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Journal articles on the topic 'Apparent competition'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 10 March 2023

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1

Holt, Robert D., and Michael B. Bonsall. "Apparent Competition." Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 48, no. 1 (2017): 447–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628.

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2

Holt, Robert D., and Burt P. Kotler. "Short-Term Apparent Competition." American Naturalist 130, no. 3 (1987): 412–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284718.

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3

Bonsall, Michael B., and Robert D. Holt. "Apparent Competition and Vector-Host Interactions." Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution 56, no. 3-4 (2010): 393–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1560/ijee.56.3-4.393.

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Infectious disease influences the dynamics of host populations and the structure of species communities via impacts on host demography. Species that share infectious diseases are well-known to interact indirectly through the process of apparent competition, but there has been little attention given to the role of vectors in these indirect interactions. Here we explore how vector-borne disease and host-vector interactions can drive apparent competitive interactions. We show that different facets of the ecology associated with vector-host-host interactions affect the structure of the three-species assemblage. Crucially, the patterns associated with invasion of alternative hosts, the spread of the infectious disease by the vector, and the dynamics of the community interactions are influenced by the mode of transmission. We highlight the role of alternative hosts on disease amplification, dilution and magnification and discuss the results with reference to recent developments in apparent competition and community structure.

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4

Bonsall, M. B., and M. P. Hassell. "Apparent competition structures ecological assemblages." Nature 388, no. 6640 (1997): 371–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/41084.

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5

Schreiber, Sebastian J., and Vlastimil Křivan. "Holt (1977) and apparent competition." Theoretical Population Biology 133 (June 2020): 17–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2019.09.006.

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6

Stenberg, J. A., and P. A. Hambäck. "Host species critical for offspring fitness and sex ratio for an oligophagous parasitoid: implications for host coexistence." Bulletin of Entomological Research 100, no. 6 (2010): 735–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485310000143.

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AbstractIn theory, inferior apparent competitors sharing a natural enemy with superior apparent competitors should be excluded in the absence of stabilising factors. Nevertheless, plentiful examples of coexisting apparent competitors exist. In this paper, we show that parasitoid resource competition within hosts affects both parasitoid sex ratio and female body size, with implication for population growth and apparent competition between the two closely related hosts experiencing a strong asymmetry in their interaction. While the superior competitor delivers parasitoids with higher fitness to the shared parasitoid pool, the inferior competitor delivers a higher proportion of female parasitoids. Hence, the inferior host experience an inflow of fit parasitoids from the superior competitor, which should increase the risk of exclusion, but also an outflow of parasitoid females, which should reduce the risk of exclusion and increase stability. We conclude that differential outcomes of parasitoid resource competition in different host species may have profound effects on shared parasitoid populations and should be included in future studies of apparent competition between hosts.

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7

Abrams, Peter A., Robert D. Holt, and James D. Roth. "APPARENT COMPETITION OR APPARENT MUTUALISM? SHARED PREDATION WHEN POPULATIONS CYCLE." Ecology 79, no. 1 (1998): 201–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[0201:acoams]2.0.co;2.

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8

Muller, C. B., and H. C. J. Godfray. "Apparent Competition between Two Aphid Species." Journal of Animal Ecology 66, no. 1 (1997): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/5964.

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9

Wodarz, Dominik, and Akira Sasaki. "Apparent competition and recovery from infection." Journal of Theoretical Biology 227, no. 3 (2004): 403–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2003.11.027.

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10

DeCesare, N. J., M. Hebblewhite, H. S. Robinson, and M. Musiani. "Endangered, apparently: the role of apparent competition in endangered species conservation." Animal Conservation 13, no. 4 (2009): 353–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00328.x.

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11

Wielgus, Robert B. "Resource competition and apparent competition in declining mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 95, no. 7 (2017): 499–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2016-0109.

