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1
Nudo, Raffaele, ed. Lezioni dai terremoti: fonti di vulnerabilità, nuove strategie progettuali, sviluppi normativi. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/978-88-6655-072-3.
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This book is a collection of the academic contributions presented at the conference entitled "Lessons from earthquakes: sources of vulnerability, new design strategies and regulatory developments" which was held at Chianciano Terme on 8 October 2010. The issues addressed are central to Seismic Engineering and comprise a wide range of arguments on both consolidated subjects and innovative aspects in the sector. Among these, appropriate attention is devoted to: analysis of the structural instability revealed on the occasion of seismic events and the lessons that can be drawn from the same; the procedures of assessment of the existing buildings, starting from the phase of monitoring and diagnostics through to the definition of the most opportune intervention techniques; the use of composite materials and alternative methods of seismic protection; non-linear field modelling relating to regular and non-regular structures; and finally, the development of the methods of calculation that have characterised the evolution of the regulatory codes.
2
F, Klumpp James, and Hollihan Thomas A, eds. Argument in a time of change: Definitions, frameworks, and critiques : proceedings of the Tenth NCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation. Annandale, VA: National Communication Association, 1998.
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3
Camper, Martin. Definition. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190677121.003.0003.
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Chapter 3 explores the interpretive stasis of definition, where there is a question concerning the intended or appropriate scope of the basic sense of a term in a text. The chapter shows how rhetors, by persuasively articulating a definition and resorting to various lines of argument, can shift the meaning of passages and reframe controversies hinging on a text’s interpretation by adjusting the scope of a single term. But only linchpin terms (similar to Burke’s and Weaver’s ultimate terms) have this governing quality. The chapter’s central example consists of oral arguments from the 2010 Supreme Court case McDonald v. City of Chicago that ultimately determined US citizens have a fundamental right to bear arms. The case partly rested on whether the Fourteenth Amendment’s phrase privileges or immunities, generally protected from state infringement, includes this right within its scope. The centrality of definitional disputes to legal interpretation is also considered.
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Stoljar, Daniel. Six Further Arguments. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198802099.003.0008.
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This chapter criticizes six arguments for pessimism: the womb of disciplines argument, which suggests that philosophy is by definition the subject that does not make progress; the methodology argument, which suggests that philosophers are using the wrong tools for the problems that confront them; the pseudo-problems argument, which suggests that philosophical problems are not the sort for which progress should be expected; the speculation argument, which suggests that philosophy involves an illegitimate and irresponsible form of speculation; the history argument, which suggests that philosophy bears a different relation to its past than do sciences such as physics, and in consequence exhibits a different pattern of success and failure; and the technicalia argument, which suggests that the technical language so prevalent in philosophy is a bar to progress. In each case this chapter argues that these present no grounds for doubting reasonable optimism.
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Nagasawa, Yujin. Conceptual, Historical, and Cognitive Roots of Perfect Being Theism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198758686.003.0002.
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This chapter provides a precise definition of perfect being theism and compares it with alternatives such as atheism, polytheism, pantheism, and panentheism. The chapter then considers the historical and cognitive roots of perfect being theism. It argues, contrary to what is widely believed, that perfect being theism is not Anselm’s invention or an unnatural, scholarly artefact. The chapter then explains the philosophical merits of holding perfect being theism and considers the relationship between perfect being theism and prominent arguments for the existence of God, such as the cosmological argument and the design argument. It concludes with a discussion of three types of arguments against perfect being theism.
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Garrett, Don. Spinoza’s “Ontological” Argument. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195307771.003.0003.
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Proposition 11 of Part 1 of Spinoza’s Ethics states that God necessarily exists. Although his demonstration of the proposition is often said to constitute his ontological argument for the existence of God, and to report an essentially private “rational perception” of God’s existence, he provides four distinct “proofs” for the proposition. This chapter analyzes the four proofs and the relations among them. Like ontological arguments, they depend crucially on a definition of God that is intended, when grasped, to show that God necessarily exists; but like most cosmological arguments, they also depend crucially on a principle of sufficient reason. The last two proofs can be seen to address an objection, concerning the principle that substances cannot share attributes, that might otherwise be raised to the first two proofs.
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Hawkins, Kirk, Madeleine Read, and Teun Pauwels. Populism and Its Causes. Edited by Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, Paul Taggart, Paulina Ochoa Espejo, and Pierre Ostiguy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803560.013.13.
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Studies of populism increasingly theorize about its causes. Most arguments highlight the rational, material side of populist appeals or their connection to political identity. However, these arguments focus on regional varieties of populism, give little attention to the individual level of voter cognition, and overlook the role of populist ideas. In this chapter, we outline and critique these theories while offering a new approach. This theory builds on the ideational definition championed by other contributors to the Handbook, arguing that populism is a normative response to perceived crises of democratic legitimacy. Populist attitudes are not invented by politicians to fill a gap in the citizens’ psyche, but constitute a pre-existing set of beliefs that can be activated under certain contexts.
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Payne, Andrew. The Defense of Justice in Republic 1. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799023.003.0004.
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In this chapter, Socrates’ defense of justice in Book 1 is addressed. Thrasymachus’ definition of justice as the interest of the stronger provides the impetus for this defense. Socrates refutes this definition of justice and goes on to argue that justice rather than injustice makes for a better life for a human being. Although Thrasymachus is refuted in Book 1, he makes an important contribution to the dialogue by connecting justice to partnerships and, in particular, to the sort of partnership that is a political community regulated by laws. Socrates takes over from Thrasymachus this understanding of justice as linked to the activity of engaging in partnerships. His arguments for the benefits of justice rely on the insight that justice is the virtue that perfects the activity of engaging in partnership.
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Hill, Christopher. Conceivability and Possibility. Edited by Herman Cappelen, Tamar Szabó Gendler, and John Hawthorne. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.4.
