Journal articles: 'Apollo missions'

1

Glavin, D. P., J. P. Dworkin, M. Lupisella, G. Kminek, and J. D. Rummel. "Biological contamination studies of lunar landing sites: implications for future planetary protection and life detection on the Moon and Mars." International Journal of Astrobiology 3, no. 3 (July 2004): 265–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550404001958.

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Chemical and microbiological studies of the impact of terrestrial contamination of the lunar surface during the Apollo missions could provide valuable data to help refine future Mars surface exploration plans and planetary protection requirements for a human mission to Mars. NASA and ESA have outlined new visions for solar system exploration that will include a series of lunar robotic missions to prepare for and support a human return to the Moon, and future human exploration of Mars and other destinations. Under the Committee on Space Research's (COSPAR's) current planetary protection policy for the Moon, no decontamination procedures are required for outbound lunar spacecraft. Nonetheless, future in situ investigations of a variety of locations on the Moon by highly sensitive instruments designed to search for biologically derived organic compounds would help assess the contamination of the Moon by lunar spacecraft and Apollo astronauts. These studies could also provide valuable ‘ground truth’ data for Mars sample return missions and help define planetary protection requirements for future Mars bound spacecraft carrying life detection experiments.

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Wang, Hao, and Tarek A. Elgohary. "A Simple and Accurate Apollo-Trained Neural Network Controller for Mars Atmospheric Entry." International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2020 (September 9, 2020): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/3793740.

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We present a new method to design the controller for Mars capsule atmospheric entry using deep neural networks and flight-proven Apollo entry data. The controller is trained to modulate the bank angle with data from the Apollo entry simulations. The neural network controller reproduces the classical Apollo results over a variation of entry state initial conditions. Compared to the Apollo controller as a baseline, the present approach achieves the same level of accuracy for both linear and nonlinear entry dynamics. The Apollo-trained controller is then applied to Mars entry missions. As in Earth environment, the controller achieves the desired level of accuracy for Mars missions using both linear and nonlinear entry dynamics with higher uncertainties in the entry states and the atmospheric density. The deep neural network is only trained with data from Apollo reentry simulation in an Earth model and works in both Earth and Mars environments. It achieves the desired landing accuracy for a Mars capsule. This method works with both linear and nonlinear integration and can generate the bank angle commands in real-time without a prestored trajectory.

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Edmundson, K. L., O. Alexandrov, B. A. Archinal, K. J. Becker, T. L. Becker, R. L. Kirk, Z. M. Moratto, A. V. Nefian, J. O. Richie, and M. S. Robinson. "PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PROCESSING OF APOLLO 15 METRIC CAMERA OBLIQUE IMAGES." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLI-B4 (June 13, 2016): 375–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-xli-b4-375-2016.

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The integrated photogrammetric mapping system flown on the last three Apollo lunar missions (15, 16, and 17) in the early 1970s incorporated a Metric (mapping) Camera, a high-resolution Panoramic Camera, and a star camera and laser altimeter to provide support data. In an ongoing collaboration, the U.S. Geological Survey’s Astrogeology Science Center, the Intelligent Robotics Group of the NASA Ames Research Center, and Arizona State University are working to achieve the most complete cartographic development of Apollo mapping system data into versatile digital map products. These will enable a variety of scientific/engineering uses of the data including mission planning, geologic mapping, geophysical process modelling, slope dependent correction of spectral data, and change detection. Here we describe efforts to control the oblique images acquired from the Apollo 15 Metric Camera.

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Edmundson, K. L., O. Alexandrov, B. A. Archinal, K. J. Becker, T. L. Becker, R. L. Kirk, Z. M. Moratto, A. V. Nefian, J. O. Richie, and M. S. Robinson. "PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PROCESSING OF APOLLO 15 METRIC CAMERA OBLIQUE IMAGES." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLI-B4 (June 13, 2016): 375–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xli-b4-375-2016.

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The integrated photogrammetric mapping system flown on the last three Apollo lunar missions (15, 16, and 17) in the early 1970s incorporated a Metric (mapping) Camera, a high-resolution Panoramic Camera, and a star camera and laser altimeter to provide support data. In an ongoing collaboration, the U.S. Geological Survey’s Astrogeology Science Center, the Intelligent Robotics Group of the NASA Ames Research Center, and Arizona State University are working to achieve the most complete cartographic development of Apollo mapping system data into versatile digital map products. These will enable a variety of scientific/engineering uses of the data including mission planning, geologic mapping, geophysical process modelling, slope dependent correction of spectral data, and change detection. Here we describe efforts to control the oblique images acquired from the Apollo 15 Metric Camera.

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Amathes, Pyrrhon, and Paul Christodoulides. "Topographic Analysis of Landing Areas of Apollo Moon Missions." Journal of Geography and Geology 9, no. 4 (November 29, 2017): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jgg.v9n4p37.

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The Apollo program was NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) human spaceflight program, accomplishing landing of the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. Ever since there have been scientific and public questions about its legitimacy and claims that the associated Moon landings were staged by NASA and/or other organizations. In this paper we examine a number of the Apollo mission images through (i) a comparison with simulated views of Google Earth (Moon) and (ii) a photographic analysis of some of their features using Photoshop®. The functionality of latitude, longitude, elevation and elevation profile of Google Earth is addressed by means of a comparison with other available programs possessing the same features like NASA’s Moon Trek and Alcyone Lunar Calculator. The topographic analysis through Google Moon simulations indicate that the landscapes in Apollo mission images used were inaccurate presentations of reality and there are incorrect elevations and serious land feature omissions. Moreover, the Photoshop® analysis shows conclusively that images were staged, manipulated or altered.

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Launius, Roger D. "Abandoned in Place: Interpreting the U.S. Material Culture of the Moon Race." Public Historian 31, no. 3 (2009): 9–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/tph.2009.31.3.9.

