Academic literature on the topic 'Around-the- ear EEG'

The ear-electroencephalogram (ear-EEG) method is used to measure brain activity from regions around ear. It is becoming a popular EEG measurement method due to its characteristics such as wearability, simplicity, and long term measurability. In our previous study, we developed and evaluated a brain-computer interface (BCI) by means of steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) measured via ear-EEG. Some ear-EEG-based SSVEP-BCIs have demonstrated practical performance in assisting people with disabilities in various ways. However, the EEG measurement electrodes used in these devices establish contact with skin through conductive paste that stains subject’s hair and skin. This impairs the simplicity of measurement, impacting the advantages of using ear-EEG. Hence, in this study, we measured and evaluated SSVEP and alpha waves by using electrodes coated with conductive gel sheets. A total of 20 channels of electrodes were installed around the subject’s left and right ears, of which EEG components of 10 channels each were made of conductive paste and gel sheet. While the SSVEP and alpha waves were detected by using both conductive paste and gel sheet as the electrode-skin interface, the electrodes attached to the skin with conductive paste showed better detection performance. This indicates that an ear-EEG-based BCI system can be constructed by using conductive gel sheets instead of conductive paste as the electrode-skin interface. In future studies, we aim to improve the signal detection performance of electrodes by using conductive gel sheets as the electrode-skin interface, subsequently developing SSVEP-BCI systems that are implemented for the progress of society.

One significant emissions issue of compression ignition engines that directly influences human health is the production of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Once produced, these species are difficult to convert catalytically in the exhaust and often require a complex aftertreatment system to mitigate their release into the environment. The common methodology by the internal combustion engine community to reduce the amount of NOx is to employ Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) in order to dilute the intake mixture with inert species (e.g., water). This lowers the combustion temperature lessening the thermal NO production mechanism. Improper mixing of EGR with the intake (species in-homogeneity, low levels of mixing turbulence, etc.) can lead to significant cylinder-to-cylinder variation in combustion temperatures and NOx emissions, making it more difficult to achieve regulatory standards. In this effort, a three-dimensional (3-D), transient, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was performed in order to more accurately model the mixing of EGR and intake for a single-cylinder test engine. Mixing is achieved for this engine by using a small rectangular box in which clean air and engine exhaust for controlled recirculation are mixed prior to engine intake. A matrix of computational analyses at different engine loads, and simulation types (large eddy and Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes) at 25% EGR were performed to check computational time and agreement with experimental measurements. Moreover, this effort employs the use of adaptive mesh techniques in order to understand their usage and validate correct implementation for later endeavors including more complex geometries, such as the manifold of a multi-cylinder engine. The simulation results indicate that mass flow rate and temperature of the mixture as it leaves the mixing box agree to within 3% of experimental values. Furthermore, pressures at the air and EGR inlet boundaries showed agreement to around 1% and 12%, respectively, with the experimental measuring points indicated as the reason for the difference. In addition, species mixing of carbon monoxide was uniform to within 440 ppm. Finally, the use of the models may also account for a prior discrepancy in the output power of the single-cylinder engine test stand.

Abstract Natural and hydraulic fractures are important contributors to production performance of low-permeability (‘tight’) hydrocarbon reservoirs during primary and enhanced oil recovery. Laboratory studies that have investigated core-scale huff-n-puff (HNP) processes in ‘fractured’ cores are rare, and focused on ‘rock’ analysis primarily, as opposed to ‘fluid’ analysis. The objective of this proof-of-concept experimental study is to evaluate the application of a new core-scale HNP technique, ‘flow-through-frac’, for tracking compositional evolution of produced liquid hydrocarbons during cyclic gas (CO2 herein) injection in ‘fractured’ low-permeability oil reservoirs. The flow-through-frac technique reproduces the near-fracture conditions during a typical HNP process, with significantly faster testing times (25-50%) compared to conventional techniques (e.g., flow-around). The experimental procedure includes: 1) artificially fracturing core plug sample under differential stress to simulate an induced fracture, 2) saturating the fractured core with de-waxed in-situ (formation) oil, and 3) implementing multiple cycles of gas (e.g., CO2, produced gas) injection, soaking and production. To determine whether this technique can detect compositional variations despite its short duration, the compositions of the original in-situ (dead) oil and produced liquid hydrocarbon sample were compared after a typical core-scale HNP process (4 cycles) using CO2. A low-porosity (3.3%), low-permeability (1.25·10−4 md) Duvernay shale (western Canada) core plug sample was analyzed in this study. Compared to the in-situ (dead) oil, lighter components (C7-C11) were significantly (up to an order of magnitude) leaner in the oil sample produced after 4 cycles of CO2 HNP (fractured core plug). The lighter the hydrocarbon components, the leaner the concentrations in the produced oil. The intermediate components (C12-C28) were enriched in the produced oil, with larger discrepancies for C14-C22 components. The latter observation is attributed to the replacement of adsorbed C17-C19 components by injected CO2, in agreement with recent molecular simulation and experimental studies. The concentrations of heavier components (C29-C33) were similar between the in-situ and produced oil samples. Through combining core-scale CO2 HNP and fluid sampling/testing, this work demonstrates that the flow-through-fracture method can detect compositional variations during a typical core-scale HNP experiment. This technique can enable operators to track the composition of produced hydrocarbons at near-fracture conditions at a significantly shorter time frame (25–50%) than the existing methods. This integrated rock and fluid experimental program could potentially become valuable to not only core-based evaluation of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in unconventional oil reservoirs but also potentially coupled CO2/produced gas EOR and sequestration processes in fractured shale reservoirs.