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This article examines some philosophical questions about knowledge of modality, including how we determine whether a proposition is necessary or contingent and what procedures to use for recognizing possibility. It maintains that virtually anything is conceivable, and that conceivability is therefore incapable of providing a reliable test for possibility. Whether a conceivable state of affairs is genuinely possible depends on whether it is compatible with the class of necessary truths. But this means that we must have some independent way of recognizing necessity. The article explains that independent access to necessity in terms of the hypothesis that various modal truths constitute an implicit definition of necessity. To a large extent, our knowledge of necessity derives from our grasp of this definition. The article also criticizes Cartesian modal arguments for dualism, and raises an objection to the view that metaphysical necessity can be reductively explained in terms of subjunctive conditionals.
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Pollack, Detlef, and Gergely Rosta. Reflections on the Concept of Religion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801665.003.0003.
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There is no definition of religion that is universally valid and generally accepted in religious studies. Increasing numbers of scholars of religion see the attempt to define religion as doomed to failure, and therefore do not even try. A concept of religion is, however, indispensable for staking out the subject area which the sociology of religion and religious studies are concerned with. Defining clearly what is meant by religion is necessary not only to determine the content of the object to be examined and to distinguish it from other objects, but also to detect changes in the field of study. After discussing different approaches that are taken to define religion, the chapter proposes a working definition that combines substantive and functional arguments. The different forms of religious meaning available to mediate between immanence and transcendence can be classified as religious identification, religious practices, and religious belief and experience.
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Daley, SJ, Brian E. After Chalcedon. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199281336.003.0008.
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The Council of Chalcedon’s definition of the terms in which Nicene orthodoxy should conceive of Christ’s person remained controversial. Leontius of Byzantium argued for the correctness of the Council’s formulation, especially against the arguments of Severus of Antioch, but suggested that more than academic issues were at stake: the debate concerned the lived, permanently dialectical unity between God and humanity. In the mid-seventh century, imperially sponsored efforts to lessen the perceived impact of Chalcedonian language by stressing that Christ’s two natures were activated by “a single, theandric energy,” also remained without effect: largely because of the monk Maximus “the Confessor”, who argued that two complete spheres of activity and two wills remained evident in Christ’s life. Maximus’s position was ratified at the Lateran Synod and at the Third Council of Constantinople. The eighth-century Palestinian monk John of Damascus incorporated these arguments into his own influential synthesis of orthodox theology.
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Celkyte, Aiste. The Stoic Theory of Beauty. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474461610.001.0001.
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The monograph aims to show that the Stoa, an ancient Greek philosophical school, made a substantial line of enquiry into the nature of aesthetic properties, and thus there are good reasons to analyse and discuss the sub-field of the Stoic thought that could be called ‘Stoic aesthetics.’ This study of Stoic views on beauty begins with the question of indifferents and the challenge it poses for aesthetics. The controversial Stoic theory of values states that ‘beauty’ is one of the so-called indifferents, that is, the things that do not contribute to human happiness and therefore ought not to be treated as the good. It is argued that a thorough reading of the material shows that beauty is not treated as irrelevant in general; the evidence only shows that beauty is an inferior value to virtue. This leaves the possibility of theorising aesthetic objects. This leads to a systematic interpretation of Stoic aesthetics by looking at other pieces of extant evidence where beauty is mentioned, including the argument ‘that only the beautiful is the good’, theological arguments, the claim that only the wise man is beautiful and the Stoic definition of beauty as summetria. The latter, it is argued, is a succinct formulation of the idea that beauty is a function composition, and this idea has emerged in the previous discussions of various arguments involving aesthetic terms. The monograph ends with a discussion of the Stoic views in ancient Greek philosophical context.
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Monton, Bradley. The Argument from Simplicity and (M) The Argument from Induction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190842215.003.0012.
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This chapter presents a new thermodynamic argument for the existence of God. Naturalistic physics provides evidence for the failure of induction, because it provides evidence that the past is not at all what you think it is, and your existence is just a momentary fluctuation. The fact that you are not a momentary fluctuation thus provides evidence for the existence of God—God would ensure that the past is roughly what we think it is, and you have been in existence for roughly the amount of time you think you have. There is no definitive way for the atheist to refute this argument, but one suggestion is given that relies on physics-based simplicity considerations. The chapter closes with an epistemological discussion of self-undermining arguments.
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Millikan, Ruth Garrett. An Anatomy of Signs. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198717195.003.0010.
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Informational signs (infosigns) are signs of complete states of affairs and are, as such, members of infosign systems or families. They are always articulate, containing variant and invariant aspects, and their families are often productive, containing variables drawn from nondenumerable classes. Every sign in an infosign family can be derived from any other by a substitution of arguments for its variable or variables. Without yet offering a definition of “infosign,” many kinds of examples are given. Variable elements of infosigns correspond to their signified elements by a variety of kinds of mapping rules. “Absolute-” and “relative-reflexive” infosign elements, “isosign” elements, “names,” and “roaming names” are described. The sign that is a gas gauge reading exemplifies elements of all of these types at once.
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Barras, Amélie. Secularism in France. Edited by Phil Zuckerman and John R. Shook. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.9.
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This chapter explores how the meaning given to French laïcité differs in function of sociopolitical and historical contexts and who is using this discourse. It highlights how discourses of laïcité are intimately linked to the religious and its definition, paying special attention to the different meanings given to three concepts around which this discourse is articulated: separation of religion and politics, neutrality, and gender equality. By putting the emphasis on the evolving dimension of this discourse, the chapter also discusses how this has implications for the production of the category “religion” and, more specifically, for delimiting what is religiously acceptable in France. These arguments are explored by paying particular attention to the relation between laïcité and Islam in contemporary France.
