Journal articles: 'Antipredatory behaviour'

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Azevedo, Cristiano S. de, and Robert J. Young. "Shyness and boldness in greater rheas Rhea americana Linnaeus (Rheiformes, Rheidae): the effects of antipredator training on the personality of the birds." Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 23, no. 1 (March 2006): 202–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0101-81752006000100012.

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The shy-bold continuum is an axis of behavioural variation for some species, but the consequences of shyness and boldness in antipredatory behaviour is unknown. Bold animals have the tendency to be predated first after release in comparison to shy animals, who naturally avoid the predators. Antipredatory training has been used to enhance the defence behaviours of naive animals by various researchers around the world. For greater rheas, Rhea americana (Linnaeus, 1758), this kind of study is pioneer. In this study we have investigated if there are relationships between personality and performance of greater rheas in antipredatory training. We also investigated if the training procedures influenced the behaviour of the birds when presented to novel objects. Fifteen zoo-borne greater rheas were studied and 16 personality tests were run, being eight before the application of antipredator training, and eight after the training. We presented to the birds four novel objects (ball, box, bag and person) and recorded their behaviour and the distance of the birds in relation to the objects. Results showed that the birds behave boldly before training and shyly after it. The antipredator training modified significantly the behaviour of the rheas, making them more careful about novel situations. Personalities affected the behaviour of the birds during antipredator training. The study of the animal personalities can be an useful tool in reintroduction programs since it helps to choose the animals with the highest chance of survival to reintroduce.

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Ylönen, Hannu. "Vole cycles and antipredatory behaviour." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9, no. 11 (November 1994): 426–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(94)90125-2.

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Azevedo, Cristiano S. de, and Robert J. Young. "Do captive-born greater rheas Rhea americana Linnaeus (Rheiformes, Rheidae) remember antipredator training?" Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 23, no. 1 (March 2006): 194–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0101-81752006000100011.

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The antipredator training is a powerful tool now being used to help the reintroduced animals to recognise and escape from their predators. Testing the memory capacity of the animals after antipredator training is important to evaluate if the application of the training is worthwhile. A group of 15 captive-born greater rheas was studied at Belo Horizonte Zoo. Eight birds were antipredator trained and seven birds were not. After the end of the antipredator training sessions, we run four memory tests at 40, 55, 70 and 88 days after training was completed. The memory tests consisted of showing a predator model to the rheas and recording their behavioural responses. It was measured the capacity of antipredator information storage, the influence of the group size on the behaviour of the birds and the influence of the antipredator training on the elicitation of the correct behavioural responses of the birds when confronted by a predator. The results showed that the rheas retained predator recognition for almost three months, that the group size affected the responses of the birds (more defence behaviours expressed when tested alone) and that the antipredator training is essential to elicit the adequate antipredatory responses, since untrained birds behaved in a tranquil manner when confronted by a predator model. We concluded that antipredator training is worthwhile for future reintroduction programs for greater rheas, since their memory capacity is considerable.

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Lefcort, Hugh, and Steven M. Eiger. "Antipredatory Behaviour of Feverish Tadpoles: Implications for Pathogen Transmission." Behaviour 126, no. 1-2 (1993): 13–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853993x00317.

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AbstractIn this paper we propose the hypothesis that pathogen-induced host defense responses result in altered host behaviors and enhanced predation. In particular we examine the effects of the acute phase response (whose effects include fever, reduced activity and malaise) on antipredatory behavior in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles. This host response is associated with the preliminary stages of infection with many pathogens yet its behavioral effects have received little attention. Bullfrog tadpoles were injected with alcohol-killed bacteria to induce a response to infection and their ability to detect and avoid capture by predatory salamanders (Taricha granulosa) was explored. We predicted that acute phase responses increase tadpole vulnerability to predation by influencing thermoregulatory behavior and their ability to detect, and avoid capture by, salamanders. We found that the sterotypical effects of the acute phase response can lead to increased predation. Malaise affected the refuge seeking behavior of the tadpoles in the presence of salamanders. We suggest that for tadpoles provided with refuges, altered behaviors are a liability. This endogenous response may afford some parasites a potential pathway to their next host.

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Fava, Gustavo A., and Juan C. Acosta. "Escape distance and escape latency following simulated rapid bird attacks in an Andean lizard, Phymaturus williamsi." Behaviour 155, no. 10-12 (2018): 861–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003506.

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Abstract Predatory birds represent the greatest risk for many lizard species. However, little is known about the functional relationship between the escape distance and escape latency of lizards during a rapid bird attack. We hypothesised that escape latency and distance in the Andean lizard species Phymaturus williamsi would increase proportionally, but vary according to the means of escape. Over a three-year period we observed seven types of antipredatory behaviour in 98% P. williamsi lizards on simulated predatory bird attacks. Escape distance and latency were positively correlated. 65% of lizards emerged from their refuge within 2 min of an attack. All of these behaviours were positively correlated with escape latency and distance, although we found the former to be more precise. This study contributes to a better understanding of the general antipredatory behaviour in this species of Andean lizard, and will assist in future decisions concerning its conservation.

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Ortega, Zaida, Abraham Mencía, and Valentín Pérez-Mellado. "Antipredatory behaviour of a mountain lizard towards the chemical cues of its predatory snakes." Behaviour 155, no. 10-12 (2018): 817–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003504.

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Abstract The ability to early detect a potential predator is essential for survival. The potential of Iberolacerta cyreni lizards to discriminate between chemical cues of their two predatory snakes Coronella austriaca (a non-venomous active-hunter saurophagous specialist) and Vipera latastei (a venomous sit-and-wait generalist) was evaluated herein. A third snake species, Natrix maura, which does not prey on lizards, was used as a pungent control. Thus, the behaviour of I. cyreni was studied regarding four treatments: (1) C. austriaca scent, (2) V. latastei scent, (3) N. maura scent and (4) odourless control. Lizards showed antipredator behaviour (such as slow-motion and tail waving) to C. austriaca and V. latastei chemicals. The antipredatory response was similar for both predators. This ability to react with an intensive behavioural pattern to the chemical cues of their predatory snakes may prevent lizards from being detected, and, if detected, dissuade the predator from beginning a pursuit.

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Reyes-Olivares, Claudio, Alex Vera-Quispe, Alejandro Zúñiga, and Félix A. Urra. "Description of the antipredatory head-wobble behaviour in Chilean rear-fanged snakes Tachymenis peruviana Wiegmann, 1835 and Tachymenis chilensis coronellina Werner, 1898 (Serpentes, Dipsadidae)." Herpetozoa 35 (July 25, 2022): 155–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/herpetozoa.35.e84842.