Abstract Venezuela is widely recognized as an oil producer country of great potential thanks to its huge hydrocarbon resources located in Eastern Venezuela and Maracaibo basins, comprising the largest oil reserves in the world, with around 302 billion barrels according to recent OPEC and EIA estimates [1]. Despite those immense hydrocarbon resources, oil production in Venezuela is a challenge in mature and waterflooded reservoirs, as well as in thin highly viscous oil reservoirs where thermal IOR/EOR methods are not technically and/or economically feasible. This is the case of many oil fields in Lake Maracaibo and in La Faja Petrolifera Del Orinoco (La FPO), where the application of Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (CEOR) methods is being envisaged with a view to increasing oil recovery factors. The objective of this article is to review most of the Venezuelan CEOR projects reported in the literature to identify the main insights/status of each reported project and its potentiality of application to increase oil recovery. A detailed description of each project and its main conclusions is given. According to this literature review, CEOR project evaluations for Venezuelan reservoirs have been performed mostly at laboratory and numerical simulation scales, including several pilot test designs. Only 2 executed pilot tests have been reported (ASP flooding at VLA-6/9/21 Field in Lake Maracaibo and polymer flooding at Petrocedeño Field in La FPO). Despite the encouraging results in terms of oil recovery at laboratory scale, the greatest challenges related to the application of CEOR methods in Venezuelan reservoirs are linked to technical and economic aspects (e.g. high adsorption/retention of chemicals, mobility control, complex emulsions, separation of phases, water treatments, costs of investment, oil prices, etc.).

The use of 3D CFD combustion models based on tabulated chemistry is becoming increasingly popular. Especially the runtime benefit is attractive, as the tabulated chemistry method allows to include state-of-the-art chemical reaction schemes in CFD simulations. In this work, the Tabkin FGM combustion model in AVL FIRE™ is used to assess the predictivity on a large database of a light-duty Diesel engine measurements. The AVL TABKIN™ software is used to create the chemistry look-up tables for the Tabkin FGM model. The TABKIN software has been extended with the kinetic soot model, where the soot mass fraction calculation is done during the chemistry tabulation process, as well as an NO model using a second progress variable. From recent validation studies, a best-practice and nearly automated workflow has been derived to create the look-up tables for Diesel engine applications based on minimal input. This automated modeling workflow is assessed in the present study. A wide range of parameter variations are investigated for 5 engine load points, with and without EGR, in total 186 cases. This large number of CFD simulations is run in an automated way and the parameters of the CFD sub-models are kept equal as well as all numerical settings. Results are presented for combustion and emissions (NO and soot). Combustion parameters and NO emissions correlate very well to the experimental database with R2 values above 0.95. Soot predictions give order-of-magnitude agreement for most of the cases; the trend however is not always respected, which limits the overall correlation for all cases together, as reported by other authors. Further fundamental research on modeling soot formation and oxidation process remains required to improve the models. In terms of CPU time, the present study was executed on an off-the-shelf HPC cluster, using 8 CPU cores per case and requiring around 3 hrs of wall-time per case, e.g. such a large set of calculations can be simulated overnight on a standard HPC cluster.

