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Journal articles on the topic 'Anopheles gambiae s'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 17 February 2022

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1

Nazaire Aïzoun. "Dynamics of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from south and north Benin, West Africa." World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences 7, no. 1 (July 30, 2021): 023–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2021.7.1.0066.

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The current study was aimed to investigate on dynamics of propoxur resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from N’ dali district in northern Benin (West Africa) and also to investigate on dynamics of malathion resistance in Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from Toffo district in southern Benin. Larvae and pupae of Anopheles gambiae s. l . mosquitoes were collected from the breeding sites in Borgou and Atlantic departments in 2015 and 2019. WHO susceptibility tests were conducted on unfed female mosquitoes aged 2-5 days old. WHO bioassays were performed with impregnated papers with propoxur 0.1% and with malathion 5%. PCR techniques were used to detect species and Ace-1 mutations in 2015. Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from N’dali were resistant to propoxur in 2015 and were still remained resistant to this product in 2019. Regarding Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from Toffo, they were susceptible to malathion in 2015 whereas the malathion resistance status of these mosquitoes requires further investigation in 2019. PCR revealed that all specimens tested were Anopheles gambiae s. s. The presence of Ace-1R at very low frequency (0.01) was observed in Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from both districts. This study shows that propoxur resistance detected in An. gambiae s. l. populations from N’ dali needs to be monitored for insecticide resistance in this area.

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2

Adeogun, Adedapo O., Kehinde O. K. Popoola, Abiodun K. Olakiigbe, and Samson T. Awolola. "Distribution of Members of the Anopheles Gamibiae s.l. In Oyo State, South West Nigeria." Pan African Journal of Life Sciences 3, no. 1 (November 1, 2019): 138–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.36108/pajols/9102/30(0140).

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Background: Members of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. remain the most efficient vectors of malaria parasite in Africa. However, for timely and effective vector control activities, the distribution of these important vectors in local communities is crucial. We therefore determine the distribution of the members of Anopheles gambiae s.l. in Oyo State, Nigeria Methods: Larval stages of Anopheles mosquitoes were collected from identified mosquito breeding sites in six localities (Oluyole, Eruwa, Oyo, Ojoo, Bodija, and Ogbomoso) in Oyo State and reared to adults. Three to five days old adult emergence were identified morphologically using standard methods. A total of 100 mosquitoes were selected from each of localities for molecular analysis. DNA were extracted and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR-ID) followed by restriction endonucleases digestion was used for molecular identification. Results: A total of 58 larval breeding sites were sampled out of which 12 (20.7%) had Anophelines only, 21 (36.2%) contained Culicines only and the remaining 25 (43.1%) had both Anophelines and Culicines. The mosquitoes were mostly found in footprints, followed by tire tracks, pools, puddle and ponds. The habitat type distribution for Anopheline and Culicines were not different (χ2=5.25, DF=5, P>0.01). A total of 1,725 Anophelines emerged from the collection out of which, 823 were females. All the female samples were morphologically identified as members of the Anopheles gambiae s.l.. A total of 600 (72.9%) of the female Anopheline population was subjected to PCR. PCR-ID showed that the mosquito populations contained higher numbers of Anopheles arabiensis (58%) than Anopheles gambiae s.s. (42%). Enzyme digest indicate that samples from Oluyole, Iwo road and Bodija were man-ly the M form (now called An. coluzzii), while both M (An. colizzii) and S (An. gambiae) form occur in sympatry in Oyo town and Eruwa. Conclusion: This study presents information on the distribution of Anopheles arabiensis, Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae in Oyo State. This has implication on the vector control activities in the State as members of these Anopheles mosquitoes exhibit varying feeding behaviours, transmission pattern and resistance profiles. Such information is useful in planning vector control activities for the State

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3

COETZEE, MAUREEN, RICHARD H. HUNT, RICHARD WILKERSON, ALESSANDRA DELLA TORRE, MAMADOU B. COULIBALY, and NORA J. BESANSKY. "Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles amharicus, new members of the Anopheles gambiae complex." Zootaxa 3619, no. 3 (February 28, 2013): 246–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3619.3.2.

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Two new species within the Anopheles gambiae complex are here described and named. Based on molecular and bionomical evidence, the An. gambiae molecular "M form" is named Anopheles coluzzii Coetzee & Wilkerson sp. n., while the "S form" retains the nominotypical name Anopheles gambiae Giles. Anopheles quadriannulatus is retained for the southern African populations of this species, while the Ethiopian species is named Anopheles amharicus Hunt, Wilkerson & Coetzee sp. n., based on chromosomal, cross-mating and molecular evidence.

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4

Ngwu, G. I., F. C. Okafor, J. E. Eyo, and M. I. Ngwu. "Influence of geographical location on abundance assortment of Anopheles mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) on malaria parasite rate in Enugu State, Nigeria." Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 42, no. 1 (April 14, 2021): 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v42i1.5.

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Assessment of geographical distribution of malaria vectors is essential to effective malaria parasite control. This study evaluated the influence of geographical locations on distribution of Anopheles mosquito species and malaria parasite vectorial efficacy in Enugu State, Nigeria. Mosquitoes were collected, using indoor resting pyrethrum spray collection (IRPSC) method. They were morphologically identified and molecularly (PCR) characterised. The M form (now called Anopheles coluzzii) and S form (now called nominotypical Anopheles gambiae s.s.), were identified using Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite rates of sampled mosquitoes and malaria status of households were evaluated microscopically and by using rapid diagnostic kits. An. gambiae Giles (sensu stricto), and bands resembling An. melas and An. arabiensisspecies complexes were observed. Out of 300 An. gambiae s.l. identified using PCR, 243 were An. gambiae Giles (sensu stricto), 6 were An. melas and 5 were An. arabiensis. Out of the 243 An. gambiae Giles (sensu stricto), 184 were M form (now An. coluzzii) and 59 were S form (now nominotypical An. gambiae s.s).The M form (now An. coluzzii) constituted 99% of Anopheles mosquitoes from southernmost part of the study area while northernmost part showed 100% S form (An. gambiae s.s.). The median location had the M form (An. coluzzii) and S form (An. gambiae s.s.) in sympatric. Sporozoite rate in northernmost area was highest when compared with median and southernmost parts. The S form (An. gambiae s.s.) was observed as more important malaria parasite vector, and the results revealed that geographical location affected species diversities which is an important consideration for malaria control programme. Keywords: Anopheles, distribution, sporozoite, malaria parasite

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5

Nazaire Aïzoun. "Anopheles gambiae s. l. larval control: An important method for malaria control." World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences 6, no. 3 (June 30, 2021): 027–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2021.6.3.0043.