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Resource competition and apparent competition have both been suggested as the cause of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque, 1817)) decline concurrent with white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmerman, 1780)) increase. I tested for both hypotheses by conducting a “press” and “release” experiment in a mule deer, white-tailed deer, and cougar (Puma concolor (L., 1771)) community. If resource competition is causal, then predation should decrease, but other sources of mortality should increase following increased mortality of cougars and release of competing white-tailed deer. If apparent competition is causal, then predation should decrease and mule deer should increase following increased mortality of cougars and release of white-tailed deer. I accepted the apparent competition hypothesis because high mortality of female cougars and cougar population decline was associated with both white-tailed deer and mule deer population growth. Very high mortality of female cougars appeared to result in mule deer population recovery. However, high mortality of male cougars (with increased male immigration) preceding high female mortality appeared to result in sexually segregated prey-switching by females with cubs from abundant white-tailed deer to rare mule deer to avoid sexually selected infanticide. High mortality of resident male cougars may have precipitated the mule deer decline in the first place.

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12

Juliano, Steven A. "SPECIES INTRODUCTION AND REPLACEMENT AMONG MOSQUITOES: INTERSPECIFIC RESOURCE COMPETITION OR APPARENT COMPETITION?" Ecology 79, no. 1 (1998): 255–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[0255:siaram]2.0.co;2.

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13

Das, Adrian. "The effect of size and competition on tree growth rate in old-growth coniferous forests." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, no. 11 (2012): 1983–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x2012-142.

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Tree growth and competition play central roles in forest dynamics. Yet models of competition often neglect important variation in species-specific responses. Furthermore, functions used to model changes in growth rate with size do not always allow for potential complexity. Using a large data set from old-growth forests in California, models were parameterized relating growth rate to tree size and competition for four common species. Several functions relating growth rate to size were tested. Competition models included parameters for tree size, competitor size, and competitor distance. Competitive strength was allowed to vary by species. The best ranked models (using Akaike’s information criterion) explained between 18% and 40% of the variance in growth rate, with each species showing a strong response to competition. Models indicated that relationships between competition and growth varied substantially among species. The results also suggested that the relationship between growth rate and tree size can be complex and that how we model it can affect not only our ability to detect that complexity but also whether we obtain misleading results. In this case, for three of four species, the best model captured an apparent and unexpected decline in potential growth rate for the smallest trees in the data set.

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14

Cobey, Sarah, and Marc Lipsitch. "Pathogen Diversity and Hidden Regimes of Apparent Competition." American Naturalist 181, no. 1 (2013): 12–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/668598.

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15

Orrock, John L., Robert D. Holt, and Marissa L. Baskett. "Refuge-mediated apparent competition in plantâconsumer interactions." Ecology Letters 13, no. 1 (2010): 11–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01412.x.

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16

WITTMER, HEIKO U., ROBERT SERROUYA, L. MARK ELBROCH, and ANDREW J. MARSHALL. "Conservation Strategies for Species Affected by Apparent Competition." Conservation Biology 27, no. 2 (2013): 254–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12005.

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17

Hoi, Herbert, and Hans Winkler. "Predation on nests: a case of apparent competition." Oecologia 98, no. 3-4 (1994): 436–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00324234.

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18

Settle, W. H., and L. T. Wilson. "Invasion by the Variegated Leafhopper and Biotic Interactions: Parasitism, Competition, and Apparent Competition." Ecology 71, no. 4 (1990): 1461–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1938283.

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19

Schoen, Erik R., David A. Beauchamp, Anna R. Buettner, and Nathanael C. Overman. "Temperature and depth mediate resource competition and apparent competition between Mysis diluviana and kokanee." Ecological Applications 25, no. 7 (2015): 1962–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/14-1822.1.

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20

Menezes, J., and B. Moura. "Pattern formation and coarsening dynamics in apparent competition models." Chaos, Solitons & Fractals 157 (April 2022): 111903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2022.111903.

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21

Rand, Tatyana A. "HERBIVORE-MEDIATED APPARENT COMPETITION BETWEEN TWO SALT MARSH FORBS." Ecology 84, no. 6 (2003): 1517–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[1517:hacbts]2.0.co;2.