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Halpern, Joseph Y. Actual Causality. The MIT Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262035026.001.0001.
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Causality plays a central role in the way people structure the world; we constantly seek causal explanations for our observations. But what does it even mean that an event C “actually caused” event E? The problem of defining actual causation goes beyond mere philosophical speculation. For example, in many legal arguments, it is precisely what needs to be established in order to determine responsibility. The philosophy literature has been struggling with the problem of defining causality since Hume. In this book, Joseph Halpern explores actual causality, and such related notions as degree of responsibility, degree of blame, and causal explanation. The goal is to arrive at a definition of causality that matches our natural language usage and is helpful, for example, to a jury deciding a legal case, a programmer looking for the line of code that cause some software to fail, or an economist trying to determine whether austerity caused a subsequent depression. Halpern applies and expands an approach to causality that he and Judea Pearl developed, based on structural equations. He carefully formulates a definition of causality, and building on this, defines degree of responsibility, degree of blame, and causal explanation. He concludes by discussing how these ideas can be applied to such practical problems as accountability and program verification.
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Alexandrova, Anna. A Philosophy for the Science of Well-Being. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199300518.001.0001.
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Well-being, happiness, and quality of life are now established objects of social and medical research. Does this science produce knowledge that is properly about well-being? What sort of well-being? The definition and measurement of these objects rest on assumptions that are partly normative, partly empirical, and partly pragmatic, producing a great diversity of definitions depending on the project and the discipline. This book, written from the perspective of philosophy of science, formulates principles for the responsible production and interpretation of this diverse knowledge. Traditionally, a philosopher’s goal has been a single concept of well-being and a single theory about what it consists in. But for science this goal is both unlikely and unnecessary. Instead the promise and authority of the science depends on it focusing on the well-being of specific kinds of people in specific contexts. Sceptical arguments notwithstanding, this contextual well-being can be measured in a valid and credible way—but only if scientists broaden their methods to make room for normative considerations and address publicly and inclusively the value-based conflicts that inevitably arise when a measure of well-being is adopted. The science of well-being can be normative, empirical, and objective all at once, provided that we line up values to science and science to values.
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Fortin, Katharine. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808381.003.0001.
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This introductory chapter explores the definition of ‘accountability’ and explains why it will only be achieved if based upon firmly established legal rules. It conducts a comprehensive review of the different circumstances in which armed groups have been held accountable under human rights law by accountability mechanisms such as the Security Council, Commissions of Inquiry, UN field offices, and Special Rapporteurs. The chapter charts the principle legal explanations that have been given to support the practice of holding armed groups bound by human rights law, including customary international law, control of territory, jus cogens norms, and crimes against humanity. After identifying some of the shortcomings of these arguments, the chapter explains that the purpose of this study is to determine how and when armed groups can be bound by human rights law.
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Millar, Jason. Ethics Settings for Autonomous Vehicles. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190652951.003.0002.
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This chapter explores the underlying arguments for and against designing ethics settings into autonomous vehicles. I begin by offering a definition of “ethics setting” and by discussing how designers and engineers embed ethics settings in technology. I then provide an overview of some of the ethics settings that are currently embedded in vehicles and some that are proposed or foreseeable in emerging autonomous vehicle technology. I also discuss the various ethical considerations that have been raised in response to each kind of ethics setting. After describing the landscape of ethics settings and related ethical issues that accompany them, I raise three questions that must be answered by those designing ethics settings into autonomous vehicles. I conclude by providing some considerations that can help engineers, designers, and policymakers answer them in practice.
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Sreenivasan, Gopal. Acts, Agents, and the Definition of Virtue. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808930.003.0013.
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This chapter discusses the direction of epistemological priority between traits and actions in the definition of virtue. Do we first identify a character trait as kind, say, and only then identify its characteristic expressions as kind acts? Or do we identify various acts as kind acts first, and only then identify the agents who perform them as kind agents? This chapter defends a modest agent-centered view: some kind acts can be identified as kind without reference to any kind agent, while other kind acts cannot be identified as kind except by identifying them as the characteristic expressions of a certain trait (kindness). Many proponents of virtue ethics are committed to a privileged role for agents in the definition of virtue; and they regard this commitment as making their enterprise distinctive. In preserving an indispensable role for virtuous agents in the identification of virtuous actions, the present argument vindicates their aspiration.
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Coon, Jessica, and Omer Preminger. Split Ergativity is not about Ergativity. Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa Demena Travis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.10.
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This chapter argues that split ergativity is epiphenomenal, and that the factors which trigger its appearance are not limited to ergative systems in the first place. In both aspectual and person splits, the split is the result of a bifurcation of the clause into two distinct case/agreement domains, which renders the clause structurally intransitive. Since intransitive subjects do not appear with ergative marking, this straightforwardly accounts for the absence of ergative morphology. Crucially, such bifurcation is not specific to ergative languages; it is simply obfuscated in nominative-accusative environments because there, by definition, transitive and intransitive subjects pattern alike. The account also derives the universal directionality of splits, by linking the structure that is added to independent facts: the use of locative constructions in nonperfective aspects (Bybee et al. 1994, Laka 2006, Coon 2013), and the requirement that 1st/2nd person arguments be structurally licensed (Bejar & Rezac 2003, Preminger 2014).
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Héritier, Adrienne. Fritz W. Scharpf, “The Joint-Decision Trap: Lessons from German Federalism and European Integration”. Edited by Martin Lodge, Edward C. Page, and Steven J. Balla. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199646135.013.32.