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The current study aimed to investigate on the control tools against larvae and adults of Anopheles gambiae s. l. and then explore the detoxification enzymes mechanisms conferring permethrin tolerance in Anopheles gambiae s. l. larvae in Benin. Larvae and pupae were collected from March to July and August to November 2018 during the rainy season in Bopa district in Mono department in south-western Benin, West Africa. Larval bioassays were performed on these collected Anopheles gambiae s. l. larvae using permethrin as larvicide and synergist piperonyl butoxide (PBO) as enzyme inhibitor or synergist. WHO susceptibility tests were also conducted on adult unfed female mosquitoes aged 3-5 days old with impregnated papers of permethrin (0.75%). The results showed that malaria elimination in Benin needs integrated control. Both larvae or pupae and adults malaria vectors must be controlled.

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6

Reiss, R. A., and A. A. James. "A glutathione S-transferase gene of the vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae." Insect Molecular Biology 2, no. 1 (August 1993): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2583.1993.tb00122.x.

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7

Weetman, D., C. S. Wilding, K. Steen, J. Pinto, and M. J. Donnelly. "Gene Flow-Dependent Genomic Divergence between Anopheles gambiae M and S Forms." Molecular Biology and Evolution 29, no. 1 (August 11, 2011): 279–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msr199.

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8

White, Bradley J., Mara K. N. Lawniczak, Changde Cheng, Mamadou B. Coulibaly, Michael D. Wilson, N'Fale Sagnon, Carlo Costantini, Frederic Simard, George K. Christophides, and Nora J. Besansky. "Adaptive divergence between incipient species of Anopheles gambiae increases resistance to Plasmodium." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 1 (December 20, 2010): 244–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1013648108.

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The African malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae is diversifying into ecotypes known as M and S forms. This process is thought to be promoted by adaptation to different larval habitats, but its genetic underpinnings remain elusive. To identify candidate targets of divergent natural selection in M and S, we performed genomewide scanning in paired population samples from Mali, followed by resequencing and genotyping from five locations in West, Central, and East Africa. Genome scans revealed a significant peak of M-S divergence on chromosome 3L, overlapping five known or suspected immune response genes. Resequencing implicated a selective target at or near the TEP1 gene, whose complement C3-like product has antiparasitic and antibacterial activity. Sequencing and allele-specific genotyping showed that an allelic variant of TEP1 has been swept to fixation in M samples from Mali and Burkina Faso and is spreading into neighboring Ghana, but is absent from M sampled in Cameroon, and from all sampled S populations. Sequence comparison demonstrates that this allele is related to, but distinct from, TEP1 alleles of known resistance phenotype. Experimental parasite infections of advanced mosquito intercrosses demonstrated a strong association between this TEP1 variant and resistance to both rodent malaria and the native human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Although malaria parasites may not be direct agents of pathogen-mediated selection at TEP1 in nature—where larvae may be the more vulnerable life stage—the process of adaptive divergence between M and S has potential consequences for malaria transmission.

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9

Hahn, Matthew W., Bradley J. White, Christopher D. Muir, and Nora J. Besansky. "No evidence for biased co-transmission of speciation islands in Anopheles gambiae." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 367, no. 1587 (February 5, 2012): 374–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0188.

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Genome-scale scans have revealed highly heterogeneous levels of divergence between closely related taxa in many systems. Generally, a small number of regions show high differentiation, with the rest of the genome showing no or only low levels of divergence. These patterns have been interpreted as evidence for ongoing speciation-with-gene-flow, with introgression homogenizing the whole genome except loci involved in reproductive isolation. However, as the number of selected loci increases, the probability of introgression at unselected loci decreases unless there is a transmission ratio distortion causing an over-representation of specific combinations of alleles. Here we examine the transmission of three ‘speciation islands’ that contain fixed differences between the M and S forms of the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae . We made reciprocal crosses between M and S parents and genotyped over 2000 F 2 individuals, developing a hierarchical likelihood model to identify specific genotypes that are under- or over-represented among the recombinant offspring. Though our overall results did not match the expected number of F 2 genotypes, we found no biased co-transmission among M or S alleles in the three islands. Our likelihood model did identify transmission ratio distortion at two of the three islands, but this distortion was small (approx. 3%) and in opposite directions for the two islands. We discuss how our results impinge on hypotheses of current gene flow between M and S and ongoing speciation-with-gene-flow in this system.

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10

Onyabe, D. Y., C. G. Vajime, I. H. Nock, I. S. Ndams, A. U. Akpa, A. A. Alaribe, and J. E. Conn. "The distribution of M and S molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae in Nigeria." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97, no. 5 (September 2003): 605–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0035-9203(03)80045-7.

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11

Prapanthadara, La-aied, Janet Hemingway, and Albert J. Ketterman. "DDT-resistance in Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) from Zanzibar, Tanzania, based on increased DDT-dehydrochlorinase activity of glutathione S-transferases." Bulletin of Entomological Research 85, no. 2 (June 1995): 267–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300034350.

