom. Die doelwitte van die studie was eerstens die analisering van data wat van beide die Tswana en saamgestelde rasse ingesamel is, om die invloed van nie-genetiese faktore op die groei eienskappe te bepaal om ten einde aanpassingsfaktore vir die effek van geslag van die kalf en ouderdom van die moederdier te ontwikkel. ʼn Tweede doelwit was die bepaling van genetiese parameters (oorerflikhede en genetiese korrelasies) vir die gebruik in toekomstige genetiese evaluering van beide rasse. Data is vanaf 1988 tot 2006 ingesamel. ʼn Totaal van 2 257 waarnemings vir die saamgestelde ras en 5 923 waarnemings vir die Tswana ras is ontleed. Groei eienskappe wat in die studie ondersoek is, het geboortegewig (BW), speengewig (WW), voorspeen gemiddelde daaglikse toename (ADG1), 18-maand gewig (18MW) en naspeense gemiddelde daaglikse toename (ADG2) ingesluit. Studie een het aangedui dat nie-genetiese effekte van die ras van die kalf, die geslag van die kalf, maand en jaar van geboorte, vorige dragtigheidsstatus, koei se gewig met geboorte van kalf, ouderdom van die moederdier en die speenouderdom van die kalf het ʼn betekenisvolle invloed op BW, WW, 18MW, ADG1 en ADG2 van beide rasse gehad. Die saamgestelde ras het hoër waardes vir BW, ADG1 en WW gehad, terwyl die Tswana ras hoër waardes vir ADG2 en 18MW geopenbaar het. Voorspeense groeitempo het toegeneem met ʼn toename in die ouderdom van die moederdier, met ʼn piek in volwasse (d.i. 5-12 jaar ouderdom) moeders en ʼn afname in koeie 13 jaar en ouer. Omgekeerd het naspeen groeitempo afgeneem met ʼn toename in die ouderdom van die moederdier en weer begin toeneem vir ou (d.i. 13 jaar en ouer) koeie. Geboortegewig het toegeneem met die verloop van die kalfseisoen, terwyl ʼn afname in WW vir dieselfde periode aangeteken is. Verse het, wanneer hulle met volwasse koeie vergelyk is, het geboorte aan ligter kalwers gegee. Die saamgestelde ras kan dus oorweeg word vir die produksie van speenkalwers onder kommersiële intensiewe toestande, terwyl die Tswana ras, op grond van sy beter aanpassing by ekstensiewe omstandighede waar die moederlike invloed nie voorkom nie, vir produksie onder ekstensiewe omstandighede gebruik kan word. In studie 2 is die additiewe korreksie faktore vir die invloed van geslag van die kalf en moederouderdom op BW en WW apart vir die twee rasse bestudeer. Die geslag van die kalf x ouderdom van die moederdier interaksie was nie betekenisvol vir enige van die rasse nie. Dus kan geen aanpassing vir die ouderdom van die moeder binne geslagte vir enige van die twee rasse gemaak word nie. Die kleinste kwadraat gemiddeldes metode is gebruik om die ouderdomsgroepe en aanpassingsfaktore te bepaal. Die drie ouderdomsgroepe was jong (d.i. 4 jaar en jonger) koeie, volwasse (d.i. 5-12 jaar ouderdom) en ouer (d.i. 13 jaar en ouer) koeie. Daar is gevind dat manlike kalwers swaarders as hulle vroulike eweknieë is. Die aanpassingswaarde vir die geslag van die kalf vir BW en WW was 2.75 kg en 8.21 