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Journal articles on the topic 'Aposematismus'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 2 February 2022

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1

Rojas, Bibiana, Janne Valkonen, and Ossi Nokelainen. "Aposematism." Current Biology 25, no. 9 (May 2015): R350—R351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.015.

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2

Camazine, Scott. "Olfactory aposematism." Journal of Chemical Ecology 11, no. 9 (September 1985): 1289–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01024116.

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3

Weldon, Paul J. "Chemical aposematism." Chemoecology 23, no. 4 (August 22, 2013): 201–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00049-013-0140-3.

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4

Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "Aposematism and bioluminescence." Animal Behaviour 37 (February 1989): 339–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90126-7.

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5

Caro, Tim, and Graeme Ruxton. "Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34, no. 7 (July 2019): 595–604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.02.015.

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6

Marek, Paul, Daniel Papaj, Justin Yeager, Sergio Molina, and Wendy Moore. "Bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes." Current Biology 21, no. 18 (September 2011): R680—R681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.012.

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7

Holen, Øistein Haugsten, and Thomas Owens Svennungsen. "Aposematism and the Handicap Principle." American Naturalist 180, no. 5 (November 2012): 629–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/667890.

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8

Härlin, Carina, and Mikael Härlin. "Towards a historization of aposematism." Evolutionary Ecology 17, no. 2 (March 2003): 197–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1023047930360.

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9

Barnett, James B., Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel, and Innes C. Cuthill. "Aposematism: balancing salience and camouflage." Biology Letters 12, no. 8 (August 2016): 20160335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0335.

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Aposematic signals are often characterized by high conspicuousness. Larger and brighter signals reinforce avoidance learning, distinguish defended from palatable prey and are more easily memorized by predators. Conspicuous signalling, however, has costs: encounter rates with naive, specialized or nutritionally stressed predators are likely to increase. It has been suggested that intermediate levels of aposematic conspicuousness can evolve to balance deterrence and detectability, especially for moderately defended species. The effectiveness of such signals, however, has not yet been experimentally tested under field conditions. We used dough caterpillar-like baits to test whether reduced levels of aposematic conspicuousness can have survival benefits when predated by wild birds in natural conditions. Our results suggest that, when controlling for the number and intensity of internal contrast boundaries (stripes), a reduced-conspicuousness aposematic pattern can have a survival advantage over more conspicuous signals, as well as cryptic colours. Furthermore, we find a survival benefit from the addition of internal contrast for both high and low levels of conspicuousness. This adds ecological validity to evolutionary models of aposematic saliency and the evolution of honest signalling.
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10

Lev-Yadun, Simcha. "Carrion-based plant aposematism: Do plants use visual carrion-based aposematism to deter herbivores?" Biochemist 36, no. 5 (October 1, 2014): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio03605036.

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Insect carrion and trapped live insects are attached to the surfaces of many plant species that have sticky or hooked trichomes or are sticky following the exudation of latex or resin when wounded. Direct physical/chemical defences by trichomes, resins and latex are well known. In addition, such attached carrion is known to attract predators that indirectly defend the plants against further insect attacks. I propose that, in addition, the attached dead or trapped living insects may serve as billboards: (i) cueing visually to other herbivores that the plants are already occupied; and (ii) cueing and signalling them both visually and by rotting carrion or stress volatiles emitted from trapped insects that such plants are dangerous and even deadly. This is a type of an extended phenotype (via insect bodies and volatiles), ‘second-hand’ plant aposematism, based on non-self but still plant-associated signals.
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11

Santos, Juan C., Margarita Baquero, César Barrio-Amorós, Luis A. Coloma, Luciana K. Erdtmann, Albertina P. Lima, and David C. Cannatella. "Aposematism increases acoustic diversification and speciation in poison frogs." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1796 (December 7, 2014): 20141761. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1761.