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AbstractDDT-resistant Anopheles gambiae Giles from Zanzibar, Tanzania, had increased levels of DDT-dehydrochlorination compared to a DDT-susceptible strain. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are responsible for conversion of DDT to DDE in both the susceptible and resistant strains. Sequential column chromatography, including Q-Sepharose, S-hexylglutathione agarose, hydroxylapatite and phenyl Sepharose, allowed the partial purification of seven GSTs. All seven GSTs possessed different degrees of DDTase activity. There was an eight-fold increase in total DDTase activity in the resistant compared to the susceptible enzymes. Characterization with three substrates, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene (DCNB) and DDT, revealed the different substrate specificity for each isolated GST indicating different isoenzymes. GST Va possessed 60% of total DDTase activity suggesting that it contributed most to DDT-metabolism in this insect species. The DDTase activity of the GSTs in both strains of A. gambiae were found to be correlated with the GST activities toward DCNB. Preliminary studies on DDT-resistant and susceptible A. gambiae showed that both DDT-resistance and the increased levels of GST activity were stage specific which suggested that different GSTs may be involved in DDT-resistance in adults and larvae of A. gambiae.

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12

QIU, Y. T., R. C. SMALLEGANGE, J. J. A. VAN LOON, C. J. F. TER BRAAK, and W. TAKKEN. "Interindividual variation in the attractiveness of human odours to the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae s. s." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 20, no. 3 (September 2006): 280–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.2006.00627.x.

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13

RANSON, Hilary, La-aied PRAPANTHADARA, and Janet HEMINGWAY. "Cloning and characterization of two glutathione S-transferases from a DDT-resistant strain of Anopheles gambiae." Biochemical Journal 324, no. 1 (May 15, 1997): 97–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3240097.

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Two cDNA species, aggst1-5 and aggst1-6, comprising the entire coding region of two distinct glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) have been isolated from a 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) resistant strain (ZANDS) of Anopheles gambiae. The nucleotide sequences of these cDNA species share 80.2% identity and their derived amino acid sequences are 82.3% similar. They have been classified as insect class I GSTs on the basis of their high sequence similarity to class I GSTs from Drosophila melanogaster and Musca domestica and they are localized to a region of an An. gambiae chromosome known to contain further class I GSTs. The genes aggst1-5 and aggst1-6 were expressed at high levels in Escherichia coli and the recombinant GSTs were purified by affinity chromatography and characterized. Both agGST1-5 and agGST1-6 showed high activity with the substrates 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene but negligible activity with the mammalian theta class substrates, 1,2-epoxy-3-(4-nitrophenoxy)propane and p-nitrophenyl bromide. Despite their high level of sequence identity, agGST1-5 and agGST1-6 displayed different kinetic properties. Both enzymes were able to metabolize DDT and were localized to a subset of GSTs that, from earlier biochemical studies, are known to be involved in insecticide resistance in An. gambiae. This subset of enzymes is one of three in which the DDT metabolism levels are elevated in resistant insects.

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14

Crawford, Jacob E., and Brian P. Lazzaro. "The Demographic Histories of the M and S Molecular Forms of Anopheles gambiae s.s." Molecular Biology and Evolution 27, no. 8 (March 11, 2010): 1739–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msq070.

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15

Miller, James R., Juan Huang, John Vulule, and Edward D. Walker. "Life on the edge: African malaria mosquito (Anopheles gambiae s. l.) larvae are amphibious." Naturwissenschaften 94, no. 3 (December 1, 2006): 195–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-006-0178-y.

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16

Hemingway, J., S. W. Lindsay, G. J. Small, M. Jawara, and F. H. Collins. "Insecticide susceptibility status in individual species of the Anopheles gambiae complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in an area of The Gambia where pyrethroid impregnated bednets are used extensively for malaria control." Bulletin of Entomological Research 85, no. 2 (June 1995): 229–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300034301.

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AbstractPyrethroid-impregnated bednets are being used nationwide in The Gambia. The future success of this malaria control programme depends partly on the vectors remaining susceptible to those insecticides used for treating the nets. The present study was carried out on the south bank of the river Gambia, during the first large scale trial of nets in this country. Thus this area represents a sentinel site for detecting insecticide resistance in local vectors. This study gives an example of how a system of early detection for resistance problems can be set up in a relatively complex situation where multiple vectors and non-vectors are present. Samples of the Anopheles gambiae complex were caught indoors using light traps in twelve villages used in the bednet study. In all villages A. gambiae sensu stricto Giles was the predominant member of the complex as determined using the rDNA-PCR diagnostic assay. Limited bioassays with DDT and permethrin, and biochemical assays for a range of insecticide resistance mechanisms suggest that the A. gambiae complex remains completely susceptible to all major classes of commonly used insecticides including pyrethroids. Biochemical assays suggest that a low frequency of DDT resistance may occur in A. melas Theobald. This is based on elevated glutathione S-transferase levels coupled with increased levels of DDT metabolism and does not involve cross-resistance to pyrethroids. Therefore we do not envisage a decline in the efficacy of treated nets against malaria vectors in the study area in the immediate future, although monitoring should be continued whilst wide-scale use of impregnated bednets is operational.

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17

Diabaté, Abdoulaye, Adama Dao, Alpha S. Yaro, Abdoulaye Adamou, Rodrigo Gonzalez, Nicholas C. Manoukis, Sékou F. Traoré, Robert W. Gwadz, and Tovi Lehmann. "Spatial swarm segregation and reproductive isolation between the molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276, no. 1676 (September 4, 2009): 4215–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1167.

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Anopheles gambiae , the major malaria vector in Africa, can be divided into two subgroups based on genetic and ecological criteria. These two subgroups, termed the M and S molecular forms, are believed to be incipient species. Although they display differences in the ecological niches they occupy in the field, they are often sympatric and readily hybridize in the laboratory to produce viable and fertile offspring. Evidence for assortative mating in the field was recently reported, but the underlying mechanisms awaited discovery. We studied swarming behaviour of the molecular forms and investigated the role of swarm segregation in mediating assortative mating. Molecular identification of 1145 males collected from 68 swarms in Donéguébougou, Mali, over 2 years revealed a strict pattern of spatial segregation, resulting in almost exclusively monotypic swarms with respect to molecular form. We found evidence of clustering of swarms composed of individuals of a single molecular form within the village. Tethered M and S females were introduced into natural swarms of the M form to verify the existence of possible mate recognition operating within-swarm. Both M and S females were inseminated regardless of their form under these conditions, suggesting no within-mate recognition. We argue that our results provide evidence that swarm spatial segregation strongly contributes to reproductive isolation between the molecular forms in Mali. However this does not exclude the possibility of additional mate recognition operating across the range distribution of the forms. We discuss the importance of spatial segregation in the context of possible geographic variation in mechanisms of reproductive isolation.

