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Journal articles on the topic 'Anisogamie'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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1

Villa, Paula-Irene. "Geschlecht: Die Magie der Anisogamie." Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung 32, no. 03 (September 2019): 157–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-0977-6524.

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ZusammenfassungDer Beitrag setzt sich mit den Argumenten und Studien auseinander, die Ponseti und Stirn aufbringen. Ihnen wird ein biologischer Reduktionismus bescheinigt, der paradoxerweise das Unbehagen an der identitäts-subjektiven Engführung von Geschlecht durch eine spiegelbildliche Engführung von Geschlecht auf Anisogamie wiederholt. Als bessere Alternative wird ein biosoziales Verständnis von Geschlecht skizziert, das der empirischen Komplexität von Geschlechtlichkeit sowie dessen (Un-)verfügbarkeit besser gerecht wird.

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2

Ponseti, Jorge, and Aglaja Stirn. "Wie viele Geschlechter gibt es und kann man sie wechseln?" Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung 32, no. 03 (September 2019): 131–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-0978-7137.

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ZusammenfassungDie Aufteilung des Menschen in zwei Geschlechter wurde in jüngerer Vergangenheit kritisiert, da es keine genaue Grenze zwischen beiden Geschlechtern gebe und weil die Vorstellung von der Existenz zweier Geschlechter selbst das Ergebnis eines sozialen Konstruktionsprozesses sei. Daher sei Geschlecht etwas, was eine Person nur für sich bestimmen könne, folglich Transsexualität/Geschlechtsdysphorie keine psychische Störung und die Ansprüche der Betroffenen nach selbstbestimmter Wahl geschlechtsangleichender Maßnahmen legitim.In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die klassische Auffassung der Zweigeschlechtlichkeit durch die Fortpflanzungsfunktion begründet. Die Unterschiedlichkeit von Samen- und Eizelle (Anisogamie) hat weitreichende Konsequenzen für die Lebenswirklichkeit des Menschen und begründet geschlechtstypische Verhaltensneigungen und Geschlechtsrollen. Der aktuelle Begriff Geschlechtsidentität wird kritisiert und einem anderen Identitätskonzept, das therapeutische Anknüpfungspunkte bietet, gegenübergestellt. Ferner wird erläutert, wie sich die Kritik am klassischen Geschlechtsbegriff nachteilig für die Sexualwissenschaft sowie auch für die Therapie geschlechtsdysphorischer Menschen auswirkt. Die Annahme, dass eine Psychotherapie der Geschlechtsdysphorie unethisch ist, wird diskutiert und den Ergebnissen neuerer Katamnesestudien gegenübergestellt. Unter Berücksichtigung neurowissenschaftlicher Studien werden Vorschläge für eine neue psychotherapeutische Strategie gemacht.

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3

Bulmer, Michael G., Pieternella C. Luttikhuizen, and Geoff A. Parker. "Survival and anisogamy." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17, no. 8 (August 2002): 357–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02537-5.

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4

Randerson, James P., and Laurence D. Hurst. "Survival and anisogamy." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17, no. 8 (August 2002): 358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02538-7.

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5

Lehtonen, Jussi. "The Legacy of Parker, Baker and Smith 1972: Gamete Competition, the Evolution of Anisogamy, and Model Robustness." Cells 10, no. 3 (March 5, 2021): 573. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells10030573.

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The evolution of anisogamy or gamete size dimorphism is a fundamental transition in evolutionary history, and it is the origin of the female and male sexes. Although mathematical models attempting to explain this transition have been published as early as 1932, the 1972 model of Parker, Baker, and Smith is considered to be the first explanation for the evolution of anisogamy that is consistent with modern evolutionary theory. The central idea of the model is ingenious in its simplicity: selection simultaneously favours large gametes for zygote provisioning, and small gametes for numerical competition, and under certain conditions the outcome is anisogamy. In this article, I derive novel analytical solutions to a 2002 game theoretical update of the 1972 anisogamy model, and use these solutions to examine its robustness to variation in its central assumptions. Combining new results with those from earlier papers, I find that the model is quite robust to variation in its central components. This kind of robustness is crucially important in a model for an early evolutionary transition where we may only have an approximate understanding of constraints that the different parts of the model must obey.