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Multimodal signals facilitate communication with conspecifics during courtship, but they can also alert eavesdropper predators. Hence, signallers face two pressures: enticing partners to mate and avoiding detection by enemies. Undefended organisms with limited escape abilities are expected to minimize predator recognition over mate attraction by limiting or modifying their signalling. Alternatively, organisms with anti-predator mechanisms such as aposematism (i.e. unprofitability signalled by warning cues) might elaborate mating signals as a consequence of reduced predation. We hypothesize that calls diversified in association with aposematism. To test this, we assembled a large acoustic signal database for a diurnal lineage of aposematic and cryptic/non-defended taxa, the poison frogs. First, we showed that aposematic and non-aposematic species share similar extinction rates, and aposematic lineages diversify more and rarely revert to the non-aposematic phenotype. We then characterized mating calls based on morphological (spectral), behavioural/physiological (temporal) and environmental traits. Of these, only spectral and temporal features were associated with aposematism. We propose that with the evolution of anti-predator defences, reduced predation facilitated the diversification of vocal signals, which then became elaborated or showy via sexual selection.
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12

Skelhorn, John, and Candy Rowe. "Avian predators taste–reject aposematic prey on the basis of their chemical defence." Biology Letters 2, no. 3 (April 25, 2006): 348–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0483.

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Avian predators learn to avoid defended insects on the basis of their conspicuous warning coloration. In many aposematic species, the level of chemical defence varies, with some individuals being more defended than others. Sequestration and production of defence chemicals is often costly and therefore less defended individuals enjoy the benefits of the warning signal without paying the full costs of chemical production. This is a fundamental theoretical problem for the evolutionary stability of aposematism, since less defended individuals appear to be at a selective advantage. However, if predators sample aposematic prey and selectively reject individuals on the basis of their chemical investment, aposematism could become evolutionarily stable. Previous research aimed at testing whether birds can use taste to discriminate between palatable and unpalatable prey has been confounded by other experimental factors. Here, we show that birds can taste and reject prey entirely on the basis of an individual's level of chemical defence and more importantly, they can make decisions on whether or not to consume a defended individual based upon their level of chemical investment. We discuss these results in relation to the evolution of aposematism, mimicry and defence chemistry.
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13

Umbers, Kate D. L., Sebastiano De Bona, Thomas E. White, Jussi Lehtonen, Johanna Mappes, and John A. Endler. "Deimatism: a neglected component of antipredator defence." Biology Letters 13, no. 4 (April 2017): 20160936. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0936.

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Deimatic or ‘startle’ displays cause a receiver to recoil reflexively in response to a sudden change in sensory input. Deimatism is sometimes implicitly treated as a form of aposematism (unprofitability associated with a signal). However, the fundamental difference is, in order to provide protection, deimatism does not require a predator to have any learned or innate aversion. Instead, deimatism can confer a survival advantage by exploiting existing neural mechanisms in a way that releases a reflexive response in the predator. We discuss the differences among deimatism, aposematism, and forms of mimicry, and their ecological and evolutionary implications. We highlight outstanding questions critical to progress in understanding deimatism.
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14

Rowe, Candy, and Tim Guilford. "Aposematism: to be red or dead." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, no. 7 (July 2000): 261–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(00)01897-8.

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15

Song, Woncheol, Sang-im Lee, and Piotr G. Jablonski. "Evolution of switchable aposematism: insights from individual-based simulations." PeerJ 8 (April 10, 2020): e8915. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8915.

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Some defended prey animals can switch on their normally hidden aposematic signals. This switching may occur in reaction to predators’ approach (pre-attack signals) or attack (post-attack signals). Switchable aposematism has been relatively poorly studied, but we can expect that it might bring a variety of benefits to an aposmetic organism. First, the switching could startle the predators (deimatism). Second, it could facilitate aversive learning. Third, it could minimize exposure or energetic expense, as the signal can be switched off. These potential benefits might offset costs of developing, maintaining and utilizing the switchable traits. Here we focused on the third benefit of switchability, the cost-saving aspect, and developed an individual-based computer simulation of predators and prey. In 88,128 model runs, we observed evolution of permanent, pre-attack, or post-attack aposematic signals of varying strength. We found that, in general, the pre-attack switchable aposematism may require moderate predator learning speed, high basal detectability, and moderate to high signal cost. On the other hand, the post-attack signals may arise under slow predator learning, low basal detectability and high signal cost. When predator population turnover is fast, it may lead to evolution of post-attack aposematic signals that are not conforming to the above tendency. We also suggest that a high switching cost may exert different selection pressure on the pre-attack than the post-attack switchable strategies. To our knowledge, these are the first theoretical attempts to systematically explore the evolution of switchable aposematism relative to permanent aposematism in defended prey. Our simulation model is capable of addressing additional questions beyond the scope of this article, and we open the simulation software, program manual and source code for free public use.
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16

Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola, Ariana Weldon, Muhammad Ali Imron, Keely Q. Maynard, Vincent Nijman, Stephanie A. Poindexter, and Thais Queiroz Morcatty. "Venom in Furs: Facial Masks as Aposematic Signals in a Venomous Mammal." Toxins 11, no. 2 (February 5, 2019): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020093.