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22

van Nouhuys, Saskya, and Ilkka Hanski. "Apparent competition between parasitoids mediated by a shared hyperparasitoid." Ecology Letters 3, no. 2 (2000): 82–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2000.00123.x.

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23

Chaneton, Enrique J., and Michael B. Bonsall. "Enemy-mediated apparent competition: empirical patterns and the evidence." Oikos 88, no. 2 (2000): 380–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.880217.x.

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24

Ode, Paul J., Dhaval K. Vyas, and Jeffrey A. Harvey. "Extrinsic Inter- and Intraspecific Competition in Parasitoid Wasps." Annual Review of Entomology 67, no. 1 (2022): 305–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-071421-073524.

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The diverse ecology of parasitoids is shaped by extrinsic competition, i.e., exploitative or interference competition among adult females and males for hosts and mates. Adult females use an array of morphological, chemical, and behavioral mechanisms to engage in competition that may be either intra- or interspecific. Weaker competitors are often excluded or, if they persist, use alternate host habitats, host developmental stages, or host species. Competition among adult males for mates is almost exclusively intraspecific and involves visual displays, chemical signals, and even physical combat. Extrinsic competition influences community structure through its role in competitive displacement and apparent competition. Finally, anthropogenic changes such as habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive species, pollutants, and climate change result in phenological mismatches and range expansions within host–parasitoid communities with consequent changes to the strength of competitive interactions. Such changes have important ramifications not only for the success of managed agroecosystems, but also for natural ecosystem functioning.

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25

Saha, Nabaneeta, Malini Kundu, Goutam K. Saha, and Gautam Aditya. "Alternative prey influence the predation of mosquito larvae by three water bug species (Heteroptera: Nepidae)." Limnological Review 20, no. 4 (2020): 173–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/limre-2020-0017.

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Abstract The indirect interactions among multiple prey sharing a common predator characterize apparent competition. In conservation biological control involving mosquitoes and controphic prey against generalist insect predators, apparent competition may be a crucial factor determining the extent of success. The possible influence of apparent competition on mosquito prey consumption by three water bugs (Heteroptera: Nepidae): Ranatra elongata, Ranatra filiformis, and Laccotrephes griseus was assessed under laboratory conditions. Tadpoles (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), chironomid larvae, snails (Racesina luteola) and fish fingerlings (Labeo rohita) were considered as alternative prey under two prey or multi prey conditions against instar IV larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus as target prey. Under two prey conditions all the predators exhibited a preference (significant Manly’s α) for mosquito larvae, against fish fingerlings by R. filiformis. In the presence of multiple prey, mosquito larvae were selected by the predators. Using the ratio of mosquito selectivity in two prey and multi-prey conditions as a measure of apparent competition, chironomid larvae had greatest effect in suppressing mosquito selectivity for R. elongata, and fish fingerlings for R. filiformis and L. griseus. It seems that the prey preference of R. elongata, R. filiformis and L. griseus may differentially evoke apparent competition among the prey. In the aquatic community where these predators and prey coexist, mosquito larvae may benefit from apparent competition that reduces their vulnerability to predators. The identity of the alternative prey appears to be an important factor for shielding the vulnerability of mosquito prey to the generalist insect predators.

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26

Orrock, John L., Marissa L. Baskett, and Robert D. Holt. "Spatial interplay of plant competition and consumer foraging mediate plant coexistence and drive the invasion ratchet." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277, no. 1698 (2010): 3307–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0738.

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Indirect effects may play an important role in structuring plant communities. Using a spatially explicit model of consumer foraging and plant competition, we demonstrate how the relationship between the spatial area over which plants compete and the spatial scale of consumer behaviour can determine the outcome of competition when one plant species provides a refuge for mobile consumers (i.e. refuge-mediated apparent competition). Once an initial population of the invader is established, complete invasion may be inevitable because of an ever-advancing invasion front ratchets forward driven by a feeding front of mobile consumers. Because the spatial extent of apparent competition determines the area available for colonization, consumers may also dictate the rate at which an invasion occurs. We find that, as long as refuge-mediated apparent competition is sufficiently localized, invasion is possible even in systems characterized by low overall levels of consumer pressure. Moreover, we show that a stable equilibrium can result in which both resident and invading plants coexist, suggesting that spatial heterogeneity created by refuge-mediated apparent competition may be important in mediating coexistence in plant communities. The spatial interplay of consumer behaviour and plant competition may be an underappreciated mechanism affecting the composition, diversity and spatial pattern of plant communities.