kg in die Tswana en 2.84 kg en 10.11kg vir die saamgestelde ras. Geboortegewig en WW het toegeneem met ʼn toename in die ouderdom van die moeder. Dit het ʼn maksimum bereik in volwasse koeie en afgeneem vir koeie ouer as 13 jaar. Die aanpassingsfaktore vir die ouderdom van die moederdier vir BW in die 3, 4 and 13+ jarige ouderdomsgroepe vir die Tswana ras was onderskeidelik 1.74 kg, 0.96 kg en 1.87 kg. Die ooreenstemmende waardes vir die saamgestelde ras was onderskeidelik 2.28 kg, 0.94 kg en 2.06 kg. Aanpassingsfaktore vir WW vir die Tswana ras was 10.36 kg en 5.46 kg vir onderskeidelik die 3-4 jaar en 13+ jaar en ouer ouderdomsgroepe. Aanpassingsfaktore vir WW in die Composite ras was 13.84 kg, 3.20 kg en 9.58 kg vir onderskeidelik die 3 jaar, 4 jaar en 13 jaar en ouer ouderdomsgroepe. Verskille in die onderskeie parameters vir die twee rasse beklemtoon die noodsaaklikheid vir die berekening en toepassing van die onderskeie aanpassingfaktore vir en binne elke ras. Studie 3 het die bepaling van die genetiese parameters vir BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW en ADG2 behels. Enkel- en multivariaat analises is gebruik vir die skatting van die (ko)variansie komponente deur ʼn direkte diermodel (AM) en ʼn dier-maternale model (AMM) vir die twee rasse te pas. Direkte oorerflikhede vir BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW en ADG2 vir die Tswana ras was onderskeidelik 0.45, 0.32, 0.37, 0.31 en 0.31, vir ʼn enkelvariaat AM analise. Die pas van ʼn AMM het direkte oorerflikhede van 0.31, 0.20 en 0.16 vir onderskeidelik BW, WW and ADG1 gegee, terwyl die maternale oorerflikhede onderskeidelik 0.11, 0.15 en 0.21 was. Vir die saamgestelde ras was die direkte oorerflikhede vir BW, WW en ADG1 onderskeidelik 0.58, 0.32 en 0.30 vir die enkelvariaat AM analise. Verdeling (partisie) van die AMM het direkte oorerflikhede vir BW, WW en ADG1 van onderskeidelik 0.55, 0.17 en 0.14 gegee, terwyl die ooreenstemmende maternale effekte onderskeidelik 0.09, 0.15 en 0.15 was. Die genetiese korrelasies tussen die drekte en maternale effekte was positief en tussen 0.20 en 0.89. Met die multivariaat analise en die pas van die AM, is direkte oorerflikhede van 0.45, 0.37, 0.34, 0.39 en 0.31 vir onderskeidelik BW, WW, ADG1, 18MW en ADG2, vir die Tswana ras bereken. Genetiese korrelasies tussen die groei eienskappe het gewissel tussen 0.16 tot 0.97. Direkte (en maternale) oorerflikhede vir BW, WW en ADG1 was onderskeidelik 0.31(0.11), 0.19(0.15) en 0.14(0.17), vir die Tswana ras. Korrelasies tussen die direkte oorerflikhede vir BW, WW en ADG1 het gewissel tussen 0.45 en 0.95, terwyl die maternale effekte tussen 0.12 en 0.99 gewissel het. Die grootte van die oorerflikhede dui op die moontlikheid van genetiese vordering wat deur seleksie in beide rasse gemaak kan word. Seleksie op grond van WW blyk die mees gepaste wyse te wees waarmee genetiese vordering binne die Tswana ras gemaak kan word, sonder enige langtermyn nadelige effekte.