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Abstract The U.S. space race of the 1960s was an enormous undertaking, costing $$25.4 billion (about $$125 billion in 2009 dollars) with only the building of the Panama Canal rivalling the Apollo program's size as the largest nonmilitary technological endeavor ever undertaken by the United States. In the process, the United States built a massive infrastructure to support missions to the Moon. In the aftermath of the successful completion of the program, much of this infrastructure was abandoned, some was altered for other uses, and much torn down. This paper surveys six major cultural landmarks of the Moon race, assessing their differing fates:1. The Apollo Launch Pads——LC 39A and B——Kennedy Space Center, Florida.2. The Vertical Assembly Building (VAB), Kennedy Space Center, Florida.3. Mission Control Center (MCC), Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.4. Six Apollo landing sites on the Moon.5. Lunar Landing Research Facility, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.6. Apollo Command Modules on display in various museums around the nation, and in London.

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7

Doyle, Peter. "The Apollo missions and Moon rocks, 1969-1972." Geology Today 33, no. 4 (July 2017): 142–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gto.12192.

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8

Edmundson, K. L., O. Alexandrov, B. A. Archinal, K. J. Becker, T. L. Becker, J. A. Mapel, Z. M. Moratto, et al. "REVISITING THE APOLLO PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING SYSTEM." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-1 (September 26, 2018): 133–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-1-133-2018.

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<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> The integrated photogrammetric mapping system flown on the last three Apollo lunar missions (AS15, AS16, and AS17) in 1971 and 1972 incorporated a Metric (mapping) Camera, a high-resolution Panoramic Camera, and a star camera and laser altimeter. The U.S. Geological Survey’s Astrogeology Science Center, the Intelligent Robotics Group of the NASA Ames Research Center, and Arizona State University are working together in an ongoing collaboration to achieve the most complete cartographic development of Apollo mapping system data into versatile digital map products. These will enable a variety of scientific/engineering uses of the data including mission planning, geologic mapping, geophysical process modelling, slope dependent correction of spectral data, and change detection. After a brief discussion of the origins of the mapping system, we describe the Metric and Panoramic cameras, processing of the associated image and support data, work to photogrammetrically control the Metric Camera images, and future plans.</p>

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9

Edwards, Kari. "Prayers from on high: Religious expression in outer space during the Apollo era, 1968–76." European Journal of American Culture 39, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 297–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/ejac_00032_1.

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In the wake of the Apollo 8 mission on 21–27 December 1968, infamous atheist activist Madalyn Murray O’Hair threatened a lawsuit against the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). O’Hair, who had successfully fought against mandatory Bible reading and prayer in the public schools earlier in the decade, argued that NASA’s administrators knowingly violated the separation of church and state by allowing astronauts Frank Borman, William Anders and James Lovell to read from Genesis during their Christmas Eve broadcast from the moon’s orbit. The threat instantly garnered public attention due to O’Hair’s notoriety, particularly among evangelical Christians. Although the lawsuit was quietly dismissed a year later, letter-writing campaigns defending religious expression in outer space continued unabated, even after the last Apollo astronaut set foot on the moon’s surface in 1972. This article examines defences of prayer and Bible reading in outer space during the later Apollo missions from 1968 to 1976. It argues that these efforts reveal a favourable shift in evangelical attitudes towards the space programme – attitudes that were divided sharply prior to Apollo 8 were subsequently more unified as evangelicals combined the fight for prayer in outer space with other major battles over religious freedom. O’Hair’s lawsuit linked Apollo with evangelicals’ earthly concerns, prompting them to interpret American outer space exploration as an endeavour inextricably endowed with religious purpose. The emotional letters-of-thanks they penned and the strongly worded petitions protesting O’Hair they signed in the years following the Apollo 8 mission make a compelling case for incorporating the space programme more prominently into the broader historical discussion of evangelicalism in twentieth-century America.

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10

Lopez, Philippe. "Forecasting the Past: Views of Earth from the Moon and Beyond." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 101, no. 7 (July 1, 2020): E1190—E1200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-19-0254.1.

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Abstract As we celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of NASA’s Apollo missions, images of Earth simulated with the ECMWF Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) are visually compared with pictures collected during space missions of the past five decades, in particular from the Apollo missions (1968–72). The numerical weather reforecasts use the latest version of the IFS and are initialized from (re)analysis data, which provide our current best representation of the atmospheric state for any given date back to the 1950s. Visible images of our planet are produced from the IFS with a simple simulator whose main inputs are the solar fluxes at the top of the atmosphere. First, a comparison to recent imagery from deep space illustrates the high level of performance of the IFS on recent dates. Then, the validation of the IFS against photographs taken by Apollo 11 and 17 both in-flight and from the lunar surface exhibits a significant level of agreement, despite the absence or very limited number of satellite observations available. This short study confirms that the combination of high-quality initial conditions with a modern numerical weather prediction model can yield reasonably accurate reforecasts of global meteorological conditions, especially cloud systems, for dates as far back as the late 1960s.

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11

McKee, Maggie. "How close the Apollo missions came to finding water." New Scientist 205, no. 2751 (March 2010): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(10)60569-6.

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12

Peng, Chao, Lizhou Cao, and Sabin Timalsena. "Gamification of Apollo lunar exploration missions for learning engagement." Entertainment Computing 19 (March 2017): 53–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2016.12.001.

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13

Wirth, Jason M. "Kelly Oliver, Earth & World: Philosophy after the Apollo Missions." Social Theory and Practice 43, no. 1 (2017): 209–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/soctheorpract201743110.

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14

Balcerak, Ernie. "Data from Apollo missions show how lunar dust degrades instruments." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 95, no. 1 (January 7, 2014): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014eo010025.

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15

Izor, Matthew A. "Kelly Oliver: Earth and World: Philosophy after the Apollo Missions." Human Ecology 45, no. 1 (November 9, 2016): 139–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10745-016-9862-5.