Abstract Surfactant-based chemical flooding systems, e.g. alkali-surfactant-polymer (ASP) flooding, surfactant-polymer (SP) flooding and surfactant (S) active water flooding, is an efficient enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods for sandstone reservoirs. The previous mechanism research of surfactant-based chemical flooding focused mainly on reducing the interfacial tensions (IFT) and phase behavior characteristics. There are few researches on removing oil film on the rock in three phases (crude oil-water-rock) interface. This mechanism is very important under the condition that oil film is mainly involved in the residual oil of low/ultra-low permeability reservoir and unconventional resources. Our research will focus on removing the oil film from the hydrophobic rock surface using surfactant-based flooding systems (S, SP and ASP). The factors on performance of stripping oil film were systematically studied. Experiments related performances of crude oil drop contact angle and detachment time from oil-wet rock model surface with different surfactant-based flooding systems were conducted. The contact angle and detachment time of oil drops in three phases interface were measured by OCA20 contact angle instrument. IFT between oil and surfactant solutions were tested using Texas-500C spinning drop interfacial tensiometer. The mechanism of different surfactant-based chemical systems on removing oil film at low surfactant concentration was discussed. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) The contact angle of oil drops on oil-wet rock surface could reach a stable equilibrium in brine and low concentration of petroleum sulfonate solution. But the contact angle of oil drop in nonionic surfactant orampholytic surfactant solution was changing with time and the oil film could be removed from the rock surface ultimately. (2) The oil detachment times were changing with different surfactant systems. Oil drop detachment behavior was also related with its lowest instantaneous IFT. When the lowest instantaneous IFT was below around 5×10−2 mN/m, the contact angle changed with time and oil drop could be detached from the rock surface by necking and snap-off phenomena. (3) The addition of alkali to surfactant solution contributes to oil film stripping and enhances its ability to reduce oil/water IFT. Compared with S system, the oil film detached times by SP system was longer. Compared with S or SP systems, the oil film detachment time by ASP system was much shorter. Different alkali types significantly affected the oil film detached times. (4) The kinetics equation of stripping oil film from rock was established. The results were important for deeply understanding of oil displacement mechanism of surfactant-based chemical flooding in porous medium. Through combined wettability alteration and reducing IFT, the residual oil on oil-wet rock could be recovered more efficient. For the first time, the effects of stripping oil film by surfactant-based chemical flooding systems were studied both considered wettability and IFT performance. This fundamental research will set a foundation for screening and optimizing more efficient chemical flooding systems for IOR/EOR application.

Abstract This paper presents a classical demonstration of human-machine interaction to design and deploy a history matching workflow for a complex EOR brown field development. The field in the Sultanate of Oman (with viscosity from 400cP - 600,000cP) under study is unique with hardly any analogue and is developed thermally. Thermal simulations for such complex fields at fullfield scale become computationally intensive, especially when integrating multiple finer geological realisations with suite of dynamic data, e.g., continuous data from observation wells, time-lapse logs etc. in addition to production, injection and pressure histories. This limits our ability to holistically sample uncertainty space by running multiple scenarios and hence, restricts ability to create robust history match (HM) and forecast solutions. This paper presents an integrated modelling workflow which overcomes such limitations for complex simulations-based field studies. It helps in model maturation and facilitates accelerated field (re-) development decisions. A working reference case simulation model along with holistic uncertainty matrix are first created. Afterwards, approach splits into two parallel but interacting work-streams for faster solutions. In first stream, model scenarios are created in ad-hoc fashion and various physically viable combinations of uncertainty parameters are tried to yield HM. In second work-stream, numerical and data analytics capabilities of simulator are utilized, wherein uncertainty matrix is used for sensitivity analyses and creation of a Response Surface Model. Then HM engine is set-up by defining appropriate objective functions at global and local scale and selecting numerical optimizer. Global optima are found in solution space, and then local minima are searched for the corresponding global minima. The alternate HM scenarios from first work stream supplements the local minima obtained from the second. These simulations are used to create proxy functions based on polynomial regression or neural network. Subsequently, PDFs are generated, and posterior distribution of uncertainty variables are obtained leading to uncertainty reduction workflow. The workflow yielded successful outcomes for the field. The Assisted or "Augmented" HM methodology yielded not just one unique HM, rather multiple (~10) non-unique HM solutions underlying discrete geological scenarios. HM realisations were forecasted with established ranges around system design/control parameters to yield spectrum of UR predictions. This assisted in identifying reservoir true potentials, gaps/bottlenecks and therefore, optimizing field development and initiating WRFM projects in addition to providing robust forecasts for asset's business planning and reserves. The methodology impacts business bottom-line by significantly reducing the time taken in front-end studies and accelerating delivery of field development/re-development plans for complex fields. It proved a key enabler in maturing significant undeveloped volumes in the field. Advancements in technology, e.g., cloud computing and AI can boost it further by launching thousands of smart runs on cloud and improving quality of proxies.