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In this work, we describe the first records of head-wobble behaviour for Tachymenis peruviana and T. chilensis coronellina. We analyse this behaviour (occurrence, frequency) and accompanying displays in both species. Of particular note is that T. ch. coronellina exhibited more frequent head-wobbling than T. peruviana and, in both records, wind activity was observed during this antipredatory behaviour.

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Ibáñez, Alejandro, José Martín, Andrea Gazzola, and Daniele Pellitteri-Rosa. "Freshwater turtles reveal personality traits in their antipredatory behaviour." Behavioural Processes 157 (December 2018): 142–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2018.08.011.

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Ugolini, A. "Orientation in the water and antipredatory behaviour in sandhoppers." Marine Behaviour and Physiology 14, no. 4 (May 1989): 223–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10236248909378709.

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Downes, Sharon, and Anke Maria Hoefer. "Antipredatory behaviour in lizards: interactions between group size and predation risk." Animal Behaviour 67, no. 3 (March 2004): 485–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.010.

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Carretero, Miguel A., Raquel Vasconcelos, Miguel Fonseca, Antigoni Kaliontzopoulou, José C. Brito, D. James Harris, and Anna Perera. "Escape tactics of two syntopic forms of the Lacerta perspicillata complex with different colour patterns." Canadian Journal of Zoology 84, no. 11 (November 2006): 1594–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z06-154.

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It has been suggested that dorsal colour patterns and defence strategies could have coevolved in reptiles, the striped species being more prone to flee compared with the spotted species that rely more on crypsis. Because of the confounding effects of phylogeny and habitat, we compared closely related forms that share the same habitats and predation pressures but display different patterns. The spotted (chabanaudi) and the striped (pellegrini) forms of the Lacerta perspicillata (= Teira perspicillata ) Duméril and Bibron, 1839 complex are reproductively isolated in a locality where they live in syntopy. The responses of lizards to a direct attack by a predator, simulated by the approach of a researcher, were investigated. Both forms displayed divergent antipredatory behaviours (escaping and recovering) to optimize survival. Chabanaudi lizards showed longer approach distances and took more time to abandon shelter than pellegrini lizards when the effects of temperature and of distance fled were removed. Reappearance was related with previous flight in chabanaudi but with thermal quality of the refuge in pellegrini. Although both used similar refuges, chabanaudi selected bigger rocks that were less accessible to terrestrial predators but were more prone to bird attacks, whereas pellegrini selected fragmented rocks that faced more terrestrial predation. Our results support the hypothesis of coevolution between pattern and antipredatory behaviour.

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Handeland, S. O., T. Järvi, A. Fernö, and S. O. Stefansson. "Osmotic stress, antipredatory behaviour, and mortality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53, no. 12 (December 1, 1996): 2673–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f96-227.

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Baruzzi, Carolina, Sandro Lovari, and Niccolò Fattorini. "Catch me if you can: antipredatory behaviour of chamois to the wolf." Ethology Ecology & Evolution 29, no. 6 (January 18, 2017): 589–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2016.1271016.

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Nasri, Intissar, Foued Hamza, Josabel Belliure, and Slaheddine Selmi. "Tail conspicuousness and antipredatory behaviour in Bosk’s fringe-toed lizard (Acanthodactylus boskianus)." Ethology Ecology & Evolution 30, no. 4 (December 5, 2017): 319–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2017.1402091.

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Pratt, Kirstin L., and Craig E. Franklin. "Predator or prey? The dive response to aerial and aquatic predators of Arafura filesnakes." Australian Journal of Zoology 57, no. 6 (2009): 423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo09080.

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In air-breathing aquatic animals, predation is a strong selection pressure that may be reduced by modification to diving patterns. The risk of predation increases with time spent at the surface, thus shorter, more frequent surfacing events or longer, less frequent surfacing events would decrease predation risk. A reduction in time spent on the surface can be achieved by use of bimodal respiration, which is an ability to extend dive duration using dissolved oxygen to supplement aerially acquired oxygen. Air is a more efficient respiratory medium; however, under predation pressure, the cost of surfacing increases and the reliance on aquatic gas exchange should therefore increase. We tested whether the bimodally respiring filesnake (Acrochordus arafurae) changed its diving behaviour under simulated aerial (model bird) and aquatic (large fish) predation. Aerial predation did not alter dive or surface duration, percentage time surfacing or activity. However, a greater number of longer dives were observed with fewer long surface intervals, suggesting an increase in the use of aquatic gas exchange. The diel diving patterns (short night dives, long day dives) may provide an in-built antipredatory response to aerial predation. The threat of aquatic predation produced atypical antipredator behaviour, with longer surface intervals, shorter dives and increased activity, indicating that piscivorous filesnakes may have identified the predatory fish as prey rather than a predator.

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Borowski, Zbigniew. "Individual and seasonal differences in antipredatory behaviour of root volesa field experiment." Canadian Journal of Zoology 80, no. 9 (September 1, 2002): 1520–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z02-154.

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The response of root vole (Microtus oeconomus) to least weasel (Mustela nivalis) odours during breeding (August) and nonbreeding seasons (November) was studied in the root voles' natural habitat. The aim of this study was to determine if antipredator behaviour of the root vole changed between breeding and nonbreeding seasons and if this change was closely related to individual environmental cues, e.g., weasel odours. It was found that when bait and weasel odour was used, trappability was greater in breeding season than in nonbreeding season. Moreover, in the breeding season, heavier (i.e., older) voles were more frequently captured than lighter (i.e., younger) ones. Results show that voles' antipredator behaviour of weasel avoidance changes seasonally and that during the breeding season voles display a trade-off conflict between predator risk and foraging, if predator risk is high. It is possible that older voles are driven to reproduce in the current breeding season and thus display less weasel avoidance than do younger voles, which have higher probability of surviving to the next breeding season. Results indicate that indirect (nonlethal) effects of mammalian predators on voles' behaviour strongly depend on age, sexual activity, and season.

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Hotová Svádová, Kateřina, Alice Exnerová, and Pavel Štys. "Gregariousness as a defence strategy of moderately defended prey: experiments with Pyrrhocoris apterus and avian predators." Behaviour 151, no. 11 (2014): 1617–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003208.