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The function of colouration in animals includes concealment, communication and signaling, such as the use of aposematism as a warning signal. Aposematism is unusual in mammals, and exceptions help us to understand its ecology and evolution. The Javan slow loris is a highly territorial venomous mammal that has a distinctive facial mask and monochromatic vision. To help understand if they use aposematism to advertise their venom to conspecifics or predators with different visual systems, we studied a population in Java, Indonesia. Using ImageJ, we selected colours from the facial masks of 58 individuals, converted RBG colours into monochromatic, dichromatic and trichromatic modes, and created a contrast index. During 290 captures, we recorded venom secretion and aggressiveness. Using Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling and generalised additive models for location, scale and shape, we found that young slow lorises differ significantly from adults, being both more contrasting and more aggressive, with aggressive animals showing fewer wounds. We suggest aposematic facial masks serve multiple purposes in slow lorises based on age. Change in colouration through development may play a role in intraspecific competition, and advertise toxicity or aggressiveness to competitors and/or predators in juveniles. Aposematic signals combined with intraspecific competition may provide clues to new venomous taxa among mammals.
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17

Yamazaki, Yuki, Emilio Pagani-Núñez, Teiji Sota, and Craig R. A. Barnett. "The truth is in the detail: predators attack aposematic prey with less aggression than other prey types." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 131, no. 2 (August 31, 2020): 332–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa119.

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Abstract Aposematic organisms are often unprofitable to predators (e.g. because of defensive chemicals) which they advertise with a conspicuous signal (e.g. bright and conspicuous colour signals). Aposematism is thought to reduce predation of prey because the colour signal increases the ability of predators to learn, recognize and remember the prey’s defensive properties. The efficacy of aposematism has been extensively documented in laboratory studies, although its benefits seem to be harder to demonstrate in the field. In this study, we compared the levels of partial and overall predation among four prey types (undefended and cryptic, undefended and warning coloured, defended and cryptic, and aposematic prey). Overall, predation of warning coloured and defended (aposematic) prey was lower than the predation for cryptic and undefended prey; however, it was the same as predation of cryptic and defended prey. Moreover, aposematic prey had higher levels of partial predation (where prey was not wholly consumed by the predator) and lower attack intensities. This suggests that prey were being taste sampled, but also might be better able to survive attacks. Therefore, the benefits of aposematism may lie not only in reducing outright predation, but also in altering a predator’s post-attack behaviour, thus leading to greater escape opportunities and post-attack survival of prey. These results reinforce the importance of examining predation in more detail rather than simply examining attack rates.
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18

Wiley, James C. "Psychological Aposematism: An Evolutionary Analysis of Suicide." Biological Theory 15, no. 4 (May 25, 2020): 226–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13752-020-00353-8.

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AbstractThe evolutionary advantage of psychological phenomena can be gleaned by comparing them with physical traits that have proven adaptive in other organisms. The present article provides a novel evolutionary explanation of suicide in humans by comparing it with aposematism in insects. Aposematic insects are brightly colored, making them conspicuous to predators. However, such insects are equipped with toxins that cause a noxious reaction when eaten. Thus, the death of a few insects conditions predators to avoid other insects of similar coloration. Analogously, human suicides may increase the credibility of future suicide threats and attempts from others, conveying an evolutionary advantage to the phenotypic expression of suicidal behavior in low-fitness contexts.
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19

Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "The Evolution of Aposematism in Marine Gastropods." Evolution 45, no. 2 (March 1991): 449. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409680.

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20

Rosenberg, Gary. "Aposematism and Synergistic Selection in Marine Gastropods." Evolution 45, no. 2 (March 1991): 451. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409681.

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21

MAPPES, J., N. MARPLES, and J. ENDLER. "The complex business of survival by aposematism." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, no. 11 (November 2005): 598–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.011.

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22

Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "THE EVOLUTION OF APOSEMATISM IN MARINE GASTROPODS." Evolution 45, no. 2 (March 1991): 449–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04420.x.