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16

Pezzella, Giuseppe, and Antonio Viviani. "Aerodynamic Analysis of a Manned Space Vehicle for Missions to Mars." Journal of Thermodynamics 2011 (February 24, 2011): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/857061.

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The paper deals with the aerodynamic analysis of a manned braking system entering the Mars atmosphere with the aim to support planetary entry system design studies. The exploration vehicle is an axisymmetric blunt body close to the Apollo capsule. Several fully three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics analyses have been performed to address the capsule aerodynamic performance. To this end, a wide range of flow conditions including reacting and nonreacting flow, different angles of attack, and Mach numbers have been investigated and compared. Moreover, nonequilibrium effects on the flow field around the entry vehicle have also been investigated. Results show that real-gas effects, for all the angles of attack considered, increase both the aerodynamic drag and pitching moment whereas the lift is only slighted affected. Finally, results comparisons highlight that experimental and CFD aerodynamic findings available for the Apollo capsule in air adequately represent the static coefficients of the capsule in the Mars atmosphere.

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17

Strandberg, Jenny. "Earth and World: Philosophy after the Apollo Missions by Kelly Oliver." philoSOPHIA 7, no. 7 (2017): 187–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/phi.2017.0018.

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Oard, Douglas W., and John H. Hansen. "Signal processing challenges for reconstructing NASA's Apollo missions to the moon." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 140, no. 4 (October 2016): 3009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.4969333.

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19

Reisz, Aloysius I. "Earthrise." Mechanical Engineering 124, no. 05 (May 1, 2002): 42–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2002-may-1.

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This article focuses on the Apollo program that was a remarkable feat of engineering and a heroic human endeavor. It proved that mankind is not bound to Earth. The Apollo missions endowed us with a new sense of confidence in our intelligence and an awareness of our existence. Above all, the view of the graceful Earth from the moon inspired us to engineer better systems for our home planet. Apollo’s engineering leaders showed how to envision solutions to achieve objectives in a required time. Green engineering is developing clean energy and life systems that conserve Earth’s ecology. Clean energy can be obtained from the first elements of the universe, light and hydrogen. Energy from nuclear fusion leaves no hydrocarbon pollutants. Clean energy is also obtained from wind, celestial heat, biomass, and hydrocarbon matter before heavier Earth elements are entrained. Engineering is the application of human intelligence for the betterment of life. Engineers must not be satisfied with a role of merely making rote calculations. Rather, vision and leadership in developing and implementing new technologies should be provided that will allow perpetual use of the Earth and its resources.

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Bates, J. R., and P. H. Fang. "Results of solar cell performance on lunar base derived from Apollo missions." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 26, no. 1-2 (March 1992): 79–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0927-0248(92)90127-b.

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Swenson, Loyd S., and William David Compton. "Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions." Technology and Culture 33, no. 2 (April 1992): 383. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3105888.

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Bates, J. "Some astronomical effects observed by solar cells from Apollo missions on lunar surface." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 68, no. 1 (April 2001): 23–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0927-0248(00)00343-3.

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23

Gloudemans, A. J., E. Kuulkers, R. Campana, A. Escalante, M. Kole, and Y. Mollard. "Re-evaluation of Lunar X-ray observations by Apollo 15 and 16." Astronomy & Astrophysics 649 (May 2021): A174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202140321.

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The Apollo 15 and 16 missions were the first to explore the Lunar surface chemistry by investigating about 10% of the Lunar surface using a remote sensing X-ray fluorescence spectrometer experiment. The data obtained have been extensively used to study Lunar formation history and geological evolution. In this work, a re-evaluation of the Apollo 15 and 16 X-ray fluorescence experiment is conducted with the aim of obtaining up-to-date empirical values for aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) concentrations relative to silicon (Si) of the upper Lunar surface. An updated instrument response, a newly reconstructed Lunar trajectory orbit, and improved intensity ratio calculations were used to obtain new intensity ratio maps. The resulting Lunar Al/Si and Mg/Al X-ray maps show a clear distinction in Lunar mare and highland regions. The mean Al/Si and Mg/Al intensity ratios for the mare regions obtained from the newly obtained maps are 0.54 ± 0.07 and 0.54 ± 0.17, respectively; for the highland regions, the values are 0.76 ± 0.07 and 1.07 ± 0.13, respectively. For the Mg/Si intensity ratio, no clear distinction between Lunar features is obtained and we derived a mean value of 0.47 ± 0.13. Our determined intensity ratios are lower than previously published. These values can be used to infer concentration ratios when accounting for Solar activity, inter-orbit variability, and measurements from different instruments. We employed a correction to infer concentration ratios by comparing our intensity ratios directly to Lunar rock concentrations obtained from various Lunar missions.

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Baturin, Yuri Mikhailovich. "From Jules Verne to “Apollo”’ Missions (How the Decision for Lunar Landing Was Made)." MANNED SPACEFLIGHT, no. 2(31) (June 4, 2019): 114–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.34131/msf.19.2.114-133.

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The landing of a man on the Moon is considered within the framework of a four-phase scheme for the development of technical innovations. The article focuses on making a political decision by the US President. The influence of NASA, political advisers to President Kennedy, the academic community and the success of the Soviet Union on making the decision is discussed. The price of national prestige, scientific benefit, the risk to the crew and budget expenditures were thoroughly weighted. The scientific community warned that scientific results should be more substantial, but this criticism was neglected. It is demonstrated how the first factor – national prestige – won. The role of scientific advisers in the presidential decision-making mechanism is shown.

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Baturin, Yuri Mikhailovich. "From Jules Verne to “Apollo” Missions (How the Decision for Lunar Landing Was Made)." MANNED SPACEFLIGHT, no. 3(32) (September 6, 2019): 108–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.34131/msf.19.3.108-133.