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Aggregations in insects carry out diverse functions, and gregariousness may also act as an antipredatory strategy, especially when combined with warning signalling. Despite many studies focused on the antipredatory function of gregariousness, there are still aspects needing further investigation: What aspects of predator behaviour are affected by prey gregariousness? Which of the antipredatory effects of aggregations are linked with aposematic coloration, and which will also work for non-aposematic prey? Does gregariousness of an aposematic species affect its mimetic relationships? We have studied these topics in the firebug, Pyrrhocoris apterus (Heteroptera), an aposematic red-and-black true bug with moderate chemical defence. Firebugs alternate between solitary and gregarious lifestyles throughout the year. We used hand-reared great tits (Parus major) as naive predators, and subjected them to avoidance training with either solitarily or gregariously presented firebugs, followed by a memory test with solitary individuals. To test whether effects of gregariousness are specific for the aposematic firebugs, we tested another group of birds with brown-painted firebugs. Our results show that the gregarious lifestyle of the firebug is a part of its antipredatory strategy. Compared to solitary individuals, aggregations benefited in several ways, some exclusive for aposematic firebugs, others working irrespective of coloration. Aggregations induced greater innate wariness, leading to longer attack latencies and more cautious prey handling, including complete attack avoidance in some birds. Despite the fact that the birds mostly attacked only one or two individuals from an aggregation, they needed fewer trials to reach the avoidance-learning criterion than the birds learning to avoid solitary firebugs. Birds’ experience with firebug aggregations reduced the predation risk of subsequently encountered solitary individuals, as the birds hesitated longer before attacking a solitary firebug if their previous aversive experience had been with aggregations rather than with solitary individuals. Predators’ experience with firebug aggregations may compensate for the firebugs’ moderate chemical defence, and as a consequence, gregariousness may change the firebugs’ mimetic relationships with better defended red-and-black true bug species from quasi-Batesian to Müllerian.

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Valkonen, Janne K., and Johanna Mappes. "Comments on Guimarães & Sawaya. Pretending to be venomous: is a snake's head shape a trustworthy signal to a predator?" Journal of Tropical Ecology 28, no. 1 (December 8, 2011): 123–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467411000575.

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Several species of non-venomous snake are known to flatten their heads when disturbed, and this behaviour has been suggested to be a mimicry of vipers (Arnold & Ovenden 2002, Hailey & Davies 1986, Young et al. 1999). Using plasticine models, Guimarães & Sawaya (2011) tested the antipredatory function of a triangular head shape in snakes. Their article presents the first published empirical experiment testing the adaptive significance of vipers' triangular head shape. Guimarães & Sawaya (2011) found no support for the viper mimicry hypothesis. Accordingly, they concluded that ‘the shape of [the] head seemed not to confer advantage itself’. Although the use of plasticine models is a generally accepted method of testing predation pressure on snakes, we argue that the experiment may have failed to find the antipredatory function of triangulation due to the pooling of attacks by mammalian and avian predators. Mammals generally rely on olfactory cues during foraging. Plasticine has a strong odour which does not resemble the odour of any prey species. It is thus unlikely that mammals would treat snake replicas as true snakes.

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Cavalli, Matilde, Alejandro V. Baladrón, Juan P. Isacch, and María S. Bó. "Burrowing owls eavesdrop on southern lapwings’ alarm calls to enhance their antipredatory behaviour." Behavioural Processes 157 (December 2018): 199–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2018.10.002.

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Šklíba, Jan, Radim Šumbera, and Wilbert Newton Chitaukali. "Reactions to disturbances in the context of antipredatory behaviour in a solitary subterranean rodent." Journal of Ethology 26, no. 2 (August 9, 2007): 249–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10164-007-0056-x.

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Dor, A., and Y. Hénaut. "Importance of body size and hunting strategy during interactions between the Mexican red-rump tarantula (Brachypelma vagans) and the wolf spider Lycosa subfusca." Canadian Journal of Zoology 91, no. 8 (August 2013): 545–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2012-0308.

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Behavioural adaptation helps animals to maximize their ability to obtain food and to avoid being eaten, increasing fitness. To achieve this, they must assess predation risk and evaluate foraging needs simultaneously. In two sympatric spider species, the wandering wolf spider Lycosa subfusca F.O.P. Cambridge, 1902 and the sit-and-wait Mexican red-rump tarantula (Brachypelma vagans Ausserer, 1875), we studied the relationship between predatory behaviour and antipredatory behaviour at different life stages. In the laboratory, encounters were organized between one wolf spider (small, medium-sized, or large) and one tarantula (spiderling, small, medium-sized, or large). Attack latencies and behaviours were recorded. The results showed that wolf spiders attacked and successfully captured younger tarantulas, while they avoided or retreated from older ones. Tarantulas preferentially attacked and captured older wolf spiders. On other hand, younger wolf spiders were more cautious than older ones, which waited until for the tarantulas to attack before retreating. Younger tarantulas were also more cautious than adults, which never retreated from attack and increased their success in attacks with age. Finally, we discuss the relationship between the predatory strategies of both spiders with their perception abilities and life history.

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Pérez-Tris, Javier, José A. Dı́az, and José Luis Tellerı́a. "Loss of body mass under predation risk: cost of antipredatory behaviour or adaptive fit-for-escape?" Animal Behaviour 67, no. 3 (March 2004): 511–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.008.

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Altbäcker, Vilmos, and Vilmos Csányi. "The Role of Eyespots in Predator Recognition and Antipredatory Behaviour of the Paradise Fish, Macropodus opercularis L." Ethology 85, no. 1 (April 26, 2010): 51–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1990.tb00385.x.

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Ylönen, Hannu, Jana A. Eccard, Ilmari Jokinen, and Janne Sundell. "Is the antipredatory response in behaviour reflected in stress measured in faecal corticosteroids in a small rodent?" Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 60, no. 3 (February 24, 2006): 350–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-006-0171-7.

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Bonacci, Teresa, Massimo Capula, Tullia Zetto Brandmayr, Pietro Brandmayr, and Gaetano Aloise. "Testing the predatory behaviour of Podarcis sicula (Reptilia: Lacertidae) towards aposematic and non-aposematic preys." Amphibia-Reptilia 29, no. 3 (2008): 449–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853808785111986.

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Abstract Food preferences and the effects of prey chemical repellents in the dietary behaviour of Podarcis sicula were tested using four species of Carabid beetles as prey models. The goal of the study was to assess (i) the ability of P. sicula to recognize insect preys provided with chemical repellents and aposematic colorations under laboratory conditions, and (ii) the importance of chemical signals used by the prey model as antipredatory strategy. Preys used in this study were Brachinus sclopeta and Anchomenus dorsalis (aposematic species) and Amara anthobia and A. aenea (non-aposematic species). Aposematic species are characterized by warning color pattern and by production of chemical repellents, while non-aposematic ones do not. Amara anthobia and A. aenea were attacked with high frequency by P. sicula, Brachinus sclopeta and Anchomenus dorsalis with low frequency. Non-aposematic species were preyed more often than the aposematic ones. Brachinus sclopeta was preyed after low latency, while Amara anthobia and A. aenea after long latency. Non-aposematic species were captured and eaten without difficulty, while when B. sclopeta or A. dorsalis were captured, lizards always tossed their head and then rub the snout on the soil, probably because of the unpalatability of aposematic preys.