Abstract Thousands of horizontal wells are completed around the globe in carbonate formations. Those long laterals are usually stimulated with acids to improve/restore productivity. Most horizontal wells are equipped with orifices/valves to uniformize production. Comprehensive modeling of wellbore hydraulics, flow through valves/orifices, annular flow, and wormhole growth in the formation is necessary to accurately model acid distribution in those wells. This study introduces a detailed model to capture the physics and chemistry of acid flow in complex horizontal wells completed in carbonate formations. The pipes and annuli hydraulics are handled by accounting for the change in the hydrostatic head and the friction losses. A friction formula that accounts for fluid rheology is derived from flow-loop experiments. Mathematical models are implemented to account for the pressure drop across valves and orifices presented in complex lower completions, e.g., Limited Entry Liners (LEL), Inflow Control Devices (ICDs), and Inflow Control Valves (ICVs). The acid is distributed in the openhole-liner annulus based on the flow rate through the orifice/valve, annulus flow area, packers location, and formation injectivity. The flow distribution from the current model agrees with results from a widely accepted, advanced completions-flow modeling software. An improved wormhole growth model was implemented to simulate acid flow in the formation. The linear model was validated using core flow experiments with a wide range of temperatures, acid concentrations, acid types, rock types, mineralogy, and core sizes. An upscaling scheme based on radial experiments and simulations was adopted. The skin values from the radial model developed in this work was found to be in excellent agreement with the post-stimulation field measurements. Two case studies with the model application are presented. In the first case study, the new model was used to evaluate a stimulation treatment in an openhole extended reach horizontal well. An excellent match between calculated and observed bottomhole pressures was achieved with the model. This allowed investigating many scenarios (i.e., advanced fluids, chemical diversions) to improve acid placement designs and zonal coverage in those wells. In the second case study, the model was used to design a stimulation treatment in a well equipped with 16 ICDs and openhole packers that divide the well into seven compartments. The advanced model has shown that the 4,300 ft. lateral can be stimulated successfully by bull-heading using only 25 gal/ft. of low viscosity retarded acid system without diverters. The agreement between model predictions and post stimulation increase in well productivity confirms the model accuracy. This paper presents an extensively validated model to simulate acid flow from the wellhead to the wormhole tip in carbonate formations. The model accounts for upper and lower completion wellbore hydraulics, pressure-drop across valves, annular flow, and wormhole growth. The comprehensive model introduced in this work provides stimulation engineers with a reliable tool to design successful acid stimulation jobs in complex horizontal well completions.