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This chapter examines the joint decision trap (JDT), a decision-making mechanism developed in 1988 by Fritz Scharpf to show the link between higher level government’s decisions and the unanimous or consensus agreement of lower level governments. JDT explains how the interlinking of decision-making processes translates to suboptimal policy outcomes because higher level decisions can be blocked by each lower level actor. The chapter discusses how the concept and theory of JDT offer important insights into the dynamic of European decision-making, but by no means all of its aspects. It considers the definition of JDT and its important contribution to theoretical and empirical and research on European decision-making. It then evaluates some of the arguments against JDT and the limits of its explanatory power, as well as Scharpf’s alternative to the theoretical debate between (liberal) intergovernmentalism and neofunctionalism. The chapter concludes by assessing the continuing heuristic value of JDT.
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Greenblatt, Stephen. Utopian Pleasure. Edited by James Simpson and Brian Cummings. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199212484.013.0017.
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Lucretius’s didactic masterpieceDe rerum naturaadvances propositions, drawn from Epicurus, which the Renaissance book-hunter Poggio Bracciolini and his contemporaries found difficult to absorb. Epicurus’s convictions included an insistence on the superiority of reason over faith, a steadfast refusal of pious fear, a concomitant refusal to believe in afterlife, a belief in the mortality of the soul, a rejection of religion, and an advocacy of the pursuit of pleasure. To many orthodox Christians such arguments were the very definition of atheism. This article examines three responses toDe rerum natura: “The Renunciation of Youthful Indiscretion” by Marsilio Ficino, “The Divorce Settlement” by Poggio Bracciolini, and “Dialogical Disavowal” by Lorenzo Valla. It also considers how the link between humanism, wealth, and the exercise of power in England conditioned the most remarkable Renaissance English response to Lucretius and to everything he brought back into circulation. Finally, it analyzes Thomas More’sUtopia, its theory of the nature of pleasure, and its treatment of Epicureanism and the afterlife.
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Jahner, Jennifer. Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198847724.001.0001.
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Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta traces the fortunes of literary training and experimentation across the early history of the English common law, from its beginnings in the reign of Henry II to its tumultuous consolidations under the reigns of John and Henry III. The period from the mid-twelfth through the thirteenth centuries witnessed an outpouring of innovative legal writing in England, from Magna Carta to the scores of statute books that preserved its provisions. An era of civil war and imperial fracture, it also proved a time of intensive self-definition, as communities both lay and ecclesiastic used law to articulate collective identities. Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta uncovers the role that grammatical and rhetorical training played in shaping these arguments for legal self-definition. Beginning with Thomas Becket, the book interweaves the histories of literary pedagogy and English law, showing how foundational lessons in poetics helped generate both a language and theory of corporate autonomy. Geoffrey of Vinsauf’s phenomenally popular Latin compositional handbook, the Poetria nova, finds its place against the diplomatic backdrop of the English Interdict, while Robert Grosseteste’s Anglo-French devotional poem, the Château d’Amour, is situated within the landscape of property law and Jewish-Christian interactions. Exploring a shared vocabulary across legal and grammatical fields, this book argues that poetic habits of thought proved central to constructing the narratives that medieval law tells about itself and that later scholars tell about the origins of English constitutionalism.
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Waldau, Paul. Animal Rights. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wentk/9780199739974.001.0001.
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In this compelling volume in the What Everyone Needs to Know series, Paul Waldau expertly navigates the many heated debates surrounding the complex and controversial animal rights movement. Organized around a series of probing questions, this timely resource offers the most complete, even-handed survey of the animal rights movement available. The book covers the full spectrum of issues, beginning with a clear, highly instructive definition of animal rights. Waldau looks at the different concerns surrounding companion animals, wild animals, research animals, work animals, and animals used for food, provides a no-nonsense assessment of the treatment of animals, and addresses the philosophical and legal arguments that form the basis of animal rights. Along the way, readers will gain insight into the history of animal protection-as well as the political and social realities facing animals today-and become familiar with a range of hot-button topics, from animal cognition and autonomy, to attempts to balance animal cruelty versus utility. Chronicled here are many key figures and organizations responsible for moving the animal rights movement forward, as well as legislation and public policy that have been carried out around the world in the name of animal rights and animal protection. The final chapter of this indispensable volume looks ahead to the future of animal rights, and delivers an animal protection mandate for citizens, scientists, governments, and other stakeholders. With its multidisciplinary, non-ideological focus and all-inclusive coverage, Animal Rights represents the definitive survey of the animal rights movement-one that will engage every reader and student of animal rights, animal law, and environmental ethics.
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O'Brien, John. The Humanist Tradition and Montaigne. Edited by Philippe Desan. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190215330.013.4.
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In contrast to the wider-ranging if loose definitions that are frequently given of humanism, the definition adopted in this chapter owes much to Kristeller’s study of the term umanista. Concentrating on classical scholarship and the new areas of knowledge and understanding it opened up, this essay deals with education, theology, law, and medicine, four key areas in Montaigne’s humanism and in his relationships with the humanists of his time. The argument is put forward that it is the story of knowledge itself that is at stake in his discussion of humanism. The chapter tries to demonstrate how Montaigne’s conception of humanism emphasizes a dynamic approach to the materials contemporary humanists produced.
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Gevaert, Sofie A., Eric Hoste, and John A. Kellum. Acute kidney injury. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0068.