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Royan, A., A. P. Muir, and J. R. Downie. "Variability in escape trajectory in the Trinidadian stream frog and two treefrogs at different life-history stages." Canadian Journal of Zoology 88, no. 9 (September 2010): 922–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z10-059.

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Most studies investigating anuran jumping behaviour have examined the relationship between body size and parameters such as jump distance, velocity, and force; however, few have investigated jump trajectory. We constructed an arena to determine escape trajectories in relation to the direction of an artificial stimulus in the aromobatid Mannophryne trinitatis (Garman, 1888) and two treefrogs, Trachycephalus venulosus (Laurenti, 1768) and Hypsiboas geographicus (Spix, 1824). Three categories of M. trinitatis (i.e., tadpole-transporting males, nontransporting males, and females) and three ontogenetic stages of the treefrogs were compared. Mannophryne trinitatis escaped in a broadly predictable trajectory away from the stimulus, although jump trajectories were highly variable, suggesting a degree of unpredictability. No systematic differences were found between categories of M. trinitatis, adding to the findings of previous studies that larval transport incurs no measurable locomotor costs on antipredatory jumping behaviour with regards to jump angle and distance. The treefrogs showed similar patterns of escape trajectory and unpredictability. There were no consistent differences between life-history stages and no relationship between distance jumped and angular deviation. In M. trinitatis and H. geographicus, there was some evidence of bimodality in escape trajectory. The results are discussed in the context of other work on escape trajectories and the concept of “protean” defence strategies.

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De Mársico, María C., Cynthia A. Ursino, and Juan C. Reboreda. "Experimental evidence for an antipredatory function of egg rejection behaviour in a common host of the brood-parasitic shiny cowbird." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 70, no. 10 (June 28, 2016): 1689–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-016-2174-3.

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Reynolds, Michael, Elisavet A. Arapi, and Jo Cable. "Parasite-mediated host behavioural modifications: Gyrodactylus turnbulli infected Trinidadian guppies increase contact rates with uninfected conspecifics." Parasitology 145, no. 7 (November 8, 2017): 920–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182017001950.

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AbstractWhile group formation provides antipredatory defences, increases foraging efficiency and mating opportunities, it can be counterintuitive by promoting disease transmission amongst social hosts. Upon introduction of a pathogen, uninfected individuals often modify their social preferences to reduce infection risk. Infected hosts also exhibit behavioural changes, for example, removing themselves from a group to prevent an epidemic. Conversely, here we show how Trinidadian guppies infected with a directly transmitted ectoparasite, Gyrodactylus turnbulli, significantly increase their contact rates with uninfected conspecifics. As uninfected fish never perform this behaviour, this is suggestive of a parasite-mediated behavioural response of infected hosts, presumably to offload their parasites. In the early stages of infection, however, such behavioural modifications are ineffective in alleviating parasite burdens. Additionally, we show that fish exposed to G. turnbulli infections for a second time, spent less time associating than those exposed to parasites for the first time. We speculate that individuals build and retain an infection cue repertoire, enabling them to rapidly recognize and avoid infectious conspecifics. This study highlights the importance of considering host behavioural modifications when investigating disease transmission dynamics.

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Scribner, Stephen J., and Patrick J. Weatherhead. "Locomotion and antipredator behaviour in three species of semi-aquatic snakes." Canadian Journal of Zoology 73, no. 2 (February 1, 1995): 321–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z95-036.

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For temperate-zone ectotherms, a potential cost of an aquatic lifestyle may be impaired locomotor performance, due to rapid cooling of the body when in cold water. Contrary to the hypothesis that more-aquatic species should be better adapted for locomotion at low temperatures, the decline in swimming performance with temperature was similar for three species of snakes (the northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon), eastern ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus) and common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)) that varied in their association with aquatic habitats. The effect of temperature on antipredator behaviour was also similar for the three species; at lower body temperatures, snakes relied more on alternative defensive behaviours. However, antipredator behaviour was used less by water snakes than by garter and ribbon snakes. Except for the smallest individuals, all snakes crawled more slowly than they swam, and the difference in performance was greatest for the largest snakes. When crawling, all three species relied more on alternative defensive behaviours than when swimming. In the field, water snakes fled at greater distances from human "predators" than did garter and ribbon snakes, which tended to rely on crypsis. The greater dependence on flight as the primary antipredator behaviour by water snakes, and on other tactics such as crypsis by garter and ribbon snakes, does not conform to the generalization that a species' antipredator behaviour is related to its characteristic dorsal pigmentation pattern. Species differences in antipredator behaviour appear to be more strongly related to habitat use.

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Bannister, H., R. Brandle, and K. Moseby. "Antipredator behaviour of a native marsupial is relaxed when mammalian predators are excluded." Wildlife Research 45, no. 8 (2018): 726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr18060.

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Context Predator-controlled environments can lead to prey species losing costly antipredator behaviours as they exploit their low-risk environment, creating a ‘predator-naïve’ population. If individuals lacking suitable antipredator behaviours are used as source populations for reintroductions to environments where predators are present, their behaviour could result in high post-release predation. In contrast, animals sourced from environments with predators (‘predator-exposed’) may show effective antipredator behaviours and thus higher survival post-release. Aims The aim was to compare the antipredator behaviour of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) at predator-exposed and predator-naïve source populations, and then compare post-release survival after their reintroduction to a low predator environment. Methods Data were collected from possums at two sites, one with and one without mammalian predators. The behavioural responses of possums to a spotlighter, their willingness to use supplementary feeders at ‘safe’ and ‘risky’ heights, whether they avoided predator odour at traps and their general willingness to enter traps were recorded. Key results Predator-naïve possums showed weaker antipredator responses, were often found at ground level, engaged with novel objects, did not avoid predator scents and utilised different habitats regardless of associated predation risk. In contrast, predator-exposed possums had higher antipredator responses, chose connected trees, were rarely found at ground level and were generally difficult to capture. Post-translocation survival was high for both source populations. Predator-naïve-sourced female possums began to avoid predator urine (feral cat; Felis catus) 12 months after translocation. Conclusions Our research demonstrates that environmental predation risk can predict prey naïvety in brushtail possums. Some aspects of prey naïvety behaviour appear to be able to change in response to altered predation risk. Implications With many threatened species now existing only in feral predator-free areas, these results have implications for future reintroductions into unbounded areas where feral predators are present, and for the management of fenced reserves. The addition of a small number of predators to fenced reserves may aid in retaining antipredator behaviours in fenced prey populations.

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Delaney, David M. "Antipredation behavior covaries with body size in Neotropical snakes." Amphibia-Reptilia 40, no. 4 (2019): 437–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685381-20191125.