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23

Rosenberg, Gary. "APOSEMATISM AND SYNERGISTIC SELECTION IN MARINE GASTROPODS." Evolution 45, no. 2 (March 1991): 451–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04421.x.

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24

Sword, Gregory A., Stephen J. Simpson, Ould Taleb M. El Hadi, and Hans Wilps. "Density–dependent aposematism in the desert locust." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 267, no. 1438 (January 7, 2000): 63–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.0967.

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25

Speed, Michael P., and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Aposematism: what should our starting point be?" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272, no. 1561 (February 21, 2005): 431–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2968.

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26

Higginson, Andrew D., Michael P. Speed, and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Florivory as an Opportunity Benefit of Aposematism." American Naturalist 186, no. 6 (December 2015): 728–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/683463.

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27

Barnett, James B., Innes C. Cuthill, and Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel. "Distance-dependent aposematism and camouflage in the cinnabar moth caterpillar ( Tyria jacobaeae , Erebidae)." Royal Society Open Science 5, no. 2 (February 2018): 171396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171396.

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Defended prey often use distinctive, conspicuous, colours to advertise their unprofitability to potential predators (aposematism). These warning signals are frequently made up of salient, high contrast, stripes which have been hypothesized to increase the speed and accuracy of predator avoidance learning. Limitations in predator visual acuity, however, mean that these patterns cannot be resolved when viewed from a distance, and adjacent patches of colour will blend together (pattern blending). We investigated how saliency changes at different viewing distances in the toxic and brightly coloured cinnabar moth caterpillar ( Tyria jacobaeae ). We found that although the caterpillars' orange-and-black stripes are highly salient at close range, when viewed from a distance the colours blend together to match closely those of the background. Cinnabar caterpillars therefore produce a distance-dependent signal combining salient aposematism with targeted background matching camouflage, without necessarily compromising the size or saturation of their aposematic signal.
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28

Speed, Michael P. "Can receiver psychology explain the evolution of aposematism?" Animal Behaviour 61, no. 1 (January 2001): 205–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1558.

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29

Weldon, Paul J. "Nuisance arthropods, nonhost odors, and vertebrate chemical aposematism." Naturwissenschaften 97, no. 5 (April 8, 2010): 443–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-010-0665-z.

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30

Grober, Matthew S. "Bioluminescent Aposematism: a reply to Guilford & cuthill." Animal Behaviour 37 (February 1989): 341–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90127-9.

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31

PRZECZEK, Kara, Carla MUELLER, and Steven M. VAMOSI. "The evolution of aposematism is accompanied by increased diversification." Integrative Zoology 3, no. 3 (September 2008): 149–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00091.x.

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32

Roque-Albelo, Lázaro, Frank C. Schroeder Not Available, William E. Conner, Alexander Bezzerides, E. Richard Hoebeke, Jerrold Meinwald, and Thomas Eisner. "Chemical defense and aposematism: the case of Utetheisa galapagensis." Chemoecology 12, no. 3 (August 1, 2002): 153–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00012-002-8341-6.

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33

Thomas, R. J., N. M. Marples, I. C. Cuthill, M. Takahashi, and E. A. Gibson. "Dietary conservatism may facilitate the initial evolution of aposematism." Oikos 101, no. 3 (May 6, 2003): 458–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12061.x.

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34

Ribeiro, Sonia T. "Group Effects and Aposematism in Jadera haematoloma (Hemiptera: Rhopalidae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 82, no. 4 (July 1, 1989): 466–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/82.4.466.

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35

Pisetsky, David S. "The butterfly rash of lupus: An example of aposematism?" Arthritis Research & Therapy 15, no. 1 (2013): 106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/ar4155.

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36

Lee, Thomas J., Nicola M. Marples, and Michael P. Speed. "Can dietary conservatism explain the primary evolution of aposematism?" Animal Behaviour 79, no. 1 (January 2010): 63–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.10.004.

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37

Dugas, Matthew B., Justin Yeager, and Aaron M. Karkos. "Preferences for and use of light microhabitats differ among and within populations of a polytypic poison frog." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 129, no. 2 (November 19, 2019): 379–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blz186.