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6

Lehtonen, Jussi, Hanna Kokko, and Geoff A. Parker. "What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371, no. 1706 (October 19, 2016): 20150532. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0532.

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Isogamy is a reproductive system where all gametes are morphologically similar, especially in terms of size. Its importance goes beyond specific cases: to this day non-anisogamous systems are common outside of multicellular animals and plants, they can be found in all eukaryotic super-groups, and anisogamous organisms appear to have isogamous ancestors. Furthermore, because maleness is synonymous with the production of small gametes, an explanation for the initial origin of males and females is synonymous with understanding the transition from isogamy to anisogamy. As we show here, this transition may also be crucial for understanding why sex itself remains common even in taxa with high costs of male production (the twofold cost of sex). The transition to anisogamy implies the origin of male and female sexes, kickstarts the subsequent evolution of sex roles, and has a major impact on the costliness of sexual reproduction. Finally, we combine some of the consequences of isogamy and anisogamy in a thought experiment on the maintenance of sexual reproduction. We ask what happens if there is a less than twofold benefit to sex (not an unlikely scenario as large short-term benefits have proved difficult to find), and argue that this could lead to a situation where lineages that evolve anisogamy—and thus the highest costs of sex—end up being associated with constraints that make invasion by asexual reproduction unlikely (the ‘anisogamy gateway’ hypothesis). This article is part of the themed issue ‘Weird sex: the underappreciated diversity of sexual reproduction’.

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7

Schnepf, E., and G. Drebes. "Anisogamy in the dinoflagellateNoctiluca?" Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 47, no. 3 (October 1993): 265–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02367168.

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8

Monro, Keyne, and Dustin J. Marshall. "Unravelling anisogamy: egg size and ejaculate size mediate selection on morphology in free-swimming sperm." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283, no. 1834 (July 13, 2016): 20160671. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0671.

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Gamete dimorphism (anisogamy) defines the sexes in most multicellular organisms. Theoretical explanations for its maintenance usually emphasize the size-related selection pressures of sperm competition and zygote survival, assuming that fertilization of all eggs precludes selection for phenotypes that enhance fertility. In external fertilizers, however, fertilization is often incomplete due to sperm limitation, and the risk of polyspermy weakens the advantage of high sperm numbers that is predicted to limit sperm size, allowing alternative selection pressures to target free-swimming sperm. We asked whether egg size and ejaculate size mediate selection on the free-swimming sperm of Galeolaria caespitosa , a marine tubeworm with external fertilization, by comparing relationships between sperm morphology and male fertility across manipulations of egg size and sperm density. Our results suggest that selection pressures exerted by these factors may aid the maintenance of anisogamy in external fertilizers by limiting the adaptive value of larger sperm in the absence of competition. In doing so, our study offers a more complete explanation for the stability of anisogamy across the range of sperm environments typical of this mating system and identifies new potential for the sexes to coevolve via mutual selection pressures exerted by gametes at fertilization.

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9

da Silva, Jack, and Victoria L. Drysdale. "Isogamy in large and complex volvocine algae is consistent with the gamete competition theory of the evolution of anisogamy." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1890 (November 7, 2018): 20181954. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1954.