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The landing of a man on the Moon is considered within the framework of the four-phase scheme for developing technical innovations. The article focuses on making a political decision by the US President Kennedy. The influence of NASA, political advisers, academic community and successes of the Soviet Union on making the decision is discussed. The price of national prestige, scientific benefit, the risk to the crew and budget expenditures were thoroughly weighted. The scientific community warned that scientific results should be more substantial, but this criticism was neglected. It is demonstrated how the first factor – national prestige – won. The role of scientific advisers in the mechanism of presidential decision-making is shown.

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Hagermann, Axel. "Planetary heat flow measurements." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 363, no. 1837 (October 25, 2005): 2777–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1664.

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The year 2005 marks the 35th anniversary of the Apollo 13 mission, probably the most successful failure in the history of manned spaceflight. Naturally, Apollo 13's scientific payload is far less known than the spectacular accident and subsequent rescue of its crew. Among other instruments, it carried the first instrument designed to measure the flux of heat on a planetary body other than Earth. The year 2005 also should have marked the launch of the Japanese LUNAR-A mission, and ESA's Rosetta mission is slowly approaching comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Both missions carry penetrators to study the heat flow from their target bodies. What is so interesting about planetary heat flow? What can we learn from it and how do we measure it? Not only the Sun, but all planets in the Solar System are essentially heat engines. Various heat sources or heat reservoirs drive intrinsic and surface processes, causing ‘dead balls of rock, ice or gas’ to evolve dynamically over time, driving convection that powers tectonic processes and spawns magnetic fields. The heat flow constrains models of the thermal evolution of a planet and also its composition because it provides an upper limit for the bulk abundance of radioactive elements. On Earth, the global variation of heat flow also reflects the tectonic activity: heat flow increases towards the young ocean ridges, whereas it is rather low on the old continental shields. It is not surprising that surface heat flow measurements, or even estimates, where performed, contributed greatly to our understanding of what happens inside the planets. In this article, I will review the results and the methods used in past heat flow measurements and speculate on the targets and design of future experiments.

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Martini, M., S. Dell’Agnello, D. Currie, G. O. Delle Monache, R. Vittori, S. Berardi, A. Boni, et al. "MOONLIGHT: A NEW LUNAR LASER RANGING RETROREFLECTOR AND THE LUNAR GEODETIC PRECESSION." Acta Polytechnica 53, A (December 17, 2013): 746–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.14311/ap.2013.53.0746.

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Since the 1970s Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) to the Apollo Cube Corner Retroreflector (CCR) arrays (developed by the University of Maryland, UMD) supplied almost all significant tests of General Relativity (Alley et al., 1970; Chang et al., 1971; Bender et al.,1973): possible changes in the gravitational constant, gravitational self-energy, weak equivalence principle, geodetic precession, inverse-square force-law. The LNF group, in fact, has just completed a new measurement of the lunar geodetic precession with Apollo array, with accuracy of 9 × 10−3, comparable to the best measurement to date. LLR has also provided significant information on the composition and origin of the moon. This is the only Apollo experiment still in operation. In the 1970s Apollo LLR arrays contributed a negligible fraction of the ranging error budget. Since the ranging capabilities of ground stations improved by more than two orders of magnitude, now, because of the lunar librations, Apollo CCR arrays dominate the error budget. With the project MoonLIGHT (Moon Laser Instrumentation for General relativity High-accuracy Tests), in 2006 INFN-LNF joined UMD in the development and test of a new-generation LLR payload made by a single, large CCR (100mm diameter) unaffected by the effect of librations. With MoonLIGHT CCRs the accuracy of the measurement of the lunar geodetic precession can be improved up to a factor 100 compared to Apollo arrays. From a technological point of view, INFN-LNF built and is operating a new experimental apparatus (Satellite/lunar laser ranging Characterization Facility, SCF) and created a new industry-standard test procedure (SCF-Test) to characterize and model the detailed thermal behavior and the optical performance of CCRs in accurately laboratory-simulated space conditions, for industrial and scientific applications. Our key experimental innovation is the concurrent measurement and modeling of the optical Far Field Diffraction Pattern (FFDP) and the temperature distribution of retroreflector payloads under thermal conditions produced with a close-match solar simulator. The apparatus includes infrared cameras for non-invasive thermometry, thermal control and real-time payload movement to simulate satellite orientation on orbit with respect to solar illumination and laser interrogation beams. These capabilities provide: unique pre-launch performance validation of the space segment of LLR/SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging); retroreflector design optimization to maximize ranging efficiency and signal-to-noise conditions in daylight. Results of the SCF-Test of our CCR payload will be presented. Negotiations are underway to propose our payload and SCF-Test services for precision gravity and lunar science measurements with next robotic lunar landing missions. In particular, a scientific collaboration agreement was signed on Jan. 30, 2012, by D. Currie, S. Dell’Agnello and the Japanese PI team of the LLR instrument of the proposed SELENE-2 mission by JAXA (Registered with INFN Protocol n. 0000242-03/Feb/2012). The agreement foresees that, under no exchange of funds, the Japanese single, large, hollow LLR reflector will be SCF-Tested and that MoonLIGHT will be considered as backup instrument.

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Muller, Paul M. "Time and Polar Motion in Early NASA Spacecraft Navigation." International Astronomical Union Colloquium 178 (2000): 215–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0252921100061352.

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AbstractInclusion of Polar Motion and UT1 data (corrections) is essential to achieving the full accuracy in NASA (and other) spacecraft navigation. Tracking station locations are routinely determined to the meter-level and must be available inertially (on the rotating Earth) to equal accuracy a priori in real-time. This implies knowledge of UT1 to 2.5ms and polar motion to lm (and for practical use for the first time accurately predicted and disseminated to the navigation computer programs). This was essential from 1965 onward as we prepared for Apollo, for Apollo itself, and all subsequent missions. This paper presents the history behind the author’s “discovery” circa 1965 at JPL that UT1 and polar motion were not then included in NASA’s Orbit Determination models and programs; how this omission was being “observed” in station location determinations (and errors) from spacecraft radio tracking data; how it was rectified; the essential nature of these data in precision spacecraft navigation including Apollo; and how this became undoubtedly the highest and most critical application of these data in history. There followed widespread recognition of the many observers present and past who tirelessly and often with little visibility outside of professional astronomy made the necessary observations and calculations. As an historical paper, there is room for a few interesting anecdotes and personalities in NASA, as well as the late and much missed Dr. Markowitz then head of the USNO time service, and his successor Dr. Klock, with both of whom the author had the honor, professional benefit, and great personal pleasure of working during this time.