Thesis (MScFor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) have been subject to persecution by farmers following livestock depredation in adjacent grazing areas. In recent years at least one adult female was killed annually from a sub-population of five boundary prides that have home ranges adjoining these livestock grazing areas. While no long-term records of human-caused mortality are available, the impact of current rates of human-caused mortality is uncertain. Female-based, age-structured models were thus used to estimate the long-term viability of the KTP lion sub-population subjected to human-caused mortality under deterministic and stochastic environmental conditions. Population parameters incorporated in the models included age-class specific natural mortality, female fecundity and birth sex ratio. In so doing sustainable threshold rates of persecution were established, so that effective conservation measures can be taken, if required, to ensure the continued survival of boundary prides in the park. Sensitivity analyses of natural survival rates indicated that adult female survivorship is the most important population parameter with respect to maintaining population viability, compared to younger female age-classes, fecundity or birth sex ratio. Hence adults were also the most sensitive age-class with respect to human-caused mortality, as adult survival repeatedly acts upon individuals with the highest reproductive value. In the deterministic model, with the most optimistic survival parameter values, fecundity and birth sex ratio (female-biased) estimates, the sub-population is only able to sustain an annual persecution of three adult females, before the sub-population exhibits a sustained decline. In the worst-case scenario, where fecundity and sex ratio estimates are at their lower extremes, the maximum sustainable age-class specific persecution rate is zero, for all age-classes. Whilst these hypothetical scenarios are unrealistic, they do highlight the extreme thresholds of potentially sustainable persecution rates. Under the most optimistic scenario using the stochastic model, the highest achievable survival probability of the sub-population, when subjected to a persecution rate of one adult annually, was 78%. Although increased fecundity and birth sex ratio biased towards females may increase the survival probability, these parameters are generally at their mean values in the long-term, and may thus not necessarily prevent a sustained population decline. The models therefore suggest that the current persecution rate of one adult annually (or 4% of the adult sub-population), appears unsustainable in the longterm. To ensure the survival of existing boundary prides and to maintain a viable subpopulation, adult lionesses should, as far as possible, be afforded protection from persecution.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vrylewende leeus (Panthera leo) in die Kgalagadi Oorgrenspark (KTP) is onderworpe aan vervolging deur boere as gevolg van predasie op vee in aangrensende weidingsgebiede. In onlangse jare is ten minste een volwasse wyfie uit ‘n subpopulasie van vyf troppe met loopareas wat aan die weidingsgebiede grens, jaarliks uitgewis. Geen langtermyn rekords van vrektes as gevolg van menslike oorsake is beskikbaar nie, en die impak van vrektes wat deur mense veroorsaak word, is dus onseker. Wyfie-gebaseerde, ouderdomgestruktureerde modelle is daarom gebruik om te voorspel wat die langtermyn lewensvatbaarheid is van die KTP leeu subpopulasie wat onderworpe is aan vrektes deur menslike invloede onder deterministiese en stogastiese omgewingsfaktore. Bevolkingsfaktore wat deur die modelle in ag geneem is, sluit ouderdomsgroep-spesifieke natuurlike vrektes, aanwas van wyfies en geboorte geslagsverhouding in. Sodoende is volhoubare uitwissingstempos bepaal sodat, indien nodig, effektiewe bewaringsmeganismes toegepas kan word om die voortbestaan van troppe in die grensgebiede van die park te verseker. Sensitiwiteitsanalises van natuurlike oorlewingstempos het aangetoon dat volwasse wyfies se oorlewing die belangrikste bevolkingsfaktor is om die bevolking se lewensvatbaarheid te volhou vergeleke met jonger wyfie ouderdomsgroepe, aanwas of geslagsverhouding by geboorte. Daarom was volwassenes ook die sensitiefste vir vrektes as gevolg van menslike invloede, omdat die oorlewing van volwassenes herhaaldelik inwerk op individue met die hoogste reproduktiewe waarde. In die deterministiese model met die mees optimistiese oorlewing, aanwas en geboorte verhouding (wyfie-gebasseerde) beramings, is die subpopulasie slegs in staat om ‘n jaarlikse uitwissing van drie volwasse wyfies te onderhou, voordat die sub-populasie ‘n volgehoue afname toon. In die uiterste geval waar aanwas en geslags verhouding skattings op die laagste is, is die maksimum volhoubare ouderdomsklasspesifieke beramings nul vir alle ouderdomsklasse. Terwyl hierdie hipotetiese senario’s onrealisties is, onderstreep dit die uiterste vlakke van potensiële volhoubare uitwissingstempos. Onder die mees optimistiese senario – ‘n uitwissingstempo van een volwassene jaarliks – met die gebruik van die stogastiese model, was die hoogste haalbare oorlewingswaarskynlikheid van die sub-populasie 78%. Alhoewel ‘n toename in aanwas en geboorte geslagsverhouding (met oorhelling na wyfies), ‘n toename in oorlewingswaarskynlikheid tot gevolg kan hê, is hierdie faktore oor die algemeen gemiddeld oor die langtermyn en sal dit nie noodwendig ‘n volgehoue afname in die populasie verhoed nie. Die modelle dui daarop dat die huidige uitwissingstempo van een volwassene (of 4% van die volwasse sub-populasie) op ‘n jaarlikse grondslag onvolhoubaar is oor die langtermyn. Om die oorlewing van bestaande troppe in die grensgebiede, asook ‘n lewensvatbare subpopulasie, te verseker, moet volwasse leeuwyfies so ver as moontlik teen vervolging beskerm word.