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18

Gnémé, Awa, Wamdaogo M. Guelbéogo, Michelle M. Riehle, Antoine Sanou, Alphonse Traoré, Soumanaba Zongo, Karin Eiglmeier, Gustave B. Kabré, N’Falé Sagnon, and Kenneth D. Vernick. "Equivalent susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae M and S molecular forms and Anopheles arabiensis to Plasmodium falciparum infection in Burkina Faso." Malaria Journal 12, no. 1 (2013): 204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-204.

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19

Githinji, Edward K., Lucy W. Irungu, Paul N. Ndegwa, Maxwell G. Machani, Richard O. Amito, Brigid J. Kemei, Paul N. Murima, et al. "Species Composition, Phenotypic and Genotypic Resistance Levels in Major Malaria Vectors in Teso North and Teso South Subcounties in Busia County, Western Kenya." Journal of Parasitology Research 2020 (January 25, 2020): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/3560310.

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Introduction. Knockdown resistance (kdr) is strongly linked to pyrethroid insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae in Africa, which may have vital significance to the current increased use of pyrethroid-treated bed net programmes. The study is aimed at determining species composition, levels of insecticide resistance, and knockdown patterns in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato in areas with and areas without insecticide resistance in Teso North and Teso South subcounties, Western Kenya. Materials and Methods. For WHO vulnerability tests, mosquito larvae were sampled using a dipper, reared into 3-5-day-old female mosquitoes (4944 at 100 mosquitoes per insecticide) which were exposed to 0.75% permethrin, 0.05% deltamethrin, and 0.1% bendiocarb using the WHO tube assay method. Species identification and kdr East gene PCRs were also performed on randomly selected mosquitoes from the collections; including adult mosquitoes (3448) sampled using standard collection methods. Results. Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto were the majority in terms of species composition at 78.9%. Bendiocarb caused 100% mortality while deltamethrin had higher insecticidal effects (77%) on female mosquitoes than permethrin (71%). Susceptible Kengatunyi cluster had higher proportion of An. arabiensis (20.9%) than resistant Rwatama (10.7%). Kengatunyi mosquitoes exposed to deltamethrin had the highest KDT50 R of 8.2. Both Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto and Anopheles arabiensis had equal S allelic frequency of 0.84. Indoor resting mosquitoes had 100% mortality rate after 24 h since exposure. Overall SS genotypic frequency in Teso North and Teso South subcounties was 79.4% against 13.7% homozygous LL genotype and 6.9% heterozygous LS genotype. There was a significant difference (ρ<0.05) in S allele frequencies between Kengatunyi (0.61) and Rwatama (0.95). Mosquito samples collected in 2013 had the highest S allelic frequency of 0.87. Discussion. Most likely, the higher the selection pressure exerted indoors by insecticidal nets, the higher were the resistance alleles. Use of pyrethroid impregnated nets and agrochemicals may have caused female mosquitoes to select for pyrethroid resistance. Different modes of action and chemical properties in different types of pyrethroids aggravated by a variety of edaphic and climatic factors may have caused different levels of susceptibility in both indoor and outdoor vectors to pyrethroids and carbamate. Species composition and populations in each collection method may have been influenced by insecticide resistance capacity in different species. Conclusions and Recommendations. Both phenotypic and genotypic insecticide resistance levels have been confirmed in Teso North and Teso South subcounties in Western Kenya. Insecticide resistance management practices in Kenya should be fast tracked and harmonized with agricultural sector agrochemical-based activities and legislation, and possibly switch to carbamate use in order to ease selection pressure on pyrethroids which are useable in insecticidal nets and indoor residual spray due to their low human toxicity. The implication of such high resistance levels in mosquitoes collected in Teso subcounties is that resistance is likely to persist and or even increase if monomolecules of permethrin and deltamethrin or both continue to be used in all net- and nonnet-based mosquito control purposes. Usage of mutually reinforcing piperonyl butoxide (PBO) that prohibits particular enzymes vital in metabolic activities inside mosquito systems and has been integrated into pyrethroid-LLINs to create pyrethroid-PBO nets is an extremely viable option.

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Sawadogo, Simon P., Carlo Costantini, Cédric Pennetier, Abdoulaye Diabaté, Gabriella Gibson, and Roch K. Dabiré. "Differences in timing of mating swarms in sympatric populations of Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae s.s. (formerly An. gambiae M and S molecular forms) in Burkina Faso, West Africa." Parasites & Vectors 6, no. 1 (2013): 275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-6-275.

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Esnault, Caroline, Matthieu Boulesteix, Jean Bernard Duchemin, Alphonsine A. Koffi, Fabrice Chandre, Roch Dabiré, Vincent Robert, et al. "High Genetic Differentiation between the M and S Molecular Forms of Anopheles gambiae in Africa." PLoS ONE 3, no. 4 (April 16, 2008): e1968. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001968.

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22

Butail, Sachit, Nicholas Manoukis, Moussa Diallo, José M. Ribeiro, Tovi Lehmann, and Derek A. Paley. "Reconstructing the flight kinematics of swarming and mating in wild mosquitoes." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9, no. 75 (May 23, 2012): 2624–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2012.0150.

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We describe a novel tracking system for reconstructing three-dimensional tracks of individual mosquitoes in wild swarms and present the results of validating the system by filming swarms and mating events of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae in Mali. The tracking system is designed to address noisy, low frame-rate (25 frames per second) video streams from a stereo camera system. Because flying A. gambiae move at 1–4 m s −1 , they appear as faded streaks in the images or sometimes do not appear at all. We provide an adaptive algorithm to search for missing streaks and a likelihood function that uses streak endpoints to extract velocity information. A modified multi-hypothesis tracker probabilistically addresses occlusions and a particle filter estimates the trajectories. The output of the tracking algorithm is a set of track segments with an average length of 0.6–1 s. The segments are verified and combined under human supervision to create individual tracks up to the duration of the video (90 s). We evaluate tracking performance using an established metric for multi-target tracking and validate the accuracy using independent stereo measurements of a single swarm. Three-dimensional reconstructions of A. gambiae swarming and mating events are presented.