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Although the gamete competition theory remains the dominant explanation for the evolution of anisogamy, well-known exceptions to its predictions have raised doubts about the completeness of the theory. One of these exceptions is isogamy in large or complex species of green algae. Here, we show that this exception may be explained in a manner consistent with a game-theoretic extension of the original theory: a constraint on the minimum size of a gamete may prevent the evolution of continuously stable anisogamy. We show that in the volvocine algae, both gametes of isogamous species retain an intact chloroplast, whereas the chloroplast of the microgamete in anisogamous species is invariably degenerate. The chloroplast, which functions in photosynthesis and starch storage, may be necessary to provision a gamete for an extended period when gamete encounter rates are low. The single chloroplast accounts for most of the volume of a typical gamete, and thus may constrain the minimum size of a gamete, preventing the evolution of anisogamy. A prediction from this hypothesis, that isogametes should be larger than the microgametes of similar-size species, is confirmed for the volvocine algae. Our results support the gamete competition theory.

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10

Lehtonen, Jussi, and Heikki Helanterä. "Superorganismal anisogamy: queen–male dimorphism in eusocial insects." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1928 (June 10, 2020): 20200635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0635.

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Colonies of insects such as ants and honeybees are commonly viewed as ‘superorganisms’, with division of labour between reproductive ‘germline-like’ queens and males and ‘somatic’ workers. On this view, properties of the superorganismal colony are comparable with those of solitary organisms to such an extent that the colony itself can be viewed as a unit analogous to an organism. Thus, the concept of a superorganism can be useful as a guide to thinking about life history and allocation traits of colonies as a whole. A pattern that seems to reoccur in insects with superorganismal societies is size dimorphism between queens and males, where queens tend to be larger than males. It has been proposed that this is analogous to the phenomenon of anisogamy at the level of gametes in organisms with separate sexes; more specifically, it is suggested that this caste dimorphism may have evolved via similar selection pressures as gamete dimorphism arises in the ‘gamete competition’ theory for the evolution of anisogamy. In this analogy, queens are analogous to female gametes, males are analogous to male gametes, and colony survival is analogous to zygote survival in gamete competition theory. Here, we explore if this question can be taken beyond an analogy, and whether a mathematical model at the superorganism level, analogous to gamete competition at the organism level, may explain the caste dimorphism seen in superorganismal insects. We find that the central theoretical idea holds, but that there are also significant differences between the way this generalized ‘propagule competition’ theory operates at the levels of solitary organisms and superorganisms. In particular, we find that the theory can explain superorganismal caste dimorphism, but compared with anisogamy evolution, a central coevolutionary link is broken, making the requirements for the theory to work less stringent than those found for the evolution of anisogamy.

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11

Yang, Jiang-Nan. "Cooperation and the evolution of anisogamy." Journal of Theoretical Biology 264, no. 1 (May 2010): 24–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.01.019.

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12

Lehtonen, Jussi, Geoff A. Parker, and Lukas Schärer. "Why anisogamy drives ancestral sex roles." Evolution 70, no. 5 (May 2016): 1129–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evo.12926.

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13

Constable, George W. A., and Hanna Kokko. "Parthenogenesis and the Evolution of Anisogamy." Cells 10, no. 9 (September 18, 2021): 2467. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells10092467.

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Recently, it was pointed out that classic models for the evolution of anisogamy do not take into account the possibility of parthenogenetic reproduction, even though sex is facultative in many relevant taxa (e.g., algae) that harbour both anisogamous and isogamous species. Here, we complement this recent analysis with an approach where we assume that the relationship between progeny size and its survival may differ between parthenogenetically and sexually produced progeny, favouring either the former or the latter. We show that previous findings that parthenogenesis can stabilise isogamy relative to the obligate sex case, extend to our scenarios. We additionally investigate two different ways for one mating type to take over the entire population. First, parthenogenesis can lead to biased sex ratios that are sufficiently extreme that one type can displace the other, leading to de facto asexuality for the remaining type that now lacks partners to fuse with. This process involves positive feedback: microgametes, being numerous, lack opportunities for syngamy, and should they proliferate parthenogenetically, the next generation makes this asexual route even more prominent for microgametes. Second, we consider mutations to strict asexuality in producers of micro- or macrogametes, and show that the prospects of asexual invasion depend strongly on the mating type in which the mutation arises. Perhaps most interestingly, we also find scenarios in which parthenogens have an intrinsic survival advantage yet facultatively sexual isogamous populations are robust to the invasion of asexuals, despite us assuming no genetic benefits of recombination. Here, equal contribution from both mating types to zygotes that are sufficiently well provisioned can outweigh the additional costs associated with syngamy.