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27

Long, WC, EF Gamelin, EG Johnson, and AH Hines. "Density-dependent indirect effects: apparent mutualism and apparent competition coexist in a two-prey system." Marine Ecology Progress Series 456 (June 7, 2012): 139–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps09702.

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28

Abrams, Peter A. "High Competition with Low Similarity and Low Competition with High Similarity: Exploitative and Apparent Competition in Consumer‐Resource Systems." American Naturalist 152, no. 1 (1998): 114–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/286153.

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29

Norbury, Grant. "Conserving dryland lizards by reducing predator-mediated apparent competition and direct competition with introduced rabbits." Journal of Applied Ecology 38, no. 6 (2001): 1350–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-8901.2001.00685.x.

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30

Warnock, Will G., and Joseph B. Rasmussen. "Assessing the effects of fish density, habitat complexity, and current velocity on interference competition between bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in an artificial stream." Canadian Journal of Zoology 91, no. 9 (2013): 619–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2013-0044.

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In this experiment, competition was observed among native bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus (Suckley, 1859)) and non-native brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill, 1814)) in artificial streams. In intraspecific competitions, brook trout engaged in territorial interference foraging strategies, and their foraging success was correlated with occupancy of the lead position in the stream. No correlation was apparent for bull trout, most of which engaged in nonterritorial scramble foraging tactics. In interspecific competitions, four stream environments were constructed in which fish density, habitat complexity, and current velocity were altered. Bull trout outcompeted brook trout for food in simple pool habitat devoid of cover when competition was head-to-head (density = 3 fish·m−2) between the species. When competitor number was doubled in this habitat, the two became equal competitors. At this higher density, bull trout again outcompeted brook trout for food when the habitat was changed to a complex riffle with substrate cover. Brook trout were more aggressive towards bull trout than vice versa, and interspecific aggression was decreased by low density, cover, and high stream velocity. Territorial brook trout aggressively interfere with their competitor for access to resources, but the success and intensity of this tactic against bull trout may be mitigated by environmental factors.

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31

Orrock, John L., Humberto P. Dutra, Robert J. Marquis, and Nicholas Barber. "Apparent competition and native consumers exacerbate the strong competitive effect of an exotic plant species." Ecology 96, no. 4 (2015): 1052–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/14-0732.1.

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32

Harenberg, Sebastian, Harold A. Riemer, Erwin Karreman, and Kim Dorsch. "As Iron Sharpens Iron? Athletes’ Perspectives of Positional Competition." Sport Psychologist 30, no. 1 (2016): 55–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2014-0131.

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The study explored the competition between teammates for playing time (i.e., positional competition) within university team sports from the athletes’ perspective. Sixteen Canadian interuniversity team sport athletes (11 women, 5 men) participated in semistructured interviews. Results revealed that positional competition (a) occurs between players in the same position, (b) is necessary to determine playing time, (c) is an ongoing, omni-present process, and (d) happens under the awareness of the coach. Furthermore, various inputs (by the individual athlete, team, coach), processes (performance-related, information-related), and outcomes (individual, collective) became apparent. Positional competition is a group process that occurs across multiple competitive situations (e.g., practices, games). Future research is needed to clearly define and operationalize it as its own construct.

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33

Sheehy, Emma, Chris Sutherland, Catherine O'Reilly, and Xavier Lambin. "The enemy of my enemy is my friend: native pine marten recovery reverses the decline of the red squirrel by suppressing grey squirrel populations." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1874 (2018): 20172603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2603.