This report analyses the Technological Innovation System (TIS) of Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) in Austria. The study’s scope is consistent with the IEA PVPS Task 15 report [1].The analysis aims to facilitate and support the innovation, development, and implementation of industrial solutions of BIPV technologies. In Austria, the use of BIPV is still a niche application and covers under 2% of all implemented PV systems [1]. BIPV technology in Austria has historically developed with the support of different public financial incentives, national and European. The history of BIPV is somehow tightened to the history of PV. The first BIPV prototypes were developed by PV companies in the framework of national or European research activities, with the first development and innovation projects starting around 2003. In general, it should be mentioned that in the last years, PV and BIPV companies have increased specialization in the production of BIPV, especially colored and semitransparent PV modules. In this regard, a wide range of variants are offered (printing, coating, films). The colored components are mainly purchased from glass companies or polymer film producers. Another trend in Austria is the production of transparent glass/glass modules for integration in facades, skylights, winter gardens, or courtyard roofing. In 2020, the government of Austria presented a program called EAG (Erneuerabre Ausbau Gesetz) or Renewable Expansion Act [3.3.1 Hard institutions]containing certain working points to be implemented by 2024. Some of the measures are directly or indirectly relevant to the BIPV development and installation. Such as the PV encapsulation films using interference pigment technology from Lenzing Plastics. This TIS assessed the BIPV market through eight functional areas and provided the following results: ⁃ The analysis of knowledge development showed that it can be classified as moderate. On the one hand, there are not enough training and further education opportunities in the field of BIPV available, but on the other hand, the PV manufacturers and research institutions are driving forward the development of knowledge in the field of BIPV. ⁃ Knowledge dissemination is well advanced internationally within the research community but insufficient at the practical, national level, particularly between the PV industry and the construction sector. Architects are demanding more information from PV manufacturers and suppliers, who share their information only irregularly with the architectural community. Usually, architects obtain this information from PV technology platforms through workshops, brochures, and projects. However, architects have to engage with it more extensively. The goal is to make BIPV more appealing to architects. Thus, we have to summarize that knowledge dissemination is inadequate/weak. ⁃ Entrepreneurial willingness to experiment can be classified as moderate. Overall, it can be said that there are four players in the Austrian BIPV market and a substantial number of newcomers and small innovative players who could take the role of innovation drivers. However, there are too few opportunities for highly specialized small companies. ⁃ Resource mobilization is well positioned financially and in terms of network services. However, and this is essential if we want to expand the BIPV market strongly, there is a lack of skilled personnel (human resources) to carry out the expansion, which is why this function is rated to only be moderate. ⁃ The scoring of social capital is weak. The connection where there is a lack of communication is between the (BI)PV planner and the architects. In most projects, the (BI)PV planner is not involved in the early stages of the building design process. In addition, conventional PV planners have no experience or are hesitant of planning BIPV systems. ⁃ The legitimacy is moderate, but as the acceptance of PV improves from year to year, the chance of better acceptance of PV integrated into the building, i.e., BIPV, also increases. However, there are still reservations and resistance towards individual, specific BIPV projects. This resistance could be reduced by increasing knowledge about the multifunctional possibilities of BIPV at the decision-maker and customer stage as well as by showing best practice examples - Guidance of the search is moderate, as there are no specific political targets for BIPV, but there are for PV. However, the government and relevant authorities aim to implement clean energy development positively and apply applicable policies and regulations. There is an increased subsidy for innovative PV solutions [2] which also includes BIPV. ⁃ It can be stated that the market formation of BIPV in Austria still offers room for improvement. When it comes to governmental-driven incentives and support for the BIPVmarket development, the missing technical standards (e.g., fire safety regulations) and the absence of regulatory obligations on renewable energies in the local building codes are the biggest weaknesses. The structural and functional analysis is followed by a coupled structural-functional analysis. This assessment will help identify weaknesses and strengths and recommend strategies that will enable the growth of BIPV from a niche market to a major market segment. The aim is for photovoltaics (PV) on buildings to be primarily designed as Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) to reduce additional costs. This, combined with the avoided costs for other components of the building, should result in cost parity with Building-Applied Photovoltaics (BAPV). It is also crucial to encourage all manufacturers of building envelope components to ensure that their products offer the dual benefit of serving as building components while also generating electricity. By doing so, such products can become standard in the industry. The transition from BAPV to BIPV was already analyzed in a 2015 BIPV brochure [2] from the Austrian Photovoltaics Technology Platform (TPPV), which discussed the advantages of an integrated solution versus an attached solution and outlined the necessary steps to make BIPV the standard for building PV. The recommendations are summarized as follows: i) It is important to involve (BI)PV in the early stages of the building planning process. ii) successful implementation projects must be made public through various channels to increase knowledge about BIPV technology and its possibilities (e.g., lighthouse projects in public buildings). iii) PV standards and construction codes have to be harmonized. iv) The Austrian government should stipulate the use of PV in the obligatory building specifications. v) Another recommendation would be to enact a law requiring every sealed area to be checked for dual use with (BI)PV. One positive development worth mentioning is the Climate Fund's Lighthouse call, which focuses specifically on integrated PV and offers higher grants for BIPV than the Renewable Expansion Act] , demonstrating increased interest and commitment to this technology. In addition, the TPPV Innovation Awards, which were awarded for the first time specifically for building-integrated PV and now include other topics of PV integration outside of buildings, are a sign that the industry is broadening its perspective and recognizing the importance of BIPV beyond traditional applications. These developments could help to further promote the acceptance and deployment of BIPV and drive innovation in this area. Nevertheless, it is important to consider the significantly higher costs of BIPV products, as well as the greatly increased planning effort that arises when PV becomes an integral building product.