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Abstract The use of defensive behaviors to avoid predation increases the likelihood of survival. Snake species have evolved numerous and diverse antipredatory behaviors to fit a variety of natural histories. Understanding how snakes react to simulated predation events can help us understand their ecology. I conducted behavioral trials on 11 colubrid and dipsadid species ( individuals) in the Republic of Panama to examine patterns of antipredation behavior. The level of aggression and number of antipredatory behaviors exhibited during simulated predation was positively correlated with body size. To complement these results, data from previously published studies were used to assess these patterns with a larger sample of Neotropical colubrids and dipsadids ( species). Indeed, the level of aggression and number of antipredatory behaviors known for each species was positively correlated with body size. However, the positive association between the number of antipredatory behaviors known for a species and body size was driven largely by colubrids and not dipsadids. Larger snakes may be more intimidating to potential predators, therefore making aggressive defensive behaviors more likely to be successful. Larger snakes also may encounter a higher diversity of predators and may benefit from the ability to choose from a suite of defensive behaviors specific to certain contexts. Although this study suggests two interesting patterns in the defensive behaviors of Neotropical colubrids and dipsadids, comparative studies of the interactions between snakes and their predators are needed to better understand the pressures driving variation in snake antipredation behavior.

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Airst, Jason, and Susan Lingle. "Courtship strategies of white-tailed deer and mule deer males when living in sympatry." Behaviour 156, no. 3-4 (2019): 307–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003543.

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Abstract Courtship behaviour reflects characteristics of an animal’s general biology, while also reflecting selective pressures specific to reproduction. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) are sister species that differ in antipredator behaviour and sociality. We observed sympatric mule deer and white-tailed males to document their grouping patterns, courtship tactics, and aggressive interactions during the breeding season. Consistent with the hypothesis that courtship strategies reflect species differences in antipredator tactics and sociality, mule deer males were more likely than white-tailed males to tend females in multi male–multi female groups. White-tailed males almost exclusively tended females in isolated pairs and prevented other males from joining their groups. However, both species spent more time in isolated pairs as courtship advanced, likely to reduce competition. Our results enabled us to distinguish courtship behaviours that reflect contrasting antipredator tactics and sociality from courtship behaviours that reflect reproductive selective pressures that the species share.

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Uiblein, Franz, Josep R. Roca, Angel Baltanás, and Dan L. Danielopol. "Tradeoff between foraging and antipredator behaviour in a macrophyte dwelling ostracod." Archiv für Hydrobiologie 137, no. 1 (July 18, 1996): 119–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/archiv-hydrobiol/137/1996/119.

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Bize, Pierre, Claris Diaz, and Jan Lindström. "Experimental evidence that adult antipredator behaviour is heritable and not influenced by behavioural copying in a wild bird." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1732 (October 5, 2011): 1380–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1789.

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Knowledge of the relative importance of genetics and behavioural copying is crucial to appraise the evolvability of behavioural consistencies. Yet, genetic and non-genetic factors are often deeply intertwined, and experiments are required to address this issue. We investigated the sources of variation of adult antipredator behaviour in the Alpine swift ( Apus melba ) by making use of long-term behavioural observations on parents and cross-fostered offspring. By applying an ‘animal model’ approach to observational data, we show that antipredator behaviour of adult Alpine swifts was significantly repeatable over lifetime ( r = 0.273) and heritable ( h 2 = 0.146). Regression models also show that antipredator behaviours differed between colonies and sexes (females were more tame), and varied with the hour and year of capture. By applying a parent–offspring regression approach to 59 offspring that were exchanged as eggs or hatchlings between pairs of nests, we demonstrate that offspring behaved like their biological parents rather than like their foster parents when they were adults themselves. Those findings provide strong evidence that antipredator behaviour of adult Alpine swifts is shaped by genetics and/or pre-hatching maternal effects taking place at conception but not by behavioural copying.

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Thuppil, Vivek, and Richard G. Coss. "Wild Asian elephants distinguish aggressive tiger and leopard growls according to perceived danger." Biology Letters 9, no. 5 (October 23, 2013): 20130518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0518.

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Prey species exhibit antipredator behaviours such as alertness, aggression and flight, among others, in response to predators. The nature of this response is variable, with animals reacting more strongly in situations of increased vulnerability. Our research described here is the first formal study to investigate night-time antipredator behaviour in any species of elephants, Asian or African. We examined the provocative effects of elephant-triggered tiger and leopard growls while elephants attempted to crop-raid. Tigers opportunistically prey on elephant calves, whereas leopards pose no threat; therefore, we predicted that the elephant response would be reflective of this difference. Elephants reacted similarly cautiously to the simulated presence of felids of both species by eventually moving away, but differed markedly in their more immediate behavioural responses. Elephants retreated silently to tiger-growl playbacks, whereas they responded with aggressive vocalizations, such as trumpets and grunts, to leopard-growl playbacks. Elephants also lingered in the area and displayed alert or investigative behaviours in response to leopard growls when compared with tiger growls. We anticipate that the methods outlined here will promote further study of elephant antipredator behaviour in a naturalistic context, with applications for conservation efforts as well.

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Oliveira, Thiago Acosta, Renan Idalencio, Fabiana Kalichak, João Gabriel dos Santos Rosa, Gessi Koakoski, Murilo Sander de Abreu, Ana Cristina Varrone Giacomini, et al. "Stress responses to conspecific visual cues of predation risk in zebrafish." PeerJ 5 (September 4, 2017): e3739. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3739.

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Chemical communication relating to predation risk is a trait common among fish species. Prey fish under threat of predation can signal risk to conspecific fish, which then exhibit defensive responses. Fish also assess predation risk by visual cues and change their behavior accordingly. Here, we explored whether these behavioral changes act as visual alarm signals to conspecific fish that are not initially under risk. We show that shoals of zebrafish (Danio rerio) visually exposed to a predator display antipredator behaviors. In addition, these defensive maneuvers trigger antipredator reactions in conspecifics and, concomitantly, stimulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis, leading to cortisol increase. Thus, we conclude that zebrafish defensive behaviors act as visual alarm cues that induce antipredator and stress response in conspecific fish.

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Rajchard, J. "Antipredator pheromones in amphibians: a review." Veterinární Medicína 51, No. 8 (March 27, 2012): 409–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/5563-vetmed.