Intraguild competition and predation have been recognised as important ecological factors influencing the population dynamics of carnivores. The effects of these interactions are often asymmetrical due to a size-related dominancy hierarchy. However, it has been suggested that competitively subordinate carnivores can minimise the costs of predation and competition through spatial and temporal avoidance. Here I investigate the ecological and behavioural mechanisms by which cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) coexist with competitively stronger lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta). Fieldwork was carried out in the Okavango Delta, northern Botswana, between October 2008 and August 2011. A total of 20 Global Positioning System (GPS) radio-collars were fitted on all known cheetahs (n=6), lion prides (n=5) and spotted hyaena clans (n=6) in the study area (approx. 3 000 km²). Pre-programmed radio-collars recorded locations and activity continuously for each individual and these data were complemented with direct behavioural observations. Cheetah data were analysed with respect to the temporal and spatial likelihood of encountering lions and spotted hyaenas. Results suggest that the response to the risks posed by other predators is species-specific, habitat-specific and dependent on the immediacy of the risk. Resource partitioning was not the main mechanism for coexistence as cheetahs overlapped extensively with lions and spotted hyaenas in time, space and habitat use. Instead, cheetahs adjusted their spatial distribution in response to immediate risks or adapted their habitat use depending on their vulnerability (e.g. behaviours such as feeding or with differing levels of moonlight at night). In general, cheetah temporal and spatial distribution is a hierarchal process, firstly driven by resource acquisition and thereafter fine-tuned by predator avoidance. In addition, habitat heterogeneity seemed to be key in facilitating coexistence. Understanding the behavioural mechanisms that interacting apex predators adopt to regulate these negative interactions could be crucial to carnivore conservation, especially as human-related habitat loss is forcing species into ever smaller areas.

Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more cattle than those who own few. Gweta contrasts with Khumaga, having livestock predation highest during dry seasons, less reduction in livestock sales and a lower value of pending compensation claims. These predation patterns synchronise with movements of zebra and wildebeest to and from the Boteti river. Losses of livestock affect the utility derived from livestock and monetary gains from direct sales. Costs due to loss of biodiversity, though not quantified, add to those borne by the State through predator control. Both the State and the farmers loose. These losses reduce the incentives of the latter to conserve species that contribute reduction in their returns. The issue of State expenditure on predator control illustrates the possible need for re-direction of such funds into farmer-based predator control, much as an integral part of the current southern African trend of community-based natural resource management. Key words: livestock predation, predator control, economics, conservation, Botswana.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Human-wildlife conflict continues to grow as a concern across the world. The conflict is experienced in many different forms and it has become persistent on the pastoral lands that are situated closer to the boundaries of protected areas with livestock predation being the most prevalent form of conflict. The type and severity of the conflict is largely dependent on the predator involved and the efficiency of the mitigation techniques employed. In an attempt to minimise human-wildlife interactions, many countries have set aside pieces of land for biodiversity conservation and management of wildlife species. However, the majority of these protected areas are too small to meet the ecological requirements of resident medium-large predator species. This results in some species dispersing into the neighbouring unprotected land where they come into contact with domestic animals, killing them and sometimes causing injuries. These livestock attacks ultimately trigger indiscriminate killing of predators that is fuelled by economic losses that are accrued through livestock predation and communities‟ I ABSTRACT Human-wildlife conflict continues to grow as a concern across the world. The conflict is experienced in many different forms and it has become persistent on the pastoral lands that are situated closer to the boundaries of protected areas with livestock predation being the most prevalent form of conflict. The type and severity of the conflict is largely dependent on the predator involved and the efficiency of the mitigation techniques employed. In an attempt to minimise human-wildlife interactions, many countries have set aside pieces of land for biodiversity conservation and management of wildlife species. However, the majority of these protected areas are too small to meet the ecological requirements of resident medium-large predator species. This results in some species dispersing into the neighbouring unprotected land where they come into contact with domestic animals, killing them and sometimes causing injuries. These livestock attacks ultimately trigger indiscriminate killing of predators that is fuelled by economic losses that are accrued through livestock predation and communities‟ negative perceptions towards predators. Camera trapping and spoor count techniques