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POPEL, SERGEY I., and LEV M. ZELENYI. "Future lunar missions and investigation of dusty plasma processes on the Moon." Journal of Plasma Physics 79, no. 4 (February 27, 2013): 405–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377813000214.

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AbstractFrom the Apollo era of exploration, it was discovered that sunlight was scattered at the terminators giving rise to “horizon glow” and “streamers” above the lunar surface. Subsequent investigations have shown that the sunlight was most likely scattered by electrostatically charged dust grains originating from the surface. A renaissance is being observed currently in investigations of the Moon. The Luna-Glob and Luna-Resource missions (the latter jointly with India) are being prepared in Russia. Some of these missions will include investigations of lunar dust. Here we discuss the future experimental investigations of lunar dust within the missions of Luna-Glob and Luna-Resource. We consider the dusty plasma system over the lunar surface and determine the maximum height of dust rise. We describe mechanisms of formation of the dusty plasma system over the Moon and its main properties, determine distributions of electrons and dust over the lunar surface, and show a possibility of rising dust particles over the surface of the illuminated part of the Moon in the entire range of lunar latitudes. Finally, we discuss the effect of condensation of micrometeoriod substance during the expansion of the impact plume and show that this effect is important from the viewpoint of explanation of dust particle rise to high altitudes in addition to the dusty plasma effects.

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DEGNAN, JOHN J. "ASYNCHRONOUS LASER TRANSPONDERS: A NEW TOOL FOR IMPROVED FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS." International Journal of Modern Physics D 16, no. 12a (December 2007): 2137–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218271807011310.

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Since 1964, the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has been using short pulse lasers to range to artificial satellites equipped with passive retroreflectors. Today, a global network of 40 satellite laser ranging (SLR) stations, under the auspices of the International Laser Ranging Service (ILRS), routinely tracks two dozen international space missions with few-millimeter precision using picosecond pulse lasers in support of Earth science. Lunar laser ranging (LLR) began in 1969, shortly after NASA's Apollo 11 mission placed the first of five retroreflector packages on the Moon. An important LLR data product has been the verification of Einstein's equivalence principle and other tests of general relativity. In 1975, the University of Maryland used a laser ranging system to continuously transfer time between two sets of atomic clocks — one set on the ground and the other in an aircraft — to observe the predicted relativistic effects of gravity and velocity on the clock rates. Two-way asynchronous laser transponders promise to extend these precise ranging and time transfer capabilities beyond the Moon to the planets, as evidenced by two successful experiments carried out in 2005 at distances of 24 and 80 million km respectively.

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O'Rangers, Eleanor A. "Supporting Humans in Space: A Brief Historical Perspective of the US Manned Spaceflight Program." Journal of Pharmacy Practice 16, no. 2 (April 2003): 85–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0897190003016002002.

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Space medicine can trace its origins to health care research, training, and practices in the US Air Force and Navy in the 1950s. As the US-Russian “space race” took shape following the launch of Sputnik, interest in space medicine intensified. Most of the medical research in the early days of US manned spaceflight (Project Mercury through the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project) was incorporated as mission objectives on most flights. Although this approach was not optimal for systematic data collection, it did reveal some adverse health consequences of space travel, such as space motion sickness, bone and muscle wasting, and orthostasis. Beginning with the Space Shuttle Program, dedicated space medicine and physiology missions were flown, which began to expand our knowledge of the potential effects—and hazards—of spaceflight. As we gain greater experience with long-duration spaceflight, it is hoped that countermeasures will be identified to mitigate many of the health concerns of space travel. Such work will be crucial for the conduct of interplanetary travel to Mars and beyond. With the possibility of the Chinese taking a significant foothold in space, a renewed sense of urgency regarding space medical research may emerge in the near future.

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Carlson, Richard W. "Analysis of lunar samples: Implications for planet formation and evolution." Science 365, no. 6450 (July 18, 2019): 240–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw7580.

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The analysis of lunar samples returned to Earth by the Apollo and Luna missions changed our view of the processes involved in planet formation. The data obtained on lunar samples brought to light the importance during planet growth of highly energetic collisions that lead to global-scale melting. This violent birth determines the initial structure and long-term evolution of planets. Once past its formative era, the lunar surface has served as a recorder of more than 4 billion years of interaction with the space environment. The chronologic record of lunar cratering determined from the returned samples underpins age estimates for planetary surfaces throughout the inner Solar System and provides evidence of the dynamic nature of the Solar System during the planet-forming era.

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Le Mouélic, Stéphane, Pauline Enguehard, Harrison H. Schmitt, Gwénaël Caravaca, Benoît Seignovert, Nicolas Mangold, Jean-Philippe Combe, and François Civet. "Investigating Lunar Boulders at the Apollo 17 Landing Site Using Photogrammetry and Virtual Reality." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (June 11, 2020): 1900. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12111900.

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The Taurus-Littrow valley on the Moon was the location of intensive geologic fieldwork during three days in December 1972. In situ activities at sampling stations were systematically documented by the astronauts using a series of overlapping images taken with their Hasselblad cameras. We investigated how this Apollo image archive can be used to perform 3-D reconstructions of several boulders of interest using close-range photogrammetry. We specifically focused on seven different boulders located at Stations 2, 6, and 7, at the foot of South and North Massifs, respectively. These boulders represent samples from highland materials, which rolled down the slopes of the surrounding hills. We used the Agisoft Metashape software to compute 3-D reconstructions of these boulders, using 173 scanned images as input. We then used either a web-based platform or a game engine to render the models in virtual reality. This allowed the users to walk around the boulders and to investigate in detail their morphology, fractures, vesicles, color variations, and sampling spots, as if standing directly in front of them with the astronauts. This work suggests that many features can be reconstructed in other sites of the Apollo missions, so as other robotic landing sites. Virtual reality techniques coupled to photogrammetry is thus opening a new era of exploration, both for past and future landing sites.