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Gentile, Gabriele, Alessandra della Torre, Bertha Maegga, Jeffrey R. Powell, and Adalgisa Caccone. "Genetic Differentiation in the African Malaria Vector, Anopheles gambiae s.s., and the Problem of Taxonomic Status." Genetics 161, no. 4 (August 1, 2002): 1561–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/161.4.1561.

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Abstract Of the seven recognized species of the Anopheles gambiae complex, A. gambiae s.s. is the most widespread and most important vector of malaria. It is becoming clear that, in parts of West Africa, this nominal species is not a single panmictic unit. We found that the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the X-linked rDNA has two distinct sequences with three fixed nucleotide differences; we detected no heterozygotes at these three sites, even in areas of sympatry of the two ITS types. The intergenic spacer (IGS) of this region also displays two distinct sequences that are in almost complete linkage disequilibrium with the distinct ITS alleles. We have designated these two types as S/type I and M/type II. These rDNA types correspond at least partly to the previously recognized chromosomal forms. Here we expand the geographic range of sampling to 251 individuals from 38 populations. Outside of West Africa, a single rDNA type, S/type I, corresponds to the Savanna chromosomal form. In West Africa, both types are often found in a single local sample. To understand if these findings might be due to unusual behavior of the rDNA region, we sequenced the same region for 46 A. arabiensis, a sympatric sibling species. No such distinct discontinuity was observed for this species. Autosomal inversions in one chromosome arm (2R), an insecticide resistance gene on 2L, and this single X-linked region indicate at least two genetically differentiated subpopulations of A. gambiae. Yet, rather extensive studies of other regions of the genome have failed to reveal genetic discontinuity. Evidently, incomplete genetic isolation exists within this single nominal species.

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RANSON, Hilary, Louise ROSSITER, Federica ORTELLI, Betty JENSEN, Xuelan WANG, Charles W. ROTH, Frank H. COLLINS, and Janet HEMINGWAY. "Identification of a novel class of insect glutathione S-transferases involved in resistance to DDT in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae." Biochemical Journal 359, no. 2 (October 8, 2001): 295–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj3590295.

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The sequence and cytological location of five Anopheles gambiae glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes are described. Three of these genes, aggst1-8, aggst1-9 and aggst1-10, belong to the insect class I family and are located on chromosome 2R, in close proximity to previously described members of this gene family. The remaining two genes, aggst3-1 and aggst3-2, have a low sequence similarity to either of the two previously recognized classes of insect GSTs and this prompted a re-evaluation of the classification of insect GST enzymes. We provide evidence for seven possible classes of insect protein with GST-like subunits. Four of these contain sequences with significant similarities to mammalian GSTs. The largest novel insect GST class, class III, contains functional GST enzymes including two of the A. gambiae GSTs described in this report and GSTs from Drosophila melanogaster, Musca domestica, Manduca sexta and Plutella xylostella. The genes encoding the class III GST of A. gambiae map to a region of the genome on chromosome 3R that contains a major DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] resistance gene, suggesting that this gene family is involved in GST-based resistance in this important malaria vector. In further support of their role in resistance, we show that the mRNA levels of aggst3-2 are approx. 5-fold higher in a DDT resistant strain than in the susceptible strain and demonstrate that recombinant AgGST3-2 has very high DDT dehydrochlorinase activity.

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PRAPANTHADARA, LA-AIED, and ALBERT J. KETTERMAN. "Qualitative and quantitative changes in glutathione S-transferases in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae confer DDT-resistance." Biochemical Society Transactions 21, no. 3 (August 1, 1993): 304S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bst021304s.

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Tripet, F., T. Thiemann, and G. C. Lanzaro. "Effect of Seminal Fluids in Mating Between M and S Forms of Anopheles gambiae." Journal of Medical Entomology 42, no. 4 (July 1, 2005): 596–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0596:eosfim]2.0.co;2.

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Rottschaefer, Susan M., Jacob E. Crawford, Michelle M. Riehle, Wamdaogo M. Guelbeogo, Awa Gneme, N’Fale Sagnon, Kenneth D. Vernick, and Brian P. Lazzaro. "Population Genetics of Anopheles coluzzii Immune Pathways and Genes." G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics 5, no. 3 (March 1, 2015): 329–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/g3.114.014845.

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Abstract Natural selection is expected to drive adaptive evolution in genes involved in host–pathogen interactions. In this study, we use molecular population genetic analyses to understand how natural selection operates on the immune system of Anopheles coluzzii (formerly A. gambiae “M form”). We analyzed patterns of intraspecific and interspecific genetic variation in 20 immune-related genes and 17 nonimmune genes from a wild population of A. coluzzii and asked if patterns of genetic variation in the immune genes are consistent with pathogen-driven selection shaping the evolution of defense. We found evidence of a balanced polymorphism in CTLMA2, which encodes a C-type lectin involved in regulation of the melanization response. The two CTLMA2 haplotypes, which are distinguished by fixed amino acid differences near the predicted peptide cleavage site, are also segregating in the sister species A. gambiae (“S form”) and A. arabiensis. Comparison of the two haplotypes between species indicates that they were not shared among the species through introgression, but rather that they arose before the species divergence and have been adaptively maintained as a balanced polymorphism in all three species. We additionally found that STAT-B, a retroduplicate of STAT-A, shows strong evidence of adaptive evolution that is consistent with neofunctionalization after duplication. In contrast to the striking patterns of adaptive evolution observed in these Anopheles-specific immune genes, we found no evidence of adaptive evolution in the Toll and Imd innate immune pathways that are orthologously conserved throughout insects. Genes encoding the Imd pathway exhibit high rates of amino acid divergence between Anopheles species but also display elevated amino acid diversity that is consistent with relaxed purifying selection. These results indicate that adaptive coevolution between A. coluzzii and its pathogens is more likely to involve novel or lineage-specific molecular mechanisms than the canonical humoral immune pathways.