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Abstract Anti-predator strategies can influence trade-offs governing other activities important to fitness. Crypsis, for example, might make conspicuous sexual display especially costly, whereas aposematism might reduce or remove such costs. We tested for correlates of anti-predator strategy in Oophaga pumilio, a polytypic poison frog with morphs spanning the crypsis–aposematism continuum. In the wild, males of visually conspicuous morphs display from conspicuous perches and behave as if they perceive predation risk to be low. We thus predicted that, given a choice of ambient light microhabitats, these males would use high ambient light conditions the most and be most likely to perch in high-light conditions. We found no evidence that differently colored male O. pumilio preferentially used bright microhabitats or that ambient light influenced perching in a morph-specific manner. Independent of light conditions, males from the most conspicuous population perched the least, but the most conspicuous individuals from a polymorphic population perched the most. These patterns suggest that preferences do not necessarily underlie among-morph differences observed in the wild. This could be explained, and remain consistent with theory, if risk aversion is shaped, in part, by experience.
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Toledo, Luís Felipe, and Célio F. B. Haddad. "Colors and Some Morphological Traits as Defensive Mechanisms in Anurans." International Journal of Zoology 2009 (2009): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/910892.

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Anurans may be brightly colored or completely cryptic. Generally, in the former situation, we are dealing with aposematism, and the latter is an example of camouflage. However, these are only simple views of what such colorations really mean and which defensive strategy is implied. For instance, a brightly colored frog may be part of a mimicry ring, which could be either Batesian, Müllerian, or Browerian. These are only examples of the diversity of color-usage systems as defensive strategies. Unfortunately, reports on the use of colors as defensive mechanisms are widespread in the available literature, and the possible functions are rarely mentioned. Therefore, we reviewed the literature and added new data to this subject. Then, we the use of colors (as defensive mechanism) into categories. Mimicry was divided into the subcategories camouflage, homotypy, and nondeceitful homotypy, and these groups were also subcategorized. Dissuasive coloration was divided into behavioral display of colors, polymorphism, and polyphenism. Aposematism was treated apart, but aposematic colorations may be present in other defensive strategies. Finally, we propose functions and forms of evolution for some color systems in post-metamorphic anurans and hope that this review can be the basis for future research, even on other animal groups.
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Caldwell, Janalee, Laurie Vitt, and William Cooper. "Conspicuousness and vestigial escape behaviour by two dendrobatid frogs, Dendrobates auratus and Oophaga pumilio." Behaviour 146, no. 3 (2009): 325–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853909x410946.

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AbstractAposematic prey are thought to move slowly and openly near predators, but exhibit reduced escape behaviour. We studied conspicuousness and escape by aposematic poison frogs (Dendrobates auratus and Oophaga pumilio). In circles of leaf litter, observers detected poison frogs quickly. Flight initiation distance (FID, predator-prey distance when escape begins) increases with approach speed in non-cryptic palatable prey, but not for frogs in clearings, which permitted close approach. On trails frogs moved slowly into forest and FID in D. auratus increased with approach speed. Distance from cover and handling exposing predators to distastefulness may account for greater reliance on aposematism in clearings. We observed responses to a simulated predator (stick with painted face) in three conditions: not approached, approached, and touched. Latency to hop and time to exit circles decreased and exit from circles was directed further away from the approach path in the order not approached, approached, touched. Oophaga pumilio changed directions less when approached than not; many exhibited no escape behaviour. Aposematic dendrobatids move slowly near predators, but retain risk-assessment mechanisms due to occasional predation. Differences in escape between dendrobatids and palatable Craugastor frogs suggest that dendrobatid defensive behavior may have been molded to maximize the effectiveness of aposematism.
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40

Stevens, Martin, and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Linking the evolution and form of warning coloration in nature." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1728 (November 23, 2011): 417–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1932.