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Acute kidney injury is a serious condition, occurring in up to two-thirds of intensive care unit patients, and 8.8-55% of patients with acute cardiac conditions. Renal replacement therapy is used in about 5-10% of intensive care unit patients. The term cardiorenal syndrome refers to combined heart and kidney failure; three types of acute cardiorenal syndrome have been described: acute cardiorenal syndrome or cardiorenal syndrome type 1, acute renocardiac syndrome or cardiorenal syndrome type 3, and acute cardiorenal syndrome type 5 (cardiac and renal injury secondary to a third entity such as sepsis). Acute kidney injury replaced the previously used term ‘acute renal failure’ and comprises the entire spectrum of the disease, from small changes in function to the requirement of renal replacement therapy. Not only failure, but also minor and less severe decreases, in kidney function are of clinical significance both in the short and long-term. The most recent definition for acute kidney injury is proposed by the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes clinical practice guidelines workgroup. This definition is a modification of the RIFLE and AKIN definitions and staging criteria, and it stages patients according to changes in the urine output and serum creatinine (see Tables 68.1 and 68.2). Acute kidney injury is a heterogeneous syndrome with different and multiple aetiologies, often with several insults occurring in the same individual. The underlying processes include nephrotoxicity, and neurohormonal, haemodynamic, autoimmune, and inflammatory abnormalities. The most frequent cause for acute kidney injury in intensive cardiac care patients are low cardiac output with an impaired kidney perfusion (cardiogenic shock) and/or a marked increase in venous pressure (acute decompensated heart failure). Predictors for acute kidney injury in these patients include: baseline renal dysfunction, diabetes, anaemia, and hypertension, as well as the administration of high doses of diuretics. In the intensive cardiac care unit, attention must be paid to the prevention of acute kidney injury: monitoring of high-risk patients, prompt resuscitation, maintenance of an adequate mean arterial pressure, cardiac output, and intravascular volume (avoidance of both fluid overload and hypovolaemia), as well as the avoidance or protection against nephrotoxic agents. The treatment of acute kidney injury focuses on the treatment of the underlying aetiology, supportive care, and avoiding further injury from nephrotoxic agents. More specific therapies have not yet demonstrated efficacy. Renal replacement therapy is indicated in life-threatening changes in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance, but there are also arguments for more early initiation.
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Gevaert, Sofie A., Eric Hoste, and John A. Kellum. Acute kidney injury. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0068_update_001.
Full textAbstract:
Acute kidney injury is a serious condition, occurring in up to two-thirds of intensive care unit patients, and 8.8-55% of patients with acute cardiac conditions. Renal replacement therapy is used in about 5-10% of intensive care unit patients. The term cardiorenal syndrome refers to combined heart and kidney failure; three types of acute cardiorenal syndrome have been described: acute cardiorenal syndrome or cardiorenal syndrome type 1, acute renocardiac syndrome or cardiorenal syndrome type 3, and acute cardiorenal syndrome type 5 (cardiac and renal injury secondary to a third entity such as sepsis). Acute kidney injury replaced the previously used term ‘acute renal failure’ and comprises the entire spectrum of the disease, from small changes in function to the requirement of renal replacement therapy. Not only failure, but also minor and less severe decreases, in kidney function are of clinical significance both in the short and long-term. The most recent definition for acute kidney injury is proposed by the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes clinical practice guidelines workgroup. This definition is a modification of the RIFLE and AKIN definitions and staging criteria, and it stages patients according to changes in the urine output and serum creatinine (see Tables 68.1 and 68.2). Acute kidney injury is a heterogeneous syndrome with different and multiple aetiologies, often with several insults occurring in the same individual. The underlying processes include nephrotoxicity, and neurohormonal, haemodynamic, autoimmune, and inflammatory abnormalities. The most frequent cause for acute kidney injury in intensive cardiac care patients are low cardiac output with an impaired kidney perfusion (cardiogenic shock) and/or a marked increase in venous pressure (acute decompensated heart failure). Predictors for acute kidney injury in these patients include: baseline renal dysfunction, diabetes, anaemia, and hypertension, as well as the administration of high doses of diuretics. In the intensive cardiac care unit, attention must be paid to the prevention of acute kidney injury: monitoring of high-risk patients, prompt resuscitation, maintenance of an adequate mean arterial pressure, cardiac output, and intravascular volume (avoidance of both fluid overload and hypovolaemia), as well as the avoidance or protection against nephrotoxic agents. The treatment of acute kidney injury focuses on the treatment of the underlying aetiology, supportive care, and avoiding further injury from nephrotoxic agents. More specific therapies have not yet demonstrated efficacy. Renal replacement therapy is indicated in life-threatening changes in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance, but there are also arguments for more early initiation.
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Fine, Sarah. Migration. Edited by Serena Olsaretti. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199645121.013.26.
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This chapter focuses on the relationship between the freedom to move across state borders and the demands of distributive justice. For some, the freedom to move across borders represents a requirement of distributive justice, whereas others argue that the demands of distributive justice may justify more or less significant restrictions on international freedom of movement. After outlining the key terms, the chapter critically examines the argument that the freedom to move across borders is a requirement of distributive justice. It presents different plausible versions of this argument and then addresses a set of arguments that point in the other direction, and which seek to illustrate that the obligations of distributive justice may support limits on the freedom to move across borders. Ultimately, the chapter argues that those who look to distributive justice to provide us with definitive answers to questions about freedom of movement’s proper scope will be disappointed.
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Hernández, Robb. Archiving an Epidemic. NYU Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479845309.001.0001.
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Archiving an Epidemic is the first book to examine the devastating effect of the AIDS crisis on a generation of Chicanx artists who influenced transgressive genders and sexualities operating in the Chicana and Chicano art movement in Southern California. From mariconógraphy to renegade street graffiti, from the Barrio Baroque to Frozen Art, these visual provocateurs introduced a radical queer languageemboldened by opportunities in LA’s art and retail culturein the 1980s. AIDS not only ravaged their lives, but also devastated their archives. A queer archival methodology is demanded to ascertain how AIDS and its losses and traumas have rearticulated recordkeeping practices beyond systemic forms of preservation. The resulting “archival bodies/archival spaces” of queer Chicanx avant-gardists Mundo Meza (1955–1985), Teddy Sandoval (1949–1995), and Joey Terrill (1955–present) refutes dismissive arguments that these provocateurs have had little consequence for the definition of the aesthetics of Chicano art and performance. With appearances by Laura Aguilar, Cyclona, Simon Doonan, David Hockney, Christopher Isherwood, Robert Mapplethorpe, and even Eddie Murphy, this book stands in defense of the alternative archivesthat emerged from this plague. Thinking outside traditional terms of institutional mediation, Archiving an Epidemic speculates not what Chicana/o art is but what it could have been.