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Yaro, Alpha Seydou, Abdoulaye M. Touré, Amadou Guindo, Mamadou B. Coulibaly, Adama Dao, Moussa Diallo, and Sekou F. Traoré. "Reproductive success in Anopheles arabiensis and the M and S molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae: Do natural sporozoite infection and body size matter?" Acta Tropica 122, no. 1 (April 2012): 87–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.12.005.

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Kaiser, Maria L., Lizette L. Koekemoer, Maureen Coetzee, Richard H. Hunt, and Basil D. Brooke. "Staggered larval time-to-hatch and insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles gambiae S form." Malaria Journal 9, no. 1 (2010): 360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-9-360.

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Prapanthadara, L. A., J. Hemingway, and A. J. Ketterman. "Partial Purification and Characterization of Glutathione S-Transferases Involved in DDT Resistance from the Mosquito Anopheles gambiae." Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 47, no. 2 (October 1993): 119–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/pest.1993.1070.

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31

Djogbénou, Luc, Fabrice Chandre, Arnaud Berthomieu, Roch Dabiré, Alphonsine Koffi, Haoues Alout, and Mylène Weill. "Evidence of Introgression of the ace-1R Mutation and of the ace-1 Duplication in West African Anopheles gambiae s. s." PLoS ONE 3, no. 5 (May 14, 2008): e2172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002172.

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BOULESTEIX, M., F. SIMARD, C. ANTONIO-NKONDJIO, H. P. AWONO-AMBENE, D. FONTENILLE, and C. BIÉMONT. "Insertion polymorphism of transposable elements and population structure of Anopheles gambiae M and S molecular forms in Cameroon." Molecular Ecology 16, no. 2 (November 15, 2006): 441–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2006.03150.x.

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Hemingway, J., N. Hawkes, L. Prapanthadara, K. G. I. Jayawardenal, and H. Ranson. "The role of gene splicing, gene amplification and regulation in mosquito insecticide resistance." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 353, no. 1376 (October 29, 1998): 1695–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1998.0320.

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The primary routes of insecticide resistance in all insects are alterations in the insecticide target sites or changes in the rate at which the insecticide is detoxified. Three enzyme systems, glutathione S–transferases, esterases and monooxygenases, are involved in the detoxification of the four major insecticide classes. These enzymes act by rapidly metabolizing the insecticide to non–toxic products, or by rapidly binding and very slowly turning over the insecticide (sequestration). In Culex mosquitoes, the most common organophosphate insecticide resistance mechanism is caused by co–amplification of two esterases. The amplified esterases are differentially regulated, with three times more Estβ2 1 being produced than Estα2 1 . Cis –acting regulatory sequences associated with these esterases are under investigation. All the amplified esterases in different Culex species act through sequestration. The rates at which they bind with insecticides are more rapid than those for their non–amplified counterparts in the insecticide–susceptible insects. In contrast, esterase–based organophosphate resistance in Anopheles is invariably based on changes in substrate specificities and increased turnover rates of a small subset of insecticides. The up–regulation of both glutathione S–transferases and monooxygenases in resistant mosquitoes is due to the effect of a single major gene in each case. The products of these major genes up–regulate a broad range of enzymes. The diversity of glutathione S–transferases produced by Anopheles mosquitoes is increased by the splicing of different 5' ends of genes, with a single 3' end, within one class of this enzyme family. The trans –acting regulatory factors responsible for the up–regulation of both the monooxygenase and glutathione S–transferases still need to be identified, but the recent development of molecular tools for positional cloning in Anopheles gambiae now makes this possible.

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Rock, Akpon, Azoun Nazaire, Oss Razaki, Ok-Agbo Frdric, Oussou Olivier, Govotchan Renaud, Sovi Arthur, and Akogbto Martin. "Seasonal variation of Ace-1R mutation in Anopheles gambiae s. l. populations from Atacora region in Benin, West Africa." Journal of Entomology and Nematology 6, no. 1 (January 31, 2014): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/jen2013.0085.

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Ranson, H., F. Collins, and J. Hemingway. "The role of alternative mRNA splicing in generating heterogeneity within the Anopheles gambiae class I glutathione S-transferase family." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95, no. 24 (November 24, 1998): 14284–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.24.14284.

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MARSDEN, CLARE D., YOOSOOK LEE, CATELYN C. NIEMAN, MICHELLE R. SANFORD, JOAO DINIS, CESARIO MARTINS, AMABELIA RODRIGUES, ANTHONY J. CORNEL, and GREGORY C. LANZARO. "Asymmetric introgression between the M and S forms of the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae, maintains divergence despite extensive hybridization." Molecular Ecology 20, no. 23 (November 8, 2011): 4983–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05339.x.

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Reidenbach, Kyanne R., Daniel E. Neafsey, Carlo Costantini, N’Fale Sagnon, Frédéric Simard, Gregory J. Ragland, Scott P. Egan, Jeffrey L. Feder, Marc A. T. Muskavitch, and Nora J. Besansky. "Patterns of Genomic Differentiation between Ecologically Differentiated M and S Forms of Anopheles gambiae in West and Central Africa." Genome Biology and Evolution 4, no. 12 (2012): 1202–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evs095.

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38

Ndiaye, Assane, El Hadji Amadou Niang, Aminata Niang Diène, Mohamed Abderemane Nourdine, Pape Cheikh Sarr, Lassana Konaté, Ousmane Faye, Oumar Gaye, and Ousmane Sy. "Mapping the breeding sites of Anopheles gambiae s. l. in areas of residual malaria transmission in central western Senegal." PLOS ONE 15, no. 12 (December 11, 2020): e0236607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236607.