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14

Maire, N., M. Ackermann1, and M. Doebeli. "Evolutionary Branching and the Evolution of Anisogamy." Selection 2, no. 1-2 (April 1, 2002): 119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/select.2.2001.1-2.9.

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15

Beissinger, Steven R. "Anisogamy Overcome: Female Strategies in Snail Kites." American Naturalist 129, no. 4 (April 1987): 486–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284653.

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16

Hastings, Ian M. "Population genetic aspects of deleterious cytoplasmic genomes and their effect on the evolution of sexual reproduction." Genetical Research 59, no. 3 (June 1992): 215–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016672300030500.

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SummaryA conflict of interest may arise between intra-cellular genomes and their host cell. The example explicitly investigated is that of a ‘selfish’ mitochondrion which increases its own rate of replication at the cost of reduced metabolic activity which is deleterious to the host cell. The results apply to deleterious cytoplasmic agents in general, such as intracellular parasites. Numerical simulation suggests that selfish mitochondria are able to invade an isogamous sexual population and are capable of reducing its fitness to below “5 % of that prior to their invasion. Their spread is enhanced by decreasing the number of mitotic divisions between meioses, and this may constitute a significant constraint on the evolution of lifecycles. The presence of such deleterious cytoplasmic agents favours a nuclear mutation whose expression prevents cytoplasm from the other gamete entering the zygote at fertilization, resulting in uniparental inheritance of cytoplasm. Such a mutation appears physiologically plausible and can increase in frequency despite its deleterious effect in halving the amount of cytoplasm in the zygote. It is suggested that these were the conditions under which anisogamy evolved. These results have implications for the evolution of sexual reproduction. Standard theory suggests there is no immediate cost of sex, a twofold cost being incurred later as anisogamy evolves. The analysis described here predicts a large, rapid reduction in fitness associated with isogamous sexual reproduction, due to the spread of deleterious cytoplasmic agents with fitness only subsequently rising to a maximum twofold cost as uniparental inheritance of cytoplasm and anisogamy evolve.

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17

Anders, Alexander, Remy Colin, Alvaro Banderas, and Victor Sourjik. "Asymmetric mating behavior of isogamous budding yeast." Science Advances 7, no. 24 (June 2021): eabf8404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf8404.

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Anisogamy, the size difference between small male and large female gametes, is known to enable selection for sexual dimorphism and behavioral differences between sexes. Nevertheless, even isogamous species exhibit molecular asymmetries between mating types, which are known to ensure their self-incompatibility. Here, we show that different properties of the pheromones secreted by the MATa and MATα mating types of budding yeast lead to asymmetry in their behavioral responses during mating in mixed haploid populations, which resemble behavioral asymmetries between gametes in anisogamous organisms. MATa behaves as a random searcher that is stimulated in proportion to the fraction of MATα partner cells within the population, whereas MATα behaves as a short-range directional distance sensor. Mathematical modeling suggests that the observed asymmetric responses can enhance efficiency of mating and might thus provide a selective advantage. Our results demonstrate that the emergence of asymmetric mating behavior did not require anisogamy-based sexual selection.

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18

Blute, Marion. "The Evolution of Anisogamy: More Questions than Answers." Biological Theory 7, no. 1 (November 29, 2012): 3–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13752-012-0060-4.

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19

Schärer, Lukas, Locke Rowe, and Göran Arnqvist. "Anisogamy, chance and the evolution of sex roles." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 27, no. 5 (May 2012): 260–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.12.006.