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Salleh, Dani, and Mazlan Ismail. Infrastructure procurement framework for local authority. UUM Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.32890/9789670474434.
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The spread of infrastructure requirements and variety in mechanisms used to secure contributions (infrastructure provision) from private sector was a reflection of the institutional framework in planning system.The study has identified that although both private and local authorities have a good understanding of the fundamental of concept of local infrastructure provision and the arguments for and against the use of private provision, there are still considerable areas of uncertainty surrounding the precise definition (as prescribed in the relevant legislations) and measurements of the key elements pertaining to local infrastructure.The findings revealed that the previous studies has tended to examine the nature of the practice of the infrastructure delivery within the framework of national economy and very little focus has been given to a comprehensive examination on how private developers can be involved in local infrastructure development.The primary problem is that there is no single framework available at the local level that might be considered or applied to secure infrastructure from private developers.The study then provides the parameters for securing contributions towards infrastructure provision. To achieve a complete understanding of this issue, it is necessary to appreciate the broader picture of what is required in terms of infrastructure for the operation of the urban environment.
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Fugate, Courtney D. Baumgarten and Kant on Existence. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198783886.003.0009.
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This chapter reexamines Baumgarten’s definition of “existence” with an eye to evaluating Kant’s criticisms of this definition in his pre-Critical writings. Fugate shows that Baumgarten sharply distinguishes existence, as a specific content, from actuality, as the determination of that same content, in a way that has gone unnoticed by previous commentators. After explaining the implications of this discovery for our understanding of Baumgarten’s view of existence in general, Fugate uses it to reconstruct Baumgarten’s version of the ontological argument. Fugate highlights the originality of Baumgarten’s version of the argument vis-à-vis Wolff and argues that Baumgarten’s conception of existence allows him to avoid the objections brought forward by Kant in the Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of God’s Existence.
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Borsboom, Denny. Representation and explanation in psychometric modeling. Edited by Kenneth S. Kendler and Josef Parnas. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198796022.003.0006.
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This chapter presents a commentary on representation and explanation in psychometric modelling, as discussed in the previous chapter. It explores Turkheimer’s arguments that standard psychometric techniques involve assumptions, conventions, and definitions that introduce an arbitrary component into the models used.
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Stone, David. European Union Design Law. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198719298.001.0001.
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Over ten years after the beginning of the Community Registered Designs system of the European Union (EU), the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM) and European courts continue to grapple with many of the new legal concepts introduced, making this a complex and fluctuating area of law. This new edition of the highly-respected English-language text offers a concise, accessible and highly readable volume covering the complete design law of the European Union. It offers a concise history of the legislation's development and aims, tracing the introduction of fundamental changes to the protection of industrial and ornamental designs throughout the EU. This is followed by a detailed and comprehensive examination of the interpretations provided by OHIM, the Court of Justice and General Court, and the Community Design Courts of EU Member States. The book quotes primary legal provisions in context, supported by extensive citation of case law from the Court of Justice, OHIM and many European jurisdictions. Chapters cover topics including the definition of terms, the system of courts and tribunals with jurisdiction for Community design disputes, overlap with other intellectual property rights, exclusions from protection, the right to the Community design, interpreting designs, disclosure, invalidity of prior design and novelty arguments, the procedure of OHIM, infringement and applicable defences, jurisdictional issues, and the Design Directive. European Union Design Law: A Practitioners' Guide is an essential reference text for practitioners throughout the European Union and beyond.
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Forquilha, Salvador. Decentralization reforms in Mozambique: The role of institutions in the definition of results. UNU-WIDER, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.35188/unu-wider/2020/889-4.
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With the introduction of the economic reforms in the late 1980s, the opening up of the political arena and the end of the civil war in the early 1990s, the decentralization process began in Mozambique. Different research developed in recent years shows that, as is the case in other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the impact of the decentralization reforms on the promotion of local development and the strengthening of democracy in Mozambique is modest. How can this modest impact be explained? Based on three important reforms in the decentralization process in Mozambique, namely the ‘7 million’, municipalization and decentralized provincial governance, this article seeks to answer this question by analysing how different aspects of the institutions affect the results of the reforms. The main argument in the article underlines the idea according to which the results of the decentralization reforms in Mozambique are constrained by the nature and by the operation mechanisms of the political system. Of these institutional factors/constraints, state capacity and independence from private interests, particularly political groups, stand out in the three reforms analysed throughout this article. In this context, the reforms develop according to group interests, particularly party political interests, which capture the state and use the reforms as a mechanism for maintaining and bolstering political power. In this sense, rather than being a means of improving the provision of public services and strengthening democracy, decentralization works more as an instrument for reinforcing state control and pandering to the elite. This is probably the biggest challenge decentralization is facing in Mozambique, therefore making it a fundamental issue to be taken into account in any reform in this area, within the context of strengthening democracy and promoting local development.
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Glasgow, Josh. A Metatheory of Race. Edited by Naomi Zack. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190236953.013.16.
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Arguments from reference are widely used by people who otherwise disagree about race. They are used by people who think that race is an illusion (antirealists). They are used by people who think that race is socially real (constructivists). Theories of race across the disciplines normally define “race” descriptively to defend their views on what race is. This normal approach has come under attack, from two angles: that descriptive definitions are flawed, and that using any semantic arguments is fruitless. However, normal race theory can be defended against these objections, because the mode of reference relevant to race is descriptive and there is no privileged nondescriptive mode of reference that is (can be) relevant to the race debates.
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Yust, Jason. Reforming Formal Analysis. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190696481.003.0012.