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Despite the deployment of several effective control interventions in central-western Senegal, residual malaria transmission is still occurring in some hotspots. To better tailor targeted control actions, it is critical to unravel the underlying environmental and geographical factors that cause the persistence infection in hotspot villages. “Hotspots villages” were defined in our study as those reporting more than six indigenous malaria cases during the previous year. A total of ten villages, including seven hotspots and three non-hotspots, were surveyed. All potential mosquito breeding sites identified in and around the ten study villages were regularly monitored between 2013 and 2017. Monitoring comprised the detection of anopheline larvae and the collection of epidemiological, hydrogeological, topographical, and biogeographical data. The number of larval breeding sites described and monitored during the study period ranged from 50 to 62. Breeding sites were more numerous in hotspot sites in each year of monitoring, with 90.3% (56/62) in 2013, 90.9% (50/55) in 2014, 90.3% (56/62) in 2015 and 86% (43/50) in 2017 (Fisher exact test; p = 1). In the non-hotspot areas, the data for the same years were, respectively, 9.7% (6/62), 9.1% (5/55), 9.7% (6/62) and 14% (7/50) (p = 1). The Hotspot villages were characterized mostly by saline or moderately saline hydro-morphic and halomorphic soils allowing water retention and a potential larval breeding sites. By contrast, non-hotspot villages were characterized mainly by a high proportion of extremely permeable sandy-textured soils, which due to their porosity had low water retention. The annual number of confirmed malaria cases was correlated with the frequency and extent of breeding sites. Malaria cases were significantly more frequent in the hamlets located near breeding sites of An. gambiae s.l., gradually decreasing with increasing remoteness. This study shows that the characteristics of larval breeding sites, as measured by their longevity, stability, proximity to human habitation, and their positivity in Anopheles larvae are likely determining factors in the persistence of malaria hotspots in central-western Senegal. The results of this study shed more light on the environmental factors underlying the residual transmission and should make it possible to better target vector control interventions for malaria elimination in west-central Senegal.

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39

Yana, Wenceslas, Enda Corinna Andu, Katamssadan Haman Tofel, and Abe Henri. "Bioefficacy of local Lantana camara (Verberneae) plant extracts against the 3rd instar larva and adult stages of Anopheles gambiae senso lato (Giles)." Journal of Medical Research and Health Sciences 3, no. 12 (December 13, 2020): 1120–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.15520/jmrhs.v3i12.214.

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Resistance of malaria vectors to synthetic chemicals with high operational cost and environmental pollution has been a great challenge to scientists. Alternative approaches such as the use of natural plant products which are environmentally friendly are put in place to control malaria vectors. This study was focused on testing the effectiveness of three solvent extracts of Lantana camara on the 3rd instar larvae and adults of Anopheles gambiae s. l. These extracts were obtained by maceration. Bioassays test were carried out by WHO’s method for determination of larvicidal and adulticidal efficacy. The results show that, larval mortality increased significantly with the concentration and exposure time. Lethal concentrations 50 (LC50) and 95 (LC95) after 24 hours of larvae exposure time are respectively 0.31 g/mL and 1.53 g/mL while within 48 h they are 0.27 g/mL and 0.79 g/mL for hexane extract; 1.45 g/mL and 2.0 g/mL (24 h exposure), 0.84 g/mL and 1.55 g/mL (48 h exposure) for acetone extract; 1.96 g/mL and no lethal concentration causing 95% mortality was determined; 0.40 g/mL and 2.20 g/mL (48 h) for aqueous extract. The efficacy of hexane and aqueous extract on the adult knock down and mortality were not significant even with the increasing extract concentrations and exposure time whereas with acetone extract, the adult LC50 after 24 h was 2.4 g/mL but with 95% mortality lethal concentration was not determined. According to the results, hexane extract showed high larvicidal efficacy of An. gambiae and acetone extract showed significant adult mortality. Those two extracts of L. camara can be used to fight against An. gambiae as alternative malaria vector control to replace conventional insecticides.

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40

Lee, Y., C. D. Marsden, L. C. Norris, T. C. Collier, B. J. Main, A. Fofana, A. J. Cornel, and G. C. Lanzaro. "Spatiotemporal dynamics of gene flow and hybrid fitness between the M and S forms of the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 49 (November 18, 2013): 19854–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1316851110.

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41

HOGG, J. C., and H. HURD. "The effects of natural Plasmodium falciparum infection on the fecundity and mortality of Anopheles gambiae s. l. in north east Tanzania." Parasitology 114, no. 4 (April 1997): 325–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182096008542.

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Rodent and avian malaria parasites have been reported to have an adverse affect upon the reproductive fitness of mosquitoes. In order to determine whether fecundity reduction occurs in Anopheles gambiae s. l. infected with human malaria a study of wild-caught mosquitoes was undertaken in the Muheza district of north east Tanzania. Fully engorged, indoor resting females were collected daily for 4 months and maintained for 5 days. A sporozoite rate of 11·5% was detected for the whole collection and of those females alive on day 6 an additional 17·5% were infected with oocysts alone. Oocyst, but not sporozoite, infection resulted in a 17·5% reduction in egg production. Fecundity reduction was not caused by a reduction in bloodmeal size in infected females and no size difference was detected between oocyst-infected and uninfected females although sporozoite-positive females were significantly larger. Comparisons in parity between uninfected and infected groups indicate that infection does not affect survival beyond the first gonotrophic cycle as no changes in survivorship occurred as a result of sporozoite infection.

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Vannini, Laura, Tyler W. Reed, and Judith H. Willis. "Temporal and spatial expression of cuticular proteins of Anopheles gambiae implicated in insecticide resistance or differentiation of M/S incipient species." Parasites & Vectors 7, no. 1 (2014): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-24.

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43

RANSON, Hilary, Louise ROSSITER, Federica ORTELLI, Betty JENSEN, Xuelan WANG, Charles W. ROTH, Frank H. COLLINS, and Janet HEMINGWAY. "Identification of a novel class of insect glutathione S-transferases involved in resistance to DDT in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae." Biochemical Journal 359, no. 2 (October 15, 2001): 295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/0264-6021:3590295.

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44

Aguilar, R., F. Simard, C. Kamdem, T. Shields, G. E. Glass, L. S. Garver, and G. Dimopoulos. "Genome-wide analysis of transcriptomic divergence between laboratory colony and field Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes of the M and S molecular forms." Insect Molecular Biology 19, no. 5 (August 5, 2010): 695–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2583.2010.01031.x.