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20

Ah-King, Malin. "On anisogamy and the evolution of ‘sex roles’." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28, no. 1 (January 2013): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.04.004.

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21

Umen, James, and Susana Coelho. "Algal Sex Determination and the Evolution of Anisogamy." Annual Review of Microbiology 73, no. 1 (September 8, 2019): 267–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-120011.

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Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotes whose taxonomic breadth covers a range of life histories, degrees of cellular and developmental complexity, and diverse patterns of sexual reproduction. These patterns include haploid- and diploid-phase sex determination, isogamous mating systems, and dimorphic sexes. Despite the ubiquity of sexual reproduction in algae, their mating-type-determination and sex-determination mechanisms have been investigated in only a limited number of representatives. These include volvocine green algae, where sexual cycles and sex-determining mechanisms have shed light on the transition from mating types to sexes, and brown algae, which are a model for UV sex chromosome evolution in the context of a complex haplodiplontic life cycle. Recent advances in genomics have aided progress in understanding sexual cycles in less-studied taxa including ulvophyte, charophyte, and prasinophyte green algae, as well as in diatoms.

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22

Bulmer, M. G., and G. A. Parker. "The evolution of anisogamy: a game-theoretic approach." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 269, no. 1507 (November 22, 2002): 2381–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002.2161.

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23

Johnson, Joseph D., Nathan L. White, Alain Kangabire, and Daniel M. Abrams. "A dynamical model for the origin of anisogamy." Journal of Theoretical Biology 521 (July 2021): 110669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110669.

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24

Lehtonen, Jussi, Yusuke Horinouchi, Tatsuya Togashi, and Geoff A. Parker. "Evolution of Anisogamy in Organisms with Parthenogenetic Gametes." American Naturalist 198, no. 3 (September 1, 2021): 360–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/715185.

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25

Parker, Geoff A., and Jussi Lehtonen. "Gamete evolution and sperm numbers: sperm competition versus sperm limitation." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1791 (September 22, 2014): 20140836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0836.

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Both gamete competition and gamete limitation can generate anisogamy from ancestral isogamy, and both sperm competition (SC) and sperm limitation (SL) can increase sperm numbers. Here, we compare the marginal benefits due to these two components at any given population level of sperm production using the risk and intensity models in sperm economics. We show quite generally for the intensity model (where N males compete for each set of eggs) that however severe the degree of SL, if there is at least one competitor for fertilization ( N − 1 ≥ 1), the marginal gains through SC exceed those for SL, provided that the relationship between the probability of fertilization ( F ) and increasing sperm numbers ( x ) is a concave function. In the risk model, as fertility F increases from 0 to 1.0, the threshold SC risk (the probability q that two males compete for fertilization) for SC to be the dominant force drops from 1.0 to 0. The gamete competition and gamete limitation theories for the evolution of anisogamy rely on very similar considerations: our results imply that gamete limitation could dominate only if ancestral reproduction took place in highly isolated, small spawning groups.

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Van Goor, Justin, Diane C. Shakes, and Eric S. Haag. "Fisher vs. the Worms: Extraordinary Sex Ratios in Nematodes and the Mechanisms that Produce Them." Cells 10, no. 7 (July 15, 2021): 1793. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells10071793.

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Parker, Baker, and Smith provided the first robust theory explaining why anisogamy evolves in parallel in multicellular organisms. Anisogamy sets the stage for the emergence of separate sexes, and for another phenomenon with which Parker is associated: sperm competition. In outcrossing taxa with separate sexes, Fisher proposed that the sex ratio will tend towards unity in large, randomly mating populations due to a fitness advantage that accrues in individuals of the rarer sex. This creates a vast excess of sperm over that required to fertilize all available eggs, and intense competition as a result. However, small, inbred populations can experience selection for skewed sex ratios. This is widely appreciated in haplodiploid organisms, in which females can control the sex ratio behaviorally. In this review, we discuss recent research in nematodes that has characterized the mechanisms underlying highly skewed sex ratios in fully diploid systems. These include self-fertile hermaphroditism and the adaptive elimination of sperm competition factors, facultative parthenogenesis, non-Mendelian meiotic oddities involving the sex chromosomes, and environmental sex determination. By connecting sex ratio evolution and sperm biology in surprising ways, these phenomena link two “seminal” contributions of G. A. Parker.