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Shared enemies may instigate or modify competitive interactions between species. The dis-equilibrium caused by non-native species introductions has revealed that the outcome of such indirect interactions can often be dramatic. However, studies of enemy-mediated competition mostly consider the impact of a single enemy, despite species being embedded in complex networks of interactions. Here, we demonstrate that native red and invasive grey squirrels in Britain, two terrestrial species linked by resource and disease-mediated apparent competition, are also now linked by a second enemy-mediated relationship involving a shared native predator recovering from historical persecution, the European pine marten. Through combining spatial capture–recapture techniques to estimate pine marten density, and squirrel site-occupancy data, we find that the impact of exposure to predation is highly asymmetrical, with non-native grey squirrel occupancy strongly negatively affected by exposure to pine martens. By contrast, exposure to pine marten predation has an indirect positive effect on red squirrel populations. Pine marten predation thus reverses the well-documented outcome of resource and apparent competition between red and grey squirrels.

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34

Orrock, John L., Martha S. Witter, and O. J. Reichman. "APPARENT COMPETITION WITH AN EXOTIC PLANT REDUCES NATIVE PLANT ESTABLISHMENT." Ecology 89, no. 4 (2008): 1168–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/07-0223.1.

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35

Banerji, Aabir, and Peter J. Morin. "Trait-mediated apparent competition in an intraguild predator-prey system." Oikos 123, no. 5 (2013): 567–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00937.x.

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36

BONSALL, MICHAEL B., and MICHAEL P. HASSELL. "Population dynamics of apparent competition in a host-parasitoid assemblage." Journal of Animal Ecology 67, no. 6 (1998): 918–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1998.6760918.x.

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37

Stige, Leif Christian, Kristina Ø. Kvile, Bjarte Bogstad, and Øystein Langangen. "Predator-prey interactions cause apparent competition between marine zooplankton groups." Ecology 99, no. 3 (2018): 632–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2126.

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38

Hullé, Maurice, Milena Till, and Manuel Plantegenest. "Global Warming Could Magnify Insect-Driven Apparent Competition Between Native and Introduced Host Plants in Sub-Antarctic Islands." Environmental Entomology 51, no. 1 (2021): 204–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvab122.

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Abstract Pristine sub-Antarctic islands terrestrial ecosystems, including many endemic species, are highly threatened by human-induced cosmopolitan plant invasion. We propose that native plant suppression could be further facilitated by the subsequent invasion by generalist pest species that could exacerbate their competitive exclusion through the process of apparent competition. By comparing the biological parameters of an invasive aphid species, Myzus ascalonicus, on one native (Acaena magellanica) and one invasive (Senecio vulgaris) plant species, we showed that survival and fecundity were higher and development time lower on the native plant species than on the invasive one. Moreover, comparing the effect of a temperature increase on the population dynamics of M. ascalonicus on the two plants, we showed that the relative profitability of the native species is further amplified by warming. Hence, while pest population doubling time is 28% higher on the invasive plant under current temperature, it would become 40% higher with an increase in temperature of 3°C. Consequently, our findings demonstrate that global warming could exacerbate competitive exclusion of native plants by invasive plants in sub-Antarctic islands by its indirect effect on the apparent competition mediated by generalist phytophagous pests.

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39

Gupta, Anupam Das, and Syed Moudud-Ul-Huq. "Do competition and revenue diversification have significant effect on risk-taking? Empirical evidence from BRICS banks." International Journal of Financial Engineering 07, no. 01 (2020): 2050007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2424786320500073.

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This study of two-step system generalized methods of moments (2GMM) of dynamic panel data addresses some critical insights of competition and revenue diversification of BRICS banks. The key findings are: (i) There is a significant positive association of market competition in risk-taking. (ii) Revenue diversification of banks supports the portfolio investment theory in risk management, which means that diversified sources of income have apparent influence in risk. (iii) Size has found a heterogeneous effect on risk-taking in the competitive market. (iv) Although, country-wise results of each country are in line with BRICS results in most of the cases, however, few exceptions are also observed in the examination of competition, revenue diversification and size in credit risk and stability of banks. Finally, the study evidences the nonlinear relationship of competition, revenue diversification, and risk.