were used to study the occupancy of medium-large predator species and their movement in and out of Jwana Game Park through the holes that occur under the park‟s perimeter fence. In addition, a questionnaire survey was conducted in the cattle posts that are situated adjacent to Jwana Game Park. Seven medium-large predator species were detected within the boundaries of the park. Occupancy estimates varied among the predator species within the different sections of the game park. Predators also exhibited movement between the park and adjacent pastoral land using holes that occurred under the park‟s boundary fence. A total of 128 active holes were recorded under the park‟s perimeter fence with the majority (62%) of the intensively used holes occurring in the south-west section of the park. A total of 185 predator images were recorded at the various holes under the boundary fence with black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) constituting the majority (45%) of capture events. Human wildlife conflict is common on the neighbouring farmlands and jackal was perceived to be responsible for the majority of the livestock depredation incidents of small stock (mainly goats), whereas leopard was perceived as the most problematic predator species on the commercial cattle ranches where it accounted for 63% of livestock losses. There was no association between the occupancy of predators inside the park and the use of holes that occur under the park‟s the boundary fence. Conflict mitigation techniques were not efficiently practiced by communities farming in the vicinity of the game park, which potentially contributed to increased livestock attacks. The incapability of the boundary fence to restrict animal movement could also contribute to increased unwanted predator-livestock interactions.
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

thesis submitted to the School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Science. Johannesburg 2016.
The Okavango Delta in northern Botswana contains the largest, unfenced lion population in southern Africa, and is one of the most important population strongholds for the species on the continent. Despite its conservation importance, however, little information has been published on the drivers of lion ecology in this unique wetland ecosystem. In the Okavango Delta, the annual flood pulse causes dramatic seasonal contractions of available dry land, and consequently variable distribution and abundance of prey. Lions must therefore adapt to a dynamic environment not only on an annual basis, but also on a longer time-scale as inundation patterns cycle from periods of low to high floods. The main aim of the study was to determine which social and ecological factors were most important in determining lion population demographics and social organisation in the unique wetland environment of the Okavango Delta. Data were intensively collected on demographic rates and social organisation of five resident lion prides in the south-western Okavango Delta from 1997 to 2004, during which inundation patterns shifted from low to high floods. We investigated the effects of two ecological factors, namely prey availability and flood extent, and one social factor, namely intra-specific competition, on lion social organisation and population demographics. Lions occurred at high densities, and the population was regulated socially and not by resource limitation. Our results indicated that competition with neighbours exerted the most extensive influence on the lion population and significantly affected the survival of young cubs and reproductive rates. Competition reduced pride size, but contrary to our expectations, also negatively influenced sub-group size, indicating that territorial disputes do not drive sub-group patterns in the Okavango Delta. Prey availability did not appear to be an important limiting factor for the population, and group sizes were inversely related to prey availability, most likely due to habitat saturation resulting in higher levels of recruitment. Prey availability only influenced survival of young cubs, which are most vulnerable to nutritional stress. Higher levels of flooding led to smaller pride and sub-group sizes, indicating that higher flood levels for extended periods may lead to a decline in lion densities due to increased competition for available dry land. While flooding exerted no direct effect on demographic rates, we posit that habitat conversion during high flood cycles causes a decline in prey, resulting in a time-lagged effect on the lion population. Our results show that during low flood cycles when herbivore abundance is high, lions occur at high densities and are largely self-regulated. However, as flood levels increase, prey availability declines and lions are placed under increasing pressure for space and resources, which could ultimately lead to population decline. From a conservation perspective, the south-western Okavango Delta population is thus most vulnerable during periods of high floods, when lion densities naturally decline, and lions may be pushed towards the veterinary fence where human-lion conflict is high. Future studies should focus on how anthropogenic threats around the Okavango Delta threaten the viability of the lion population in this conservation area, and seek to secure important corridors to neighbouring populations. Keywords: lion, Panthera leo, social organisation, pride size, population demographics, survival reproduction, Okavango Delta, flooding, competition, prey abundance
LG2017

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 5 September 2016, Johannesburg, South Africa.