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Specific chemosignals (pheromones) have an important role in the antipredator behaviour in amphibians and other vertebrates. However, relatively little is known about the occurrence of chemical alarm cues just in amphibians. The site of chemosignals perception is vomeronasal system. The presence of the vomeronasal system in aquatic amphibians indicates that it did not arise as an adaptation to terrestrial life. Predators may inhibit mate search of some species, and male newts probably take greater risks during the breeding season. Field tests demonstrated different responses to male newt extract – probably trade-off that incorporates risk and resource sensitivity. Response to chemical alarm signals has been documented for tadpoles of frog and for several species of salamander. The response of tadpoles to predator includes morphological modifications and influence of coloration, growth and development retardation. Tadpoles of Rana aurora release a chemical that provides conspecifics with an early warning of predator presence. Bufo boreas tadpoles living in the presence of conspecific alarm cues and chemosignals of specific predators reduce the time of metamorphosis in order to reduce the time in the presence of its predators. Presence of conspecific alarm substances in water and predators’ waste products have an important role in the chemical detection of predators by tadpoles of Rana temporaria and Bufo bufo. Tadpoles of Rana utricularia significantly decreased the growth and increased the mortality of Hyla cinerea tadpoles on the basis of behavioral and chemical interference. Rana utricularia tadpoles apparently use both chemical interference and aggressive behavior in securing a competitive advantage over H. cinerea tadpoles. The response of tadpoles of Rana aurora to tadpoles of Taricha granulosa appear be similar to their response to tadpole extract in eliciting alarm, while insect-fed newts would have less of an effect since predators consuming other species may be less of a threat. In some cases (e.g. in Bufo bufo and B. calamita) chemosignals released in response to threat by predators (direct attack or detection of the predator scents) exert their effects across species.

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Berejikian, Barry A., R. Jan F. Smith, E. Paul Tezak, Steven L. Schroder, and Curtis M. Knudsen. "Chemical alarm signals and complex hatchery rearing habitats affect antipredator behavior and survival of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) juveniles." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56, no. 5 (May 1, 1999): 830–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f99-010.

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The present study examined the effects of chemical antipredator conditioning on antipredator behavior and the relative effects of antipredator conditioning and seminatural rearing environments on postrelease survival of chinook salmon (Onocrhynchus tshawytscha). Hatchery-reared juvenile chinook salmon were exposed to extracts from conspecific tissue or to comparable stimuli from green swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri). These "injured fish" stimuli were paired with water that contained the odour of predatory cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki). Chinook salmon receiving conspecific stimuli showed higher levels of several antipredator behaviors compared with chinook salmon receiving green swordtail extracts. When the two groups of chinook salmon were tested 2 days later with cutthroat trout stimulus alone, the chinook salmon that had originally received injured conspecific stimuli paired with cutthroat trout odour spent more time motionless than chinook salmon that had received green swordtail stimuli and cutthroat trout odour. In another experiment, complex rearing treatments had a negative effect on instream survival (contrary to previous studies) that was compensated for by the application of the chinook salmon extract and cutthroat trout odour prior to release. Chinook salmon, like rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), show antipredator behavior in response to chemical stimuli from injured conspecifics and learn predator recognition when such stimuli are paired with predator odour, improving survival in the wild.

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Turbill, Christopher, and Lisa Stojanovski. "Torpor reduces predation risk by compensating for the energetic cost of antipredator foraging behaviours." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1893 (December 19, 2018): 20182370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.2370.

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Foraging activity is needed for energy intake but increases the risk of predation, and antipredator behavioural responses, such as reduced activity, generally reduce energy intake. Hence, the mortality and indirect effects of predation risk are dependent on the energy requirements of prey. Torpor, a controlled reduction in resting metabolism and body temperature, is a common energy-saving mechanism of small mammals that enhances their resistance to starvation. Here we test the hypothesis that torpor could also reduce predation risk by compensating for the energetic cost of antipredator behaviours. We measured the foraging behaviour and body temperature of house mice in response to manipulation of perceived predation risk by adjusting levels of ground cover and starvation risk by 24 h food withdrawal every third day. We found that a voluntary reduction in daily food intake in response to lower cover (high predation risk) was matched by the extent of a daily reduction in body temperature. Our study provides the first experimental evidence of a close link between energy-saving torpor responses to starvation risk and behavioural responses to perceived predation risk. By reducing the risk of starvation, torpor can facilitate stronger antipredator behaviours. These results highlight the interplay between the capacity for reducing metabolic energy expenditure, optimal decisions about foraging behaviour and the life-history ecology of prey.

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Domenici, P., C. Lefrançois, and A. Shingles. "Hypoxia and the antipredator behaviours of fishes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 362, no. 1487 (May 2007): 2105–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2103.

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Hypoxia is a phenomenon occurring in marine coastal areas with increasing frequency. While hypoxia has been documented to affect fish activity and metabolism, recent evidence shows that hypoxia can also have a detrimental effect on various antipredator behaviours. Here, we review such evidence with a focus on the effect of hypoxia on fish escape responses, its modulation by aquatic surface respiration (ASR) and schooling behaviour. The main effect of hypoxia on escape behaviour was found in responsiveness and directionality. Locomotor performance in escapes was expected to be relatively independent of hypoxia, since escape responses are fuelled anaerobically. However, hypoxia decreased locomotor performance in some species (Mugilidae) although only in the absence of ASR in severe hypoxia. ASR allows fish to show higher escape performance than fish staying in the water column where hypoxia occurs. This situation provides a trade-off whereby fish may perform ASR in order to avoid the detrimental effects of hypoxia, although they would be subjected to higher exposure to aerial predation. As a result of this trade-off, fishes appear to minimize surfacing behaviour in the presence of aerial predators and to surface near shelters, where possible. For many fish species, schooling can be an effective antipredator behaviour. Severe hypoxia may lead to the disruption of the school unit. At moderate levels, hypoxia can increase school volume and can change the shuffling behaviour of individuals. By altering school structure and dynamics, hypoxia may affect the well functioning of schooling in terms of synchronization and execution of antipredator manoeuvres. School structure and volume appear to be the results of numerous trade-offs, where school shape may be dictated by the presence of predators, the need for energy saving via hydrodynamic advantages and oxygen level. The effects of hypoxia on aquatic organisms can be taxon specific. While hypoxia may not necessarily increase the vulnerability of fish subject to predation by other fish (since feeding in fish also decreases in hypoxia), predators from other taxa such as birds, jellyfish or aquatic mammals may take advantage of the detrimental effects of hypoxia on fish escape ability. Therefore, the effect of hypoxia on fish antipredator behaviours may have major consequences for the composition of aquatic communities.

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Richardson, Graham, Patrick Dickinson, Oliver H. P. Burman, and Thomas W. Pike. "Unpredictable movement as an anti-predator strategy." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1885 (August 22, 2018): 20181112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1112.

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Prey animals have evolved a wide variety of behaviours to combat the threat of predation, and these have been generally well studied. However, one of the most common and taxonomically widespread antipredator behaviours of all has, remarkably, received almost no experimental attention: so-called ‘protean’ behaviour. This is behaviour that is sufficiently unpredictable to prevent a predator anticipating in detail the future position or actions of its prey. In this study, we used human ‘predators’ participating in 3D virtual reality simulations to test how protean (i.e. unpredictable) variation in prey movement affects participants' ability to visually target them as they move (a key determinant of successful predation). We found that targeting accuracy was significantly predicted by prey movement path complexity, although, surprisingly, there was little evidence that high levels of unpredictability in the underlying movement rules equated directly to decreased predator performance. Instead, the specific movement rules differed in how they impacted on targeting accuracy, with the efficacy of protean variation in one element depending on the values of the remaining elements. These findings provide important insights into the understudied phenomenon of protean antipredator behaviour, which are directly applicable to predator–prey dynamics within a broad range of taxa.