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45

Wang, Yan, Qing-Chuan Zheng, Ji-Long Zhang, Ying-Lu Cui, Qiao Xue, and Hong-Xing Zhang. "Highlighting a π–π interaction: a protein modeling and molecular dynamics simulation study on Anopheles gambiae glutathione S-transferase 1-2." Journal of Molecular Modeling 19, no. 12 (October 12, 2013): 5213–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00894-013-2009-3.

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46

Maia, Rafael Trindade, and Daniela Nadvorny. "Molecular docking of Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti glutathione S-transferases epsilon 2 (GSTE2) against usnic acid: an evidence of glutathione conjugation." Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology 57, no. 5 (October 2014): 689–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1516-8913201402234.

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47

Diabaté, Abdoulaye, Roch K. Dabire, Pierre Kengne, Cecile Brengues, Thierry Baldet, Ali Ouari, Frederic Simard, and Tovi Lehmann. "Mixed Swarms of the Molecular M and S Forms of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) in Sympatric Area from Burkina Faso." Journal of Medical Entomology 43, no. 3 (May 1, 2006): 480–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[480:msotmm]2.0.co;2.

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48

Goulielmaki, Evi, I. Sidén-Kiamos, and Thanasis G. Loukeris. "Functional Characterization of Anopheles Matrix Metalloprotease 1 Reveals Its Agonistic Role during Sporogonic Development of Malaria Parasites." Infection and Immunity 82, no. 11 (September 2, 2014): 4865–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.02080-14.

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ABSTRACTThe ability to invade tissues is a unique characteristic of the malaria stages that develop/differentiate within the mosquitoes (ookinetes and sporozoites). On the other hand, tissue invasion by many pathogens has often been associated with increased matrix metalloprotease (MMP) activity in the invaded tissues. By employing cell biology and reverse genetics, we studied the expression and explored putative functions of one of the three MMPs encoded in the genome of the malaria vectorAnopheles gambiae, namely, theAnopheles gambiaeMMP1(AgMMP1) gene, during the processes of blood digestion, midgut epithelium invasion byPlasmodiumookinetes, and oocyst development. We show that AgMMP1 exists in two alternative isoforms resulting from alternative splicing; one secreted (S-MMP1) and associated with hemocytes, and one membrane type (MT-MMP1) enriched in the cell attachment sites of the midgut epithelium. MT-MMP1 showed a remarkable response to ookinete midgut invasion manifested by increased expression, enhanced zymogen maturation, and subcellular redistribution, all indicative of an implication in the midgut epithelial healing that accompanies ookinete invasion. Importantly, RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated silencing of theAgMMP1gene revealed a postinvasion protective function of AgMMP1 during oocyst development. The combined results link for the first time an MMP with vector competence and mosquito-Plasmodiuminteractions.

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49

Namountougou, Moussa, Abdoulaye Diabaté, Josiane Etang, Chris Bass, Simon P. Sawadogo, Olivier Gnankinié, Thierry Baldet, et al. "First report of the L1014S kdr mutation in wild populations of Anopheles gambiae M and S molecular forms in Burkina Faso (West Africa)." Acta Tropica 125, no. 2 (February 2013): 123–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.10.012.

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50

Walsh, J. F., D. H. Molyneux, and M. H. Birley. "Deforestation: effects on vector-borne disease." Parasitology 106, S1 (January 1993): S55—S75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000086121.

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SUMMARYThis review addresses' changes in the ecology of vectors and epidemiology of vector-borne diseases which result from deforestation. Selected examples are considered from viral and parasitic infections (arboviruses, malaria, the leishmaniases, nlariases, Chagas Disease and schistosomiasis) where disease patterns have been directly or indirectly influenced by loss of natural tropical forests. A wide range of activities have resulted in deforestation. These include colonisation and settlement, transmigrant programmes, logging, agricultural activities to provide for cash crops, mining, hydropower development and fuelwood collection. Each activity influences the prevalence, incidence and distribution of vector-borne disease. Three main regions are considered – South America, West & Central Africa and South-East Asia. In each, documented changes in vector ecology and behaviour and disease pattern have occurred. Such changes result from human activity at the forest interface and within the forest. They include both deforestation and reafforestation programmes. Deforestation, or activities associated with it, have produced new habitats for Anopheles darlingi mosquitoes and have caused malaria epidemics in South America. The different species complexes in South-East Asia (A. dirus, A. minimus, A. balabacensis) have been affected in different ways by forest clearance with different impacts on malaria incidence. The ability of zoophilic vectors to adapt to human blood as an alternative source of food and to become associated with human dwellings (peridomestic behaviour) have influenced the distribution of the leishmaniases in South America. Certain species of sandflies (Lutzomyia intermedia, Lu. longipalpis, Lu. whitmani), which were originally zoophilic and sylvatic, have adapted to feeding on humans in peridomestic and even periurban situations. The changes in behaviour of reservoir hosts and the ability of pathogens to adapt to new reservoir hosts in the newly-created habitats also influence the patterns of disease. In anthroponotic infections, such as Plasmodium, Onchocerca and Wuchereria, changes in disease patterns and vector ecology may be more difficult to detect. Detailed knowledge of vector species and species complexes is needed in relation to changing climate associated with deforestation. The distributions of the Anopheles gambiae and Simulium damnosum species complexes in West Africa are examples. There have been detailed longitudinal studies of Anopheles gambiae populations in different ecological zones of West Africa. Studies on Simulium damnosum cytoforms (using chromosome identification methods) in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme were necessary to detect changes in distribution of species in relation to changed habitats. These examples underline the need for studies on the taxonomy of medically-important insects in parallel with long-term observations on changing habitats. In some circumstances, destruction of the forest has reduced or even removed disease transmission (e.g. S. neavei-transmitted Onchocerca in Kenya). Whilst the process of deforestation can be expected to continue, hopefully at a decreased rate, it is expected that unpredictable and sometimes rapid changes in disease patterns will pose problems for the public health services.

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