There is an urgent need to study the effects of elephants on biodiversity given the ability of megaherbivores to transform vegetation composition, structure and function by killing selected plants. Within a biodiversity framework of different aspects of diversity across different scales, we need to understand elephant effects across time and space, acknowledging disequilibrium dynamics of savannas. However, most savanna studies are conducted either over a short time frame, over a limited spatial extent, or without species compositional data. The Linyanti riparian woodland in northern Botswana represents a valuable opportunity to study the effects of elephants as it is subject to extremely high elephant concentrations in the dry season as elephants congregate on the perennial river. Moreover, because of trampling effects by large herbivores and high soil moisture, fire is largely excluded, allowing the study of intense elephant impacts in relative isolation. This PhD thesis aims to assess long-term (16-18 years) compositional and structural change at a large spatial scale (50 km of riverfront) of the Linyanti riparian woodland, built upon two earlier studies in 1992/2 and 2001. Specifically, it aims to establish the effects of elephants on 1) the spatial heterogeneity of disturbance across the woodland; 2) compositional changes of the canopy tree layer caused by elephant impacts; 3) the potential of the woodland to regenerate from seedlings; 4) structural changes due to woodland decline and shrub increase. It finally aims to synthesise these findings for biodiversity and the implications for conservation and management. Spatial heterogeneity was assessed by delineating patches of intense disturbance using the clustering algorithm DBSCAN. I manually marked dead trees within a 2000 ha overlapping riparian area from the 1992, 2001, and 2010 aerial photographs and determined these trees were significantly clustered in the landscape to form patches of disturbance. Disturbance patches were highly dynamic over the period where small patches appeared, grew and coalesced over time, whilst a few patches fragmented or disappeared. The overall dynamic was of smaller patches coalescing resulting in the total patch area increasing from 6% in 1992 to 23% in 2010. Mortality increased mostly in the inter-patch areas but the overall dead tree appearance rate of 0.28 trees.ha.yr-1 was not much higher than a background tree death rate calculated for exclosures in other areas. The slow mortality rate coupled with progressive decline suggests there was little recruitment into the canopy to replace the trees that were lost. Even though large areas remained that were not classified as disturbance patches, there was evidence of increased fragmentation where inter-patch areas became increasingly small and isolated. This increase in greater areas of disturbance represents a state shift to decreased heterogeneity although landscape patchiness still remained in 2010. Projections were that mortality rate and patch formation would decrease. To assess compositional changes, I reconstructed the pre-1992 canopy tree woodland by combining both living and dead trees in 1992, and compared this to the 1992 and 2008 woodland composition. The woodland showed progressive declines from an Acacia spp.-Colophospermum mopane dominated tall tree woodland pre-1992 to a woodland in 2008 composed primarily of two resilient species (C. mopane, Combretum hereroense), and one avoided species (Philenoptera violacea). I compiled Size Class Distributions of individual canopy tree species and compared proportional high impact on living and dead trees between 1992 and 2008. High elephant impact was defined as more than 50% stem circumference ringbarked or with the main stem or majority of side stems broken. I found that elephant impact was the likely cause of the woodland decline, although wind and natural senescence were variably important for some species. The acacias had nearly disappeared from the woodland, declining in proportional abundance from 30% in the reconstructed pre-1992 woodland to just 4% in 2008. Over time there was a progressive shift in elephant impact from abundant preferred and vulnerable species like Acacia spp. and Terminalia spp. to species more resistant to debarking like Combretum imberbe and Berchemia discolor. The abundant species C. mopane proved highly resilient to intensive elephant impact. The seedling layer (plants below 0.5m) had high proportions of canopy tree species including the acacias, and all but the rarest species were recorded. This suggests regeneration of the woodland is possible but there was a demographic bottleneck of seedling mortality with few saplings recorded over the time period. To determine the structural changes which have taken place, I separated shrub species and canopy-forming tree species and assessed density changes in the sapling (<2.5m) and tree (>2.5m) layers. Tall (>2.5m) canopy tree density decreased by half between 1992 and 2008, representing an annual loss rate of 2.7% without replacement. Except for Colophospermum mopane, there was no