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Brown, Grant E., and R. Jan F. Smith. "Acquired predator recognition in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): conditioning hatchery-reared fish to recognize chemical cues of a predator." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55, no. 3 (March 1, 1998): 611–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f97-261.

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In this study, we exposed predator-naive, hatchery-reared juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to the chemical stimuli from northern pike (Esox lucius) and either trout skin extract (a chemical alarm signal) or a distilled water control to test for acquired recognition of a novel predator. Trout exposed to conspecific skin extract and pike odour significantly increased antipredator behaviour (i.e., decreased foraging and area use and increased shoaling and freezing), while those exposed to distilled water and pike odour did not. Conditioned trout were exposed to pike odour alone (versus a distilled water control) either 4 or 21 days later. When presented with pike odour 4 days postconditioning, trout significantly increased antipredator behaviour (i.e., decreased foraging and area use and increased time under cover and freezing). Trout tested 21 days postconditioning still exhibited a significant increase in antipredator behaviours when presented with pike odour alone (i.e., decreased foraging and increased freezing). These data are the first to demonstrate that hatchery-reared trout can be conditioned to recognize the chemical cues of a predator and suggest that this may serve as a strategy to train hatchery-reared fish to recognize predators prior to stocking into natural waterways.

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Sabal, Megan C., Michelle L. Workman, Joseph E. Merz, and Eric P. Palkovacs. "Shade affects magnitude and tactics of juvenile Chinook salmon antipredator behavior in the migration corridor." Oecologia 197, no. 1 (August 5, 2021): 89–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-021-05008-4.

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AbstractEnvironmental conditions strongly affect antipredator behaviors; however, it is less known how migrating prey adjust antipredator behavior in migration corridors, in part, because active migrants are difficult to observe and study. Migrants are vulnerable and encounter many predators in the corridor, and their propensity to travel towards their destination ties antipredator behavior with movement. We evaluated how environmental risk cues in the migration corridor including in-water habitat structure (present, absent) and overhead shade (sun, shade), and salmon origin (hatchery, wild) affected how juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) reacted to a live predator. We measured how salmon react to predation risk as the difference in time to swim downstream through a 9.1-m long field enclosure with or without a live predatory largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Shade significantly modified the reaction to the predator, and it did so in two ways. First, the magnitude of antipredator behavior was larger in shade compared to direct sun, which suggests salmon perceived shade to be a riskier environment than sun. Second, the escape tactic also varied; salmon slowed down to be cautious in shade and sped up in sun. Structure did not significantly affect behavior and hatchery and wild salmon behaved similarly. Our study suggests that environmental risk cues can shape the magnitude and tactics of how migrants react to predation risk and illustrates how these responses relate to movement with potential to scale up and affect migration patterns.

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Jackson, Christopher D., and Grant E. Brown. "Differences in antipredator behaviour between wild and hatchery-reared juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) under seminatural conditions." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 68, no. 12 (December 2011): 2157–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f2011-129.

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Captive rearing may elicit experiential or genetically based changes to salmonid antipredator behaviour, which may reduce survival of hatchery-reared fishes when they are released into the wild. Nevertheless, few studies have compared the behaviour between local wild-caught and local hatchery-reared fish (two generations or less), and none have done so under natural conditions. We conducted a seminatural field study comparing the antipredator behaviour of wild-caught, F1 (offspring of wild-caught adults) with that of F2 (second generation) hatchery-reared young-of-the-year Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar , from the same source population) in response to standardized chemical alarm cues. Wild-caught salmon exhibited the strongest antipredator response to a standardized threat (conspecific alarm cues), while F2 salmon exhibited the weakest response. F1 salmon were intermediate in their behavioural response. The observed differences between wild-caught and F1 salmon suggests that differential experience may play a significant role in predator avoidance behaviours. Furthermore, the observed differences between F1 and F2 salmon suggests that even one full generation of hatchery rearing may be sufficient to select for maladaptive responses to predators under natural conditions. Given the controversy regarding the effectiveness of hatchery programs for conservation use, the results of this study suggest that minimizing hatchery time may reduce the behavioural differences between wild and hatchery-reared fishes.

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Zamora-Camacho, Francisco Javier. "The relationships between toad behaviour, antipredator defences, and spatial and sexual variation in predation pressure." PeerJ 10 (February 17, 2022): e12985. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12985.

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Background Animal behaviour is under strong selection. Selection on behaviour, however, might not act in isolation from other fitness-related traits. Since predators represent outstanding selective forces, animal behaviour could covary with antipredator defences, such that individuals better suited against predators could afford facing the costs of riskier behaviours. Moreover, not all individuals undergo equivalent degrees of predation pressure, which can vary across sexes or habitats. Individuals under lower predation pressure might also exhibit riskier behaviours. Methods In this work, I tested these hypotheses on natterjack toads (Epidalea calamita). Specifically, I gauged activity time, exploratory behaviour and boldness in standard laboratory conditions, and assessed whether they correlated with body size and antipredator strategies, namely sprint speed, parotoid gland area and parotoid gland colour contrast. Additionally, I compared these traits between sexes and individuals from an agrosystem and pine grove, since there is evidence that males and agrosystem individuals are subjected to greater predation pressure. Results Sprint speed as well as parotoid gland contrast and size appeared unrelated to the behavioural traits studied. In turn, body mass was negatively related to activity time, boldness and exploration. This trend is consistent with the fact that larger toads could be more detectable to their predators, which are mostly gape unconstrained and could easily consume them. As predicted, females exhibited riskier behaviours. Nonetheless, agrosystem toads did not differ from pine grove toads in the behavioural traits measured, despite being under stronger predation pressure.

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Sharda, Sakshi, Tobias Zuest, Matthias Erb, and Barbara Taborsky. "Predator-induced maternal effects determine adaptive antipredator behaviors via egg composition." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 37 (September 10, 2021): e2017063118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2017063118.