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Kadem, Mason. "The etiology of spaceflight-associated hearing loss." University of Western Ontario Medical Journal 87, no. 1 (April 24, 2018): 31–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5206/uwomj.v87i1.1811.

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Since the Apollo space missions, spaceflight-associated hearing loss has been considered a medical risk. NASA has given over a million dollars to astronauts as compensation for their hearing loss. The cause of spaceflight-associated hearing loss is unknown. Currently, research has shown sensorimotor and perceptual performance deteriorates after spaceflight. Certainly, the resulting hearing loss may not be caused by a unitary phenomenon, but rather due to a combination of factors endured during space flight. While presumed to be noise-induced, no link has been established between hearing loss and noise exposure during spaceflight; thus, countermeasures to reduce noise alone may be ineffective. Assessing the cause of spaceflight associated hearing loss may provide insight into novel neural, functional, and structural manifestations which could improve the safety and efficacy of terrestrial and space habitats.

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Jenks, Andrew. "U.S.-Soviet Handshakes in Space and the Cold War Imaginary." Journal of Cold War Studies 23, no. 2 (2021): 100–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws_a_01010.

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Abstract This article examines the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975 as an instrument of diplomacy and as a catalyst for East-West détente. The topic has received little attention in either the general literature on the Cold War—which has only recently begun to address the political significance of science and technology more generally—or in the literature on space history, which has focused mostly on the earlier race to land on the moon and has devoted little attention to the collaboration in space that has dominated crewed space missions from the 1970s, leading up to the International Space Station. The article connects two previously separate spheres of study—space history and diplomatic history—to shed light on the importance of space exploration in the bigger story of Cold War diplomacy.

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Hernandez, Oscar Samario. "THIS IS NOT A WASTE PLANET; THE PARTICIPATION OF HUMAN GENDER IN THE FACE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION." Revue Européenne du Droit Social 53, no. 4 (September 12, 2021): 49–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.53373/reds.2021.53.4.040.

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This year the international community recalled under a common celebration about the achievement of humanity that managed to put man on Earth's satellite; Moon. On July 20, 1969 the media reported this event, this year is still remembered, but it is also news that from the photographs sent by the Apollo missions taken from the space in which the splendor of the Earth with its characteristic blue color, we call it the Great Blue Marble, the home of humanity today at risk of threat from pollution, the scientific community, organizations and international organizations have warned of the consequences and risks if this deterioration continues. This work is a recognition of this concern, but it is also a call to the responsibility of mankind to act in the face of the imminent danger of climate change.

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Rosen, Meghan. "Atom & cosmos: Moon dust gathers surprisingly fast: Data from Apollo missions stir debate about the lunar surface." Science News 185, no. 1 (January 2, 2014): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/scin.5591850103.

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Snow, M. G., and D. T. Vaniman. "Critical Role of EMPA in Discovery of a New Lunar Mineral." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 248–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192760002136x.

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Natural rock-forming minerals and many synthetic materials have traditionally been characterized by electron microprobe analysis (EMPA). However, recent advances in technology have created attractive alternatives to EMPA that focus instead on bulk chemistry and high-resolution surface studies. The purpose of this abstract is to demonstrate the continued usefulness of careful electron microprobe analysis as part of a well-coordinated analytical study. To this end, a brief summary is presented of the role the electron microprobe played in the recent discovery of yoshiokaite, a new Ca, Al-silicate mineral and one of only three new minerals discovered on the Moon.[l]Regolith breccias returned by several Apollo missions were subjected to extensive bulk chemical studies at the University of California, Los A n geles.[2] These bulk chemical studies focused particularly on key trace elements that might identify exotic regolith breccias.

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Witze, Alexandra. "Atom & cosmos: Lunar interior has very little water: Tests on rocks returned by Apollo missions come up dry." Science News 178, no. 5 (August 18, 2010): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/scin.5591780515.

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SIMPSON, ANDREW T., CHARLES R. DOARN, and STEPHEN J. GARBER. "Interagency Cooperation in the Twilight of the Great Society: Telemedicine, NASA, and the Papago Nation." Journal of Policy History 32, no. 1 (January 2020): 25–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898030619000265.

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Abstract:NASA has put people in unique and extreme environments for over six decades. Supporting these individuals with a comprehensive health-care system has evolved over this period. As the Apollo program ended and NASA began to contemplate a space shuttle and space station program, societal pressures in the late 1960s and early 1970s caused federal agencies such as NASA to reconsider how to link the needs of the space program with a growing pressure to address societal needs by forging interagency partnerships. The Space Technology Applied to the Rural Papago Health Care (STARPAHC) project provides an example of how NASA sought to balance these two imperatives in an age of diminishing federal support. This project can provide lessons for today’s uncertain budgetary future for agencies such as NASA, which are once again being asked to find creative and innovative ways to support their missions while demonstrating their larger value to society.

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Mercer, Cameron M., Kelsey E. Young, John R. Weirich, Kip V. Hodges, Bradley L. Jolliff, Jo-Anne Wartho, and Matthijs C. van Soest. "Refining lunar impact chronology through high spatial resolution 40Ar/39Ar dating of impact melts." Science Advances 1, no. 1 (February 2015): e1400050. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400050.