compensatory regeneration in the form of saplings. Colophospermum mopane was highly resilient to elephant impacts, coppicing vigorously following impact to form local ‘browsing lawns’ which may benefit other browsers. The overall shrub density increased 2.5 times while one shrub species (Combretum mossambicense) increased five-fold in density and came to constitute 50% of the total woody plant density. This shrub species increased rapidly, at an exponential growth rate of 10.5% per year, representing pervasive shrub encroachment. Its invasion wave was incipient in 1992 and by 2008 many of these plants had grown beyond 2.5 m in height, forming a dense screen. Small plants of this species <1 m in height had become sparse by 2008, suggesting that the invasion had become curtailed by then. I proposed that the spread of this shrub was due to its unpalatability by elephants, although it is an important browse species for ruminants. A potential global driver of enriched atmospheric CO2 or regional aridification could not be ruled out. The state shift from woodland towards dense shrubland caused by differential elephant impacts has potential negative consequences for structural and functional diversity. I attempted to synthesize the findings for biodiversity and concluded that there was a state shift towards pervasive disturbance with a corresponding decline in spatial heterogeneity, although composition of the disturbance patches was not studied. There has however, not been a state transformation from woodland and stands of tall trees were still present in the woodland. Coupled with the potential regeneration of the woodland from seedlings, these findings highlight the importance of long-term studies of non-equilibrium savannas. The main threat to biodiversity of the woodland was not elephant-induced mortality of large trees, but rather the lack of recruitment and the pervasive shrub encroachment of a single species. It may be, however, that alternate states of canopy trees and unpalatable shrubs exists, enhancing long-term functional diversity, provided the system remains relatively open and elephants are free to move to other areas. Ultimately the only management strategy of relatively open areas with high elephant concentrations is to accept changes and support transfrontier conservation efforts. I further assess the limitations of this study, and make recommendations for future study, specifically highlighting the need for a longer-term palaeo-ecological study to evaluate compositional changes due to episodic recruitment events.
LG2017

Understanding how African elephants (Loxodonta africana) respond to human interactions in ecotourism operations is critical to safeguarding animal and human welfare and sustaining wildlife ecotourism activities. We investigated the stress response of elephants to a variety of tourist activities over a 15-month period at Abu Camp in northern Botswana. We compared fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations across three elephant groups, including: eight elephants in an elephant-tourism operation (Abu herd), three elephants previously reintroduced back into the wild from the Abu herd, and wild elephants. There were no differences in FGM concentrations between the three groups of elephants. The highest observed FGM concentrations were associated with episodic events (e.g. intraherd conflict, loud noise, physical injury) unrelated to tourist activities. FGM concentrations differed between the elephant-tourist activities with ride only and mixed ride/walk activities eliciting higher FGM concentrations compared to days when there were no elephant-tourist interactions. The elephant experience tourism industry faces challenges in managing elephants who’s aggressive or unpredictable behavior makes them ill-suited to captivity, training, and interaction with handlers and tourists. Reintroduction of these elephants back into the wild may be a favorable solution if the welfare of released individuals, recipient wild animal populations, and human populations can be ensured. We describe the post-release movements of two African elephants, one female and one bull, from an elephant-back-safari enterprise in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. We compared the movements of the female with that of two wild females collared in the same wildlife management concession. We assess their home range size, proximity to human dwellings, and fidelity to their former home range as former members of their semi-captive, working herd from which they were released. We found significant differences between the home range size of our released elephant and that of the two wild elephants. Additionally, the released female and released bull occurred more frequently in close proximity (within 250 m) to tourist lodges throughout the Delta. The released elephants also frequented sites used by the working Abu herd with greater frequency than the wild elephants, and this visitation rate did not significantly decline during respective four- and two-year post-release monitoring periods, despite the positive growth in home range size.