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In high-risk environments with frequent predator encounters, efficient antipredator behavior is key to survival. Parental effects are a powerful mechanism to prepare offspring for coping with such environments, yet clear evidence for adaptive parental effects on offspring antipredator behaviors is missing. Rapid escape reflexes, or “C-start reflexes,” are a key adaptation in fish and amphibians to escape predator strikes. We hypothesized that mothers living in high-risk environments might induce faster C-start reflexes in offspring by modifying egg composition. Here, we show that offspring of the cichlid fish Neolamprologus pulcher developed faster C-start reflexes and were more risk averse if their parents had been exposed to cues of their most dangerous natural predator during egg production. This effect was mediated by differences in egg composition. Eggs of predator-exposed mothers were heavier with higher net protein content, and the resulting offspring were heavier and had lower igf-1 gene expression than control offspring shortly after hatching. Thus, changes in egg composition can relay multiple putative pathways by which mothers can influence adaptive antipredator behaviors such as faster escape reflexes.

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Brown, Nicholas A. W., David R. Wilson, and Patrick Gagnon. "Plasticity in the antipredator behavior of the orange-footed sea cucumber under shifting hydrodynamic forces." Current Zoology 65, no. 6 (January 11, 2019): 685–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cz/zoy100.

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Abstract Marine invertebrates that move too slowly to evade unfavorable environmental change may instead exhibit phenotypic plasticity, allowing them to adjust to varying conditions. The orange-footed sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa is a slow-moving suspension feeder that is preyed on by the purple sunstar Solaster endeca. The sea cucumber’s antipredator behavior involves changing shape and detaching from the substratum, which might increase its probability of being displaced by water motion into an unsuitable environment. We hypothesized that sea cucumbers’ antipredator responses would be diminished under stronger hydrodynamic forces, and that behavioral strategies would be flexible so that individuals could adjust to frequent changes in water flows. In a natural orange-footed sea cucumber habitat, individuals lived along a pronounced hydrodynamic gradient, allowing us to measure antipredator behavior under different water flow strengths. We placed purple sunstars in physical contact with sea cucumbers living at various points along the gradient to elicit antipredator responses. We then repeated this procedure in a laboratory mesocosm that generated weak and strong hydrodynamic forces similar to those observed at the field site. Subjects in the mesocosm experiment were tested in both wave conditions to determine if their antipredator behavior would change in response to sudden environmental change, as would be experienced under deteriorating sea conditions. Antipredator responses did not covary with hydrodynamic forces in the field. However, antipredator responses in the mesocosm experiment increased when individuals were transplanted from strong to weak forces and decreased when transplanted from weak to strong forces. Overall, our results indicate environmentally induced plasticity in the antipredator behavior of the orange-footed sea cucumber.

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Zabierek, Kristina, and Kristen Epp. "Antipredator response of Eurycea nana to a nocturnal and a diurnal predator: avoidance is not affected by circadian cycles of predators." Amphibia-Reptilia 37, no. 4 (2016): 397–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685381-00003070.

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Both predators and prey exhibit cyclic shifts in activity throughout the day, which should cause the threat posed by predators to change in a recurrent pattern. If the threat posed by a predator is dependent on their circadian foraging cycle, prey may respond more or less intensely to predators at different times of day, thereby maximizing the effectiveness and efficiency of avoidance behaviors. We examined whether predator-naïveEurycea nana, a federally threatened neotenic salamander, exhibits a different antipredator response to chemical cues of a diurnal predator, the green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus), and a nocturnal predator, the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). We predicted thatE. nanawould show more intense antipredator responses (reduced activity) to a diurnal predator during the day and to a nocturnal predator at night. We found that, although there was significant antipredator behavior ofE. nanatoward sunfish, there was no detectable response to crayfish and no effect of time of day on responses to either predator, suggesting that eitherE. nanadoes not innately exhibit circadian patterns in avoidance of these species or that those patterns were undetectable in this study. Future studies should examine whether experience with predators may cause these salamanders to be more sensitive to the diel variation in threat, as has been found with some other amphibians and fish. Due to the threatened nature of this species, understanding the factors that influence antipredator behavior are crucial for management.

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Torres, María Del Milagro, Leonel Jeremías Viladrich, and Sergio Naretto. "Role of coloration in antipredator strategies of Pristidactylus achalensis (Squamata: Leiosauridae) related to sex and stages of predation." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, no. 3 (April 20, 2021): 896–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blab012.

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Abstract The interaction between behavioural and phenotypic traits, such as coloration, plays a specific role at different stages of the predatory sequence. Cryptic coloration involves a match to the background that reduces the risk of detection, and it is usually optimized by immobility behaviour. In lizards, sexual dichromatism and within-individual changes of colour can influence the level of their crypsis and thus influence antipredator behaviour and the decision to flee. Here, we examined variation in coloration and antipredator behaviour between the sexes of the Achala copper lizard (Pristidactylus achalensis). We measured sexual dichromatism and crypsis in accordance with avian vision. We also exposed lizards to a raptor dummy to assess the colour change and behaviour at the detection and approach stages of the predatory event. Finally, we tested escape behaviour in the natural habitat. We found that males were more conspicuous than females. Additionally, individuals showed distinct behaviours at different stages of the predation simulation, but there were no differences between the sexes. However, in their natural habitat males initiated flight at greater distances than females, which might be related to their more conspicuous coloration. In summary, this study shows how differences in crypsis between the sexes affect escape behaviour during the approach stage of predation.

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Chandrasegaran, Karthikeyan, Rasikapriyaa Sriramamurthy, Avehi Singh, Pooja Ravichandran, and Suhel Quader. "Antipredatory Responses of Mosquito Pupae to Non-Lethal Predation Threat—Behavioral Plasticity Across Life-History Stages." Environmental Entomology 49, no. 5 (September 4, 2020): 1032–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvaa101.

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Abstract Antipredatory behavioral responses tend to be energetically expensive, and prey species thus need to resolve trade-offs between these behaviors and other activities such as foraging and mating. While these trade-offs have been well-studied across taxa, less is known about how costs and benefits vary in different life-history contexts, and associated consequences. To address this question, we compared responses of the yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti [Diptera: Culicidae]) to predation threat from guppy (Poecilia reticulata [Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae]) across two life-history stages—larvae (data from previous study) and pupae (from this study). Pupae are motile but do not feed and are comparable to larvae in terms of behavior. To understand how physiological costs affect the threat sensitivity of pupae, we used sex (with size as a covariate) as a proxy for stored energy reserves, and quantified movement and space use patterns of male (small-sized) and female (large-sized) pupae when exposed to predation threat. We found that pupae did not alter movement when exposed to predator cues but instead altered spatial use by spending more time at the bottom of the water column. We found no effect of pupa sex (or size) on the behavioral responses we measured. We conclude that pupa behavior, both antipredatory and otherwise, is primarily targeted at minimizing energy expenditure, as compared with larval behavior, which appears to balance energy expenditure between the opposing pressures of foraging and of avoiding predation. We suggest that antipredatory defenses in metamorphosing prey are modulated by varying energetic trade-offs associated with different life-history stages.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Antipredatory behaviour'

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