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A number of important questions about the theory of form are addressed: the definition of phrase, ritornello form, form as recipe versus form as structure, and the classification of codas. Disputes over the definition of phrase come might be resolved by replacing the rigid task of locating phrase boundaries to one of distinguishing more neatly phrased music, with coordinated structures, to less neatly phrased music. Ritornello form is distinguished from sonata form, and its history as a symphonic form is discussed. An argument is made for separating the theory of form from the study of formal recipes, exemplified surveys of works by Galuppi, Richter, Boccherini, Haydn, and Mozart. Finally, the network model of structure is applied to introductions and codas, leading to a classification of codas into adjunct, integrated, and disjunctive types.
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El-Enany, Nadine, and Eiko R. Thielemann. Forced Migration, Refugees, and Asylum. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.394.
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Forced migrations, as well as the related issues of refugees and asylum, profoundly impact the relationship between the countries of origin and the countries of destination. Traditionally, the essential quality of a refugee was seen to be their presence outside of their own country as a result of political persecution. However, the historical evolution of the definition of a refugee has gradually become more restricted and defined. Commentators have challenged the current refugee protection regime along two principal lines. The first is idealist in nature and entails the argument that the refugee definition as contained in the 1951 Refugee Convention is not sufficiently broad and thus fails to protect all those individuals deserving of protection. The second line of argument is a realist one, taking a more pragmatic approach in addressing the insufficiencies of the Convention. Its advocates emphasize the importance of making refugee protection requirements more palatable to states, the actors upon which we rely to provide refugees with protection. With regard to the question of how to design more effective burden-sharing institutions, the literature has traditionally focused on finding ways to equalize refugee responsibilities directly by seeking to equalize the number of asylum seekers and refugees that states have to deal with.
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Newman, Abraham L., and Elliot Posner. International Soft Law and Mechanisms of Political Disruption. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198818380.003.0002.
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Chapter 2 is a detailed development of the book’s central argument that emphasizes soft law’s second-order consequences, including the way it disrupts the politics of economic governance. The chapter provides a clear and parsimonious definition of soft law: written advisory prescriptions. It reviews existing literature, which has often centered on soft law’s ability to solve governance problems at a given moment in time and focused on issues surrounding compliance. The chapter then turns to the book’s main argument, outlining the logic behind two important temporal mechanisms of political disruption: legitimacy claims and arena expansion. This theoretical chapter thus sets up the key concepts and propositions used in the following empirical chapters, detailing the specific ways that soft law, as a political institution, transforms politics over time.
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Metcalf, Michael, John Reid, and Malcolm Cohen. Object-oriented programming. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198811893.003.0015.
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The object-oriented approach to programming and design is characterized by its focus on the data structures of a program rather than the procedures. Often, invoking a procedure with a data object as its principal argument is thought of as ‘sending a message’ to the object. Special language support is typically available for collecting these procedures (sometimes known as ‘methods’) together with the definition of the type of the object. This approach is supported in Fortran by type extension, polymorphic variables, type-bound procedures, abstract types, and finalization.
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Kjeldgaard-Pedersen, Astrid. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198820376.003.0001.
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Chapter 1 first sets the stage by describing, in Section 1.1, the current mainstream approach to the international legal personality of individuals. Section 1.2 then provides a concise outline of the book’s core arguments. Section 1.3 goes on to clarify a number of preliminary caveats, definitions, and assumptions, which form the basis of the analysis in the following chapters. First and foremost, Section 1.3 presents the book’s understanding of the term ‘individuals’, the relationship between international law and domestic law, and the distinction between primary and secondary rules. Lastly, Section 1.4 provides the reader with a guide to the subsequent chapters.
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Stoneham, Tom. Some Issues in Berkeley’s Account of Sense Perception. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198755685.003.0003.
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This paper engages with the debate of how Berkeley reconciles restricting the objects of sense perception to what is immediately perceived with allowing that ordinary physical objects are amongst the objects of perception. Pitcher’s (1986) argument that Berkeley did not take the claim that we perceive ordinary physical objects to be ‘strictly true’ is rejected before we move to the debate between Pappas (2000) and Dicker (2006) about whether Berkeley equivocates about the definition of ‘immediate perception’ in a way which undermines his position. They agree that Hylas must accept indirect realism, but disagree about how this affects the cogency of his argument. However, Stoneham (2002) gave a different account of the dialectic in the First Dialogue that shows both Pappas and Dicker to be mistaken. This allows us to resolve Berkeley’s problem by appeal to the ordinary idea that we can perceive an object by perceiving part of it.
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Clapham, Andrew, and Paola Gaeta. Torture by Private Actors and ‘Gold-Plating’ the Offence in National Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190272654.003.0016.
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The email exchange between Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta set forth in this chapter offers a snapshot of an argument over whether states parties to the Torture Convention are obliged to criminalise in domestic law the crime of torture as such. It goes on to explore what are the pros and cons of demanding that torture requires the involvement of a ‘state official’ and whether states can ‘gold-plate’ their definition of torture in domestic law, thus extending the crime into the private sphere. In the end, this is a discussion about the very nature of torture, or if you like, torture’s ‘quintessence’.
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Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper. Making Sense of Affirmative Action. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190648787.001.0001.