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Many animals are toxic or unpalatable and signal this to predators with warning signals (aposematism). Aposematic appearance has long been a classical system to study predator–prey interactions, communication and signalling, and animal behaviour and learning. The area has received considerable empirical and theoretical investigation. However, most research has centred on understanding the initial evolution of aposematism, despite the fact that these studies often tell us little about the form and diversity of real warning signals in nature. In contrast, less attention has been given to the mechanistic basis of aposematic markings; that is, ‘what makes an effective warning signal?’, and the efficacy of warning signals has been neglected. Furthermore, unlike other areas of adaptive coloration research (such as camouflage and mate choice), studies of warning coloration have often been slow to address predator vision and psychology. Here, we review the current understanding of warning signal form, with an aim to comprehend the diversity of warning signals in nature. We present hypotheses and suggestions for future work regarding our current understanding of several inter-related questions covering the form of warning signals and their relationship with predator vision, learning, and links to broader issues in evolutionary ecology such as mate choice and speciation.
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41

Santos, J. C., and D. C. Cannatella. "Phenotypic integration emerges from aposematism and scale in poison frogs." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 15 (March 28, 2011): 6175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010952108.

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42

Jones, Rebecca S., Andy Fenton, and Michael P. Speed. "“Parasite-induced aposematism” protects entomopathogenic nematode parasites against invertebrate enemies." Behavioral Ecology 27, no. 2 (November 27, 2015): 645–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv202.

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43

Brown, S. G., G. H. Boettner, and J. E. Yack. "Clicking caterpillars: acoustic aposematism in Antheraea polyphemus and other Bombycoidea." Journal of Experimental Biology 210, no. 6 (March 15, 2007): 993–1005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.001990.

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44

Stankowich, Theodore, Tim Caro, and Matthew Cox. "BOLD COLORATION AND THE EVOLUTION OF APOSEMATISM IN TERRESTRIAL CARNIVORES." Evolution 65, no. 11 (May 25, 2011): 3090–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01334.x.

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45

Aluthwattha, S. Tharanga, Rhett D. Harrison, Kithsiri B. Ranawana, Cheng Xu, Ren Lai, and Jin Chen. "Does spatial variation in predation pressure modulate selection for aposematism?" Ecology and Evolution 7, no. 18 (August 15, 2017): 7560–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3221.

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46

Sword, Gregory A. "A role for phenotypic plasticity in the evolution of aposematism." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 269, no. 1501 (August 22, 2002): 1639–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002.2060.

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47

Páez, Erika, Janne K. Valkonen, Keith R. Willmott, Pável Matos-Maraví, Marianne Elias, and Johanna Mappes. "Hard to catch: experimental evidence supports evasive mimicry." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1946 (March 10, 2021): 20203052. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.3052.

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Abstract:
Most research on aposematism has focused on chemically defended prey, but the signalling difficulty of capture remains poorly explored. Similar to classical Batesian and Müllerian mimicry related to distastefulness, such ‘evasive aposematism' may also lead to convergence in warning colours, known as evasive mimicry. A prime candidate group for evasive mimicry areAdelphabutterflies, which are agile insects and show remarkable colour pattern convergence. We tested the ability of naive blue tits to learn to avoid and generalizeAdelphawing patterns associated with the difficulty of capture and compared their response to that of birds that learned to associate the same wing patterns with distastefulness. Birds learned to avoid all wing patterns tested and generalized their aversion to other prey to some extent, but learning was faster with evasive prey compared to distasteful prey. Our results on generalization agree with longstanding observations of striking convergence in wing colour patterns amongAdelphaspecies, since, in our experiments, perfect mimics of evasive and distasteful models were always protected during generalization and suffered the lowest attack rate. Moreover, generalization on evasive prey was broader compared to that on distasteful prey. Our results suggest that being hard to catch may deter predators at least as effectively as distastefulness. This study provides empirical evidence for evasive mimicry, a potentially widespread but poorly understood form of morphological convergence driven by predator selection.
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48

Saporito, Ralph A., Rachel Zuercher, Marcus Roberts, Kenneth G. Gerow, and Maureen A. Donnelly. "Experimental Evidence for Aposematism in the Dendrobatid Poison Frog Oophaga pumilio." Copeia 2007, no. 4 (December 28, 2007): 1006–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[1006:eefait]2.0.co;2.

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49

Speed, Michael P., and Graeme D. Ruxton. "WARNING DISPLAYS IN SPINY ANIMALS: ONE (MORE) EVOLUTIONARY ROUTE TO APOSEMATISM." Evolution 59, no. 12 (December 2005): 2499–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb00963.x.

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50

Sasmal, Sourav Kumar, and Yasuhiro Takeuchi. "Evolutionary dynamics of single species model with Allee effects and aposematism." Nonlinear Analysis: Real World Applications 58 (April 2021): 103233. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nonrwa.2020.103233.

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