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Quantitative constraints on the ages of melt-forming impact events on the Moon are based primarily on isotope geochronology of returned samples. However, interpreting the results of such studies can often be difficult because the provenance region of any sample returned from the lunar surface may have experienced multiple impact events over the course of billions of years of bombardment. We illustrate this problem with new laser microprobe 40Ar/39Ar data for two Apollo 17 impact melt breccias. Whereas one sample yields a straightforward result, indicating a single melt-forming event at ca. 3.83 Ga, data from the other sample document multiple impact melt–forming events between ca. 3.81 Ga and at least as young as ca. 3.27 Ga. Notably, published zircon U/Pb data indicate the existence of even older melt products in the same sample. The revelation of multiple impact events through 40Ar/39Ar geochronology is likely not to have been possible using standard incremental heating methods alone, demonstrating the complementarity of the laser microprobe technique. Evidence for 3.83 Ga to 3.81 Ga melt components in these samples reinforces emerging interpretations that Apollo 17 impact breccia samples include a significant component of ejecta from the Imbrium basin impact. Collectively, our results underscore the need to quantitatively resolve the ages of different melt generations from multiple samples to improve our current understanding of the lunar impact record, and to establish the absolute ages of important impact structures encountered during future exploration missions in the inner Solar System.

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Coventry, Lucinda. "Messenger scenes in Iliad xxiii and xxiv (xxiii 192–211, xxiv 77–188)." Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (November 1987): 178–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/630081.

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At Iliad xxiii 192—211, Iris carries Achilles' prayer to the banqueting winds, in a passage whose humour offers relief after the funeral of Patroclus. At the same time, both in its immediate context and in its relation to Iris' two missions in Book xxiv, the scene contributes to Homer's presentation of the relation between gods and men.The passage describes divine aid testifying to that concern of the gods for men which is to be so important in Book xxiv; and it immediately follows the account of another manifestation of divine concern, one which looks forward more directly to the next book—the description, at 184—91, of the protection of Hector's body by Aphrodite and Apollo. The fact that Homer anticipated here the description at xxiv 18—21 of Apollo's protection of the body points to the importance of the concern thus emphasised. In its position preceding the episode of the winds—rather than, for instance, following Achilles' earlier threats of maltreatment at xxiii 21–5—the description seems designed also to underline the fact that the parallel between Hector and Patroclus, most obvious in their deaths, is maintained here: both are the objects of divine aid, which in both cases takes the same form, the warding off of a threat to the hero's corpse, whether it is that of maltreatment by Achilles or the lesser threat of the pyre's failure to burn.

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Welch, Bryan W. "Regionalized Lunar South Pole Surface Navigation System Analysis." International Journal of Navigation and Observation 2008 (April 9, 2008): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/435961.

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Apollo missions utilized Earth-based assets for navigation, since the landings took place at lunar locations in constant view from the Earth. The new exploration campaign to the lunar South Pole region will have limited Earth visibility, but the extent to which a navigation system comprised solely of Earth-based tracking stations will provide adequate navigation solutions in this region is unknown. This article presents a dilution-of-precision-(DoP-) based stationary surface navigation analysis of the performance of multiple lunar satellite constellations, Earth-based deep space network assets, and combinations thereof. Results show that kinematic and integrated solutions cannot be provided by the Earth-based deep space network stations. Also, the surface stationary navigation system needs to be operated as a two-way navigation system, or as a one-way navigation system with local terrain information, while integrating the position solution over a short duration of time with navigation signals being provided by a lunar satellite constellation.

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Scheuring, Richard A., Jeffrey A. Jones, Joseph D. Novak, James D. Polk, David B. Gillis, Josef Schmid, James M. Duncan, and Jeffrey R. Davis. "The Apollo Medical Operations Project: Recommendations to improve crew health and performance for future exploration missions and lunar surface operations." Acta Astronautica 63, no. 7-10 (October 2008): 980–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2007.12.065.

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Lund, Matthew, and Tatjana Jevremovic. "Enhanced GEANT4 Monte Carlo simulations of the space radiation effects on the International Space Station and Apollo missions using high-performance computing environment." Acta Astronautica 165 (December 2019): 219–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.09.018.

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Poluianov, S., G. A. Kovaltsov, and I. G. Usoskin. "Solar energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays over millions of years as inferred from data on cosmogenic 26Al in lunar samples." Astronomy & Astrophysics 618 (October 2018): A96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833561.

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Aims. Lunar soil and rocks are not protected by a magnetic field or an atmosphere and are continuously irradiated by energetic particles that can produce cosmogenic radioisotopes directly inside rocks at different depths depending on the particle’s energy. This allows the mean fluxes of solar and galactic cosmic rays to be assessed on the very long timescales of millions of years. Methods. Here we show that lunar rocks can serve as a very good particle integral spectrometer in the energy range 20–80 MeV. We have developed a new method based on precise modeling, that is applied to measurements of 26Al (half-life ≈0.7 megayears) in lunar samples from the Apollo mission, and present the first direct reconstruction (i.e., without any a priori assumptions) of the mean energy spectrum of solar and galactic energetic particles over a million of years. Results. We show that the reconstructed spectrum of solar energetic particles is totally consistent with that over the last decades, despite the very different levels of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays (ϕ = 496 ± 40 MV over a million years versus (ϕ = 660 ± 20 MV for the modern epoch). We also estimated the occurrence probability of extreme solar events and argue that no events with the F(>30 MeV) fluence exceeding 5×1010 and 1011 cm−2 are expected on timescales of a thousand and million years, respectively. Conclusions. We conclude that the mean flux of solar energetic particles hardly depends on the level of solar activity, in contrast to the solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays. This puts new observational constraints on solar physics and becomes important for assessing radiation hazards for the planned space missions.

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Chela-Flores, J. "A case for landing on the moon's farside to test nitrogen abundances." International Journal of Astrobiology 11, no. 1 (November 29, 2011): 61–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550411000334.