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What makes affirmative action morally (un)justified? That is this book’s core question. Its main contribution consists in a meticulous scrutiny of the strength of the six main arguments for—i.e., the compensation, the anti-discrimination, the equality of opportunity, the role model, the diversity, and the integration-based justifications—and the five main objections to affirmative action—i.e., the reverse discrimination, the stigma, the mismatch, the publicity, and the merit-based objections—and of how these arguments relate to one another. The book argues that all of the five main objections to affirmative action are either flawed or quite limited in terms of their implications. With regard to the arguments in favor of affirmative action, the book shows why the anti-discrimination and equality of opportunity-based arguments provide strong justifications for many affirmative action schemes. In light thereof and the fact that the five most influential arguments against affirmative action are all flawed or otherwise weak, the overall claim defended in the book is that many of the schemes that people have in mind when they discuss affirmative action (many of which are presently on the retreat) are justified. However, the book also emphasizes that any definitive answer to the question Is affirmative action morally (un)justified? must rest on a wide range of empirical results in the social sciences etc., e.g., about the likely effects of various affirmative action schemes; and that the question, when posed in such general form (unlike when it is asked about specific schemes of affirmative action), admits of no direct positive or negative answer.
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Smet, Stijn. Introduction—Conflicts of Rights in Theoretical and Comparative Perspective. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795957.003.0001.
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This introductory chapter frames the book’s debate by delineating the extent of persistent reasonable disagreement on both the existence and resolution of human rights conflicts in the context of the European Convention on Human Rights. Drawing on the core arguments of the book’s substantive chapters, the introduction highlights the central cleavages in the debate. The chapter first discusses arguments deployed to deny the very existence of conflicts of rights, as well as available counterarguments. It goes on to provide insight in different strategies aimed at minimizing the occurrence of conflicts. It finally suggests that the resolution of genuine human rights conflicts runs along four axes: balancing versus non-balancing; compromise versus winner-take-all; ad hoc balancing versus definitional balancing; and substantive reasoning versus procedural checks. Where useful, the chapter provides linkages to broader scholarly and judicial debates by accentuating relevant theoretical approaches and comparative materials.
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Brinkmann, Svend. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190247249.003.0001.
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The term philosophy has become extremely broad, and there can be a philosophy of almost anything. It is not unusual for the word philosophy to be used in connection with everything from large corporations to personal statements. The word can easily be misused, but it is commonly used to signal a serious reflection on fundamental principles. It literally means love (philo) of knowledge (sophia). This chapter provides some definitions of philosophy and qualitative research and gives an introduction to a number of philosophical themes that are relevant for qualitative researchers, covering the basics of epistemology and ontology and the various arguments in favor of realism and anti-realism.
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Green, Barbara. Genre Criticism and the Prophets. Edited by Carolyn J. Sharp. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859559.013.15.
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This chapter offers a current explanation of the term “genre,” to distinguish it from form, and then proposes twenty-five genres that are found typically and frequently in the Latter Prophets. For each genre, a definition is offered, and a biblical text is instanced, with the shape, function, and effect of the genre suggested. The genres include the following: allegory; argumenta minori ad maius; call/commission; day of the Lord saying; dialogue; dirge; discourse ascribed; disputation; doxology/hymn; exhortation/admonition; lament; metaphor; metonymy; parable; parodic speech; personification; prayer; pronouncement; question; root metaphor; satire/taunt; symbolic action report; theophany report; uncreation saying; and vision report.
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Joshua, Castellino, and Keane David. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574827.003.0007.
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This concluding chapter reiterates some of the main arguments presented, and comments, from a comparative perspective, on how minority rights regimes are evolving in the specific settings selected. Rather than arriving at a definitive insight into a unifying theory for the protection of minority and indigenous rights in the region, it aims to identify nuances and principles that have emerged from state practice. The book concludes with a series of concrete recommendations and suggestions with a view to enhancing regional and international cooperation, with a special emphasis on models for indigenous and minority protection.
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Jeutner, Valentin. Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808374.001.0001.
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Conventionally, international legal scholarship concerned with norm conflicts focusses on identifying how international law can or should resolve them. This book adopts a different approach. It focusses on identifying those norm conflicts that law cannot and should not resolve. The book offers an unprecedented, controversial, yet sophisticated, argument in favour of construing such irresolvable conflicts as legal dilemmas. Legal dilemmas exist when a legal actor confronts a conflict between at least two legal norms that cannot be avoided or resolved. Addressing both academics and practitioners, the book aims to identify the character and consequences of legal dilemmas, to distil their legal function within the sphere of international law, and to engender and contribute to serious theoretical and practical investigations into the conditions that lead to a legal dilemma. The argument unfolds in three parts. The first part proposes a definition of legal dilemmas and distinguishes the term from numerous related concepts. Based on this definition, the second part scrutinises international law’s contemporary norm conflict resolution and accommodation devices in order to identify their limited ability to resolve certain kinds of norm conflicts satisfactorily. Against the background of the limits identified in the second part, the third part outlines and evaluates the book’s proposed method of dealing with legal dilemmas. In contrast to conventional approaches that recommend dealing with irresolvable norm conflicts by means of non liquet declarations, judicial law-making or balancing test, the book’s proposal envisions that irresolvable norm conflicts are dealt with by judicial and sovereign actors in a complementary fashion. According to the proposal, judicial actors should openly acknowledge irresolvable conflicts and sovereign actors should decide with which norm they will comply. Subsequently, judicial actors should hold the sovereign actor responsible for the violation of any prescriptive norm the sovereign chose to impair. The book concludes with the argument that analysing various aspects of international law through the lenses of the concept of a legal dilemma enhances international law’s conceptual accuracy, facilitates more legitimate decision-making processes and maintains international law’s dynamic responsiveness.
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Fortescue, Michael, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Introduction. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.1.
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The first chapter of The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis introduces the notion of polysynthesis and the related issues that the volume addresses, such as complexity, the definition of the word, the nature of the lexicon, idiomaticity, and typological features such as argument structure and head marking. It also outlines the part structure of the volume: Part I addresses polysynthesis from different perspectives; Part II contains areal studies of those geographical regions of the world where polysynthesis is particularly common, such as the Arctic and Sub-Arctic and northern Australia; Part III examines diachronic topics such as language contact and language obsolescence; Part IV looks at acquisition issues in different polysynthetic languages.