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40

Kuenne, R. E. "Uncertainty, Spatial Proximity, and the Stability of Oligopoly Pricing." Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 21, no. 8 (1989): 1001–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a211001.

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One of the most pervasive characteristics of mature oligopolistic industries is their reluctance to engage in price competition, and their channeling of competitive efforts into rivalry using advertising and other marketing costs as well as product differentiation. This leads to questions concerning the nature of the economic and social matrix within which such firms operate, and these questions in turn motivate the theorist to construct frameworks that yield such results. Spatial proximity has generally been accepted as an intensifier of price competition, but in many local oligopolistic markets it seems to act as an inhibitor of price competition. In this paper I attempt to study the role of uncertainty in explaining the ‘rivalrous consonance of interests’ which tends to keep prices above the competitive level in spatially concentrated markets. By using Weibull density functions to approximate subjective expectations of firms, I seek to cast light upon some of the factors that play a role in explaining this apparent paradox.

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41

Schmitt, Russell J. "Indirect Interactions Between Prey: Apparent Competition, Predator Aggregation, and Habitat Segregation." Ecology 68, no. 6 (1987): 1887–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1939880.

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42

Labadie, Guillemette, Philip D. McLoughlin, Mark Hebblewhite, and Daniel Fortin. "Insect-mediated apparent competition between mammals in a boreal food web." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 30 (2021): e2022892118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022892118.

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While the important role of animal-mediated interactions in the top-down restructuring of plant communities is well documented, less is known of their ensuing repercussions at higher trophic levels. We demonstrate how typically decoupled ecological interactions may become intertwined such that the impact of an insect pest on forest structure and composition alters predator–prey interactions among large mammals. Specifically, we show how irruptions in a common, cyclic insect pest of the boreal forest, the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), modulated an indirect trophic interaction by initiating a flush in deciduous vegetation that benefited moose (Alces alces), in turn strengthening apparent competition between moose and threatened boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) via wolf (Canis lupus) predation. Critically, predation on caribou postoutbreak was exacerbated by human activity (salvage logging). We believe our observations of significant, large-scale reverberating consumer–producer–consumer interactions are likely to be common in nature.

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43

Reynolds, JOHN E., Sentiel A. Rommel, and Meghan E. Pitchford. "THE LIKELIHOOD OF SPERM COMPETITION IN MANATEES-EXPLAINING AN APPARENT PARADOX." Marine Mammal Science 20, no. 3 (2004): 464–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2004.tb01172.x.

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44

Morris, Rebecca J., Owen T. Lewis, and H. Charles J. Godfray. "Experimental evidence for apparent competition in a tropical forest food web." Nature 428, no. 6980 (2004): 310–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02394.

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45

Carvalheiro, Luisa G., Yvonne M. Buckley, Rita Ventim, Simon V. Fowler, and Jane Memmott. "Apparent competition can compromise the safety of highly specific biocontrol agents." Ecology Letters 11, no. 7 (2008): 690–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01184.x.

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46

Holt, Robert D., and John H. Lawton. "Apparent Competition and Enemy-Free Space in Insect Host-Parasitoid Communities." American Naturalist 142, no. 4 (1993): 623–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/285561.

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47

Chen, R., P. L. Leung, and M. J. Stokes. "Apparent anomalous fading of thermoluminescence associated with competition with radiationless transitions." Radiation Measurements 32, no. 5-6 (2000): 505–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1350-4487(00)00082-2.

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Ferris, Howard, Luis E. Pocasangre, Edgardo Serrano, et al. "Diversity and complexity complement apparent competition: Nematode assemblages in banana plantations." Acta Oecologica 40 (April 2012): 11–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2012.02.003.

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Karban, R., D. Hougen-Eitzmann, and G. English-Loeb. "Predator-mediated apparent competition between two herbivores that feed on grapevines." Oecologia 97, no. 4 (1994): 508–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00325889.

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Meiners, Scott J. "Apparent competition: an impact of exotic shrub invasion on tree regeneration." Biological Invasions 9, no. 7 (2007): 849–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9086-5.

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