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27

Reed, Lawrence Ian. "Sexual orientation in males and the evolution of anisogamy." Medical Hypotheses 74, no. 2 (February 2010): 261–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2009.09.019.

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28

Iyer, Priya, and Joan Roughgarden. "Gametic conflict versus contact in the evolution of anisogamy." Theoretical Population Biology 73, no. 4 (June 2008): 461–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2008.02.002.

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29

Bjork, Adam, and Scott Pitnick. "Intensity of sexual selection along the anisogamy–isogamy continuum." Nature 441, no. 7094 (June 2006): 742–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature04683.

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30

Henshaw, Jonathan M., Lutz Fromhage, and Adam G. Jones. "Sex roles and the evolution of parental care specialization." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286, no. 1909 (August 28, 2019): 20191312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.1312.

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Males and females are defined by the relative size of their gametes (anisogamy), but secondary sexual dimorphism in fertilization, parental investment and mating competition is widespread and often remarkably stable over evolutionary timescales. Recent theory has clarified the causal connections between anisogamy and the most prevalent differences between the sexes, but deviations from these patterns remain poorly understood. Here, we study how sex differences in parental investment and mating competition coevolve with parental care specialization. Parental investment often consists of two or more distinct activities (e.g. provisioning and defence) and parents may care more efficiently by specializing in a subset of these activities. Our model predicts that efficient care specialization broadens the conditions under which biparental investment can evolve in lineages that historically had uniparental care. Major transitions in sex roles (e.g. from female-biased care with strong male mating competition to male-biased care with strong female competition) can arise following ecologically induced changes in the costs or benefits of different care types, or in the sex ratio at maturation. Our model provides a clear evolutionary mechanism for sex-role transitions, but also predicts that such transitions should be rare. It consequently contributes towards explaining widespread phylogenetic inertia in parenting and mating systems.

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31

Dacks, J. B., and H. E. Kasinsky. "Nuclear condensation in protozoan gametes and the evolution of anisogamy." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 124, no. 3 (November 1999): 287–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1095-6433(99)00117-8.

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32

Ellingsen, Tore, and Jack Robles. "The evolution of parental investment: Re-examining the anisogamy argument." Journal of Theoretical Biology 299 (April 2012): 113–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.09.031.

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33

Hurst, Laurence D. "Parasite diversity and the evolution of diploidy, multicellularity and anisogamy." Journal of Theoretical Biology 144, no. 4 (June 1990): 429–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5193(05)80085-2.

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34

Kodric-Brown, Astrid, and James H. Brown. "Anisogamy, sexual selection, and the evolution and maintenance of sex." Evolutionary Ecology 1, no. 2 (April 1987): 95–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02067393.

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35

Snook, Rhonda R. "The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection." Animal Behaviour 84, no. 2 (August 2012): 495–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.05.014.

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36

Cox, Paul Alan, and James A. Sethian. "Gamete Motion, Search, and the Evolution of Anisogamy, Oogamy, and Chemotaxis." American Naturalist 125, no. 1 (January 1985): 74–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284329.

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37

Randerson, J. P., and L. D. Hurst. "A comparative test of a theory for the evolution of anisogamy." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 268, no. 1469 (April 22, 2001): 879–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1581.

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38

Bonsall, Michael B. "The evolution of anisogamy: The adaptive significance of damage, repair and mortality." Journal of Theoretical Biology 238, no. 1 (January 2006): 198–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.05.007.