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AbstractA high research priority in astrobiology is the search and eventual identification of biomarkers in the Solar System. In spite of numerous steps forward, lunar science remains largely disjoint from the main stream of astrobiology, but in recent years the Moon has begun to emerge as a novel target for astrobiologists. We discuss an overlap between lunar geology and terrestrial geomicrobiology that arises from analysis of lunar soils and some uncertainties in chemical evolution and the origin of life scenarios. Unexpected isotopic heterogeneity of nitrogen (N) was found to be remarkable in samples from Apollo and the Luna programme. Both the stable isotope geochemical data of the biogenic elements, as well as the noble gases trapped in lunar soils added valuable new and relevant data. These discoveries are potential sources of information on early Earth evolution. The elusive ratio of N's two stable isotopes 15N/14N has played a fundamental role in this research. The analysis of individual grains of ilmenite suggests that 90% of all the trapped N does not originate from solar wind (SW). We discuss the significance of these stable isotopes from the point of view of astrobiology in the light of the next generation of lunar exploration. We underline the high priority of testing the origin of non-solar N source trapped in the regolith of the lunar farside. In the proposals of new lunar missions, the characterization of the geochemistry at several lunar sites is a major objective. Some arguments are presented in favour of using novel space technologies in a search for biomarkers in geographical distinct lunar landing sites. We restrict our attention to one aspect of the science requirements for the forthcoming missions by focusing on a very limited objective: to take a closer look at the geochemical characterization of the chemical element N on the soils of the lunar farside.

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Pavei, Gaspare, and Alberto E. Minetti. "Hopping locomotion at different gravity: metabolism and mechanics in humans." Journal of Applied Physiology 120, no. 10 (May 15, 2016): 1223–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00839.2015.

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Previous literature on the effects of low gravity on the mechanics and energetics of human locomotion already dealt with walking, running, and skipping. The aim of the present study is to obtain a comprehensive view on that subject by including measurements of human hopping in simulated low gravity, a gait often adopted in many Apollo Missions and documented in NASA footage. Six subjects hopped at different speeds at terrestrial, Martian, and Lunar gravity on a treadmill while oxygen consumption and 3D body kinematic were sampled. Results clearly indicate that hopping is too metabolically expensive to be a sustainable locomotion on Earth but, similarly to skipping (and running), its economy greatly (more than ×10) increases at lower gravity. On the Moon, the metabolic cost of hopping becomes even lower than that of walking, skipping, and running, but the general finding is that gaits with very different economy on Earth share almost the same economy on the Moon. The mechanical reasons for such a decrease in cost are discussed in the paper. The present data, together with previous findings, will allow also to predict the aerobic traverse range/duration of astronauts when getting far from their base station on low gravity planets.

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Μπαζιώτης, Ι., and L. A. Taylor. "Είμαστε μόνοι στο συμπάν; Οι μετεωρίτες δίνουν απαντήσεις;." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 47, no. 1 (December 21, 2016): 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.10897.

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The humankind, despite the recent technological achievements, does not yet have the ability to carry out routine trips to nearby celestial bodies. However, space science is a reality. The “Apollo” missions, that took place during the period 1969-1972, included the moon landing, the walk of astronauts and collection of valuable samples. Since then, no similar space journey has been carried out. The possibility for future missions such as the return to the Moon or Mars, or to an asteroid (e.g., Vesta), seems small enough to be implemented in the next decades. Nevertheless, nature has the mechanism and procedures to resolve this problem by sending extra-terrestrial rocks in earth in the form of meteorites. Meteorite fall on Earth is a major event, as it reveals important information about the primordial stages of formation of our solar system, or the creation processes of other planets. However, the big question still remains; whether these rocks host or have traces of past life in turn employs researchers in the last twenty years. McKay et al. (1996) studied the meteorite ALH 84001 originating from Mars, claimed for important discoveries such as structures corresponding to nanobacteria. In the current paper, we focus on the origin of Martian meteorites, presenting their complete geological history; from the genesis of their protoliths till their falling to the earth. We attempt to shade light in the understanding of meteorite formation using mineralogical-petrological-geochemical data, and the assignment of timing for each event based upon contemporary geochronological data. Recently, studies of the Martian meteorite Tissint, allegedly discovered structures rich in carbon and oxygen. Furthermore, recent field observations from Curiosity rover, indicates the existence of surface water that flowed once in the past at the Martian surface. We conclude that the planet Mars might not be a "dead" planet. But it turns out that many of the meteorites that reach the Earth, have undergone a complex history which is associated with the development of very high pressures and temperatures on the surface of the planet (e.g., Mars) from which they originate, able to destroy any trace of life before them. After all, we should be very sceptic and evaluate all the possibilities before the acceptance for the existence of life out there.

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Mohd. Shamsuddin, Salahuddin, and Siti Sara bint Hj Ahmad. "Features of impact between Eastern and Western Literature." Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 7, no. 10 (October 17, 2020): 169–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.710.9198.

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No doubt that modern Arab literature has been influenced by Western literature more than it was influenced by ancient Arabic literature, whether by the missionaries, occupiers, merchants, and investors who arrived at Arab countries or by the scientific missions sent by Arab countries to European capitals or by Arab immigrants to the West. This influence was either through the translation, or through reading in the original languages of Western literature, and this second method was more influential in modern Arabic literature, because translation loses many of the characteristics of artistic literatures that have a close connection with the language.. We mentioned in this research the link between East and West, and between Arab literature and European literature, and the features of impact between them through the process of transferring the literary heritage from East to West through several crossings, and its study to extract the literary and cultural treasures through the efforts of missionaries from Orientalists that were the first nucleus of modern Western civilization. We also dealt with the features of renewal in Arabic literature, Arabic poetry and its schools in the modern era. We focused on the Divan school, the Apollo school and Diaspora School, especially the nature of poetry and truth of free modern realist poetry. We also mentioned the high demand for translated eastern literature in European countries, and its inclusion by the writers, poets and writers in their literary writings. We used the descriptive approach that is always suitable for such literary and critical topics.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Apollo missions'

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