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39

Epelman, Marina A., Stephen Pollock, Brian Netter, and Bobbi S. Low. "Anisogamy, Expenditure of Reproductive Effort, and the Optimality of Having Two Sexes." Operations Research 53, no. 3 (June 2005): 560–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/opre.1040.0179.

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40

Reed, Lawrence Ian. "Book review: The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection." American Journal of Human Biology 24, no. 2 (January 30, 2012): 198–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22228.

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41

Iyer, Priya, Abhishek Shukla, Vivek Jadhav, and Bikash Kumar Sahoo. "Anisogamy selects for male‐biased care in self‐consistent games with synchronous matings." Evolution 74, no. 6 (May 17, 2020): 1018–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evo.13969.

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42

Bulmer, M. G., and G. A. Parker. "Correction for Bulmer and Parker, The evolution of anisogamy: a game-theoretic approach." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 269, no. 1509 (December 22, 2002): 2603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002.3002.

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43

Rosowski, James R., and Robert W. Hoshaw. "Advanced anisogamy in Chlamydomonas monadina (Chlorophyceae) with special reference to vacuolar activity during sexuality." Phycologia 27, no. 4 (December 1988): 494–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.2216/i0031-8884-27-4-494.1.

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Hiraoka, Masanori, Shigehiro Obata, and Masao Ohno. "Pigment content of the reproductive cells of Ulva pertusa (Ulvales, Ulvophyceae): evidence of anisogamy." Phycologia 37, no. 3 (May 1998): 222–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2216/i0031-8884-37-3-222.1.

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Togashi, T., J. L. Bartelt, J. Yoshimura, K. i. Tainaka, and P. A. Cox. "Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, no. 34 (August 6, 2012): 13692–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1203495109.

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TOGASHI, Tatsuya, John L. BARTELT, and Paul Alan COX. "Simulation of gamete behaviors and the evolution of anisogamy: reproductive strategies of marine green algae." Ecological Research 19, no. 6 (November 2004): 563–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1703.2004.00672.x.

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Geng, Sa, Ayano Miyagi, and James G. Umen. "Evolutionary divergence of the sex-determining geneMIDuncoupled from the transition to anisogamy in volvocine algae." Development 145, no. 7 (March 16, 2018): dev162537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.162537.

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Janicke, Tim, Ines K. Häderer, Marc J. Lajeunesse, and Nils Anthes. "Darwinian sex roles confirmed across the animal kingdom." Science Advances 2, no. 2 (February 2016): e1500983. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500983.

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Abstract:

Since Darwin’s conception of sexual selection theory, scientists have struggled to identify the evolutionary forces underlying the pervasive differences between male and female behavior, morphology, and physiology. The Darwin-Bateman paradigm predicts that anisogamy imposes stronger sexual selection on males, which, in turn, drives the evolution of conventional sex roles in terms of female-biased parental care and male-biased sexual dimorphism. Although this paradigm forms the cornerstone of modern sexual selection theory, it still remains untested across the animal tree of life. This lack of evidence has promoted the rise of alternative hypotheses arguing that sex differences are entirely driven by environmental factors or chance. We demonstrate that, across the animal kingdom, sexual selection, as captured by standard Bateman metrics, is indeed stronger in males than in females and that it is evolutionarily tied to sex biases in parental care and sexual dimorphism. Our findings provide the first comprehensive evidence that Darwin’s concept of conventional sex roles is accurate and refute recent criticism of sexual selection theory.

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Billiard, Sylvain, Manuela López-Villavicencio, Benjamin Devier, Michael E. Hood, Cécile Fairhead, and Tatiana Giraud. "Having sex, yes, but with whom? Inferences from fungi on the evolution of anisogamy and mating types." Biological Reviews 86, no. 2 (August 16, 2010): 421–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00153.x.

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Lehtonen, Jussi, and Hanna Kokko. "Two roads to two sexes: unifying gamete competition and gamete limitation in a single model of anisogamy evolution." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65, no. 3 (December 1, 2010): 445–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-010-1116-8.

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