Civic engagement is “how citizens participate in the life of a community to improve conditions for others or to help shape the community’s future” (Adler and Goggin 2005, p. 236). In Cambodia, civic engagement has been promoted by civil society organisations (CSOs) since 1993. The organisations covered by the abbreviation “CSO” are many in Cambodia, but they consist of, and are not limited to, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), youth associations, community-based organisations (CBOs), self-help groups and small clubs. There are around 3,000 NGOs registered officially with the Ministry of Interior as local NGOs and with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation as international NGOs (INGOs) (Suárez and Marshall 2014). The core development work of many of these NGOs is not focused entirely on human rights, democratic development and governance, and environmental issues: they are also working to improve livelihoods by integrating rural development approaches within their agendas (Mansfield 2008). The exact figure of CBOs remains obscure (Brown 2008; UNCT 2009) as some have not registered officially with the relevant authorities while others have merely emerged to address a particular development issue and then halted operations. CBOs still exist in every village and are visible or invisible to outsiders (Öjendal 2013). Those NGOs and CBOs focus more broadly on local development; however, there has been an emerging trend of NGOs funding youth civic engagement, seeking not only to enhance youth capacity for employment opportunities, but also to engage in democratic development and participation (OECD 2017). The ultimate aim of promoting youth engagement in civic activities is to mobilise young adults to be members of NGOs and CSOs (BBC Media Action and UNDP 2014; Ginwright and James 2002; Rogers, Mediratta and Shah 2012; Terriquez 2015). Past studies have demonstrated that young people tend not to associate with CSOs (UNDP 2010; CDRI 2017; Heng, Vong and Chheat 2014). In the context of funding channelled towards youth programs, the relevant NGOs and CSOs have a role in promoting youth civic engagement. The question is, could CSOs engage more fully and successfully with youth, not only to promote capacity development for employment opportunities, but also to enable civic activities, especially when those young people are disenchanted? This is coupled with the rise of political pressure on particular civic activities of CSOs after the 2013 national election, and constitutes a core context for this study. At a time of changing “space” for CSOs, this study will address the following questions: 1) How do CSOs, including organisations, associations and clubs, keep young people engaged? 2) How do CSOs motivate and enrol young people in civic activities at a time when the “space” relating to civil society and polity in the country is changing? and 3) How can CSOs be supported to provide long-term mobilisation of young people to sustain civic engagement? Addressing these questions will contribute to an understanding of youth and civic engagement in an era of changing space, and advance previous studies in the country (Mansfield 2008; BBC Media Action and UNDP 2014; Heng, Vong and Chheat 2014; OECD 2017; Peou and Zinn 2015; Eng and Hughes 2017; Eng et al. 2019). This paper draws on comparative discussions with three types of organisation chosen for this study in terms of their strategies relating to, and effectiveness in, promoting civic engagement according to their agenda. The first is an independent organisation – A – receiving funding from international donors. Organisation A’s program activities and approaches to promote youth civic engagement are, however, characterised as “co-optation or integration” as they implement their program with local government/ local authorities, and the ruling party. The second organisation – B – received funding from international donors but operates its programs independently. The third organisation – C – is classified as State-dependent. It is operated in alignment with the State, and has a central office headed by a senior government official. This organisation’s structure is entwined with the State system, from national to provincial, down to commune and village levels. This paper argues that organisation C, the State’s and ruling party’s de facto union of youths, dominates civic forms of youth engagement in Cambodia as its operational activities and branches are affiliated with the structures of the State systems and the current leading political party - the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP). With sustained financial and political support, organisation C has been capable of engaging more youths to take part in its activities. Meanwhile, organisations A and B have manoeuvred their strategies of civic engagement through limited “spaces”, leveraging activities under the control and monitoring process of the State. In this context, organisation C has been more sustained in promoting youth participation in the activities that it has identified, given the diverse sources of financial support it has access to. Organisations A and B appear less sustainable in terms of their strategies to engage with young people and they rely substantially on international donors to fund their activities. To unpack the preceding arguments further, the remainder of this working paper will begin with: (i) a review of the relevant literature on the “space” CSOs occupy and on civic engagement in Cambodia; and (ii) the detailed methodologies of data collection and data analysis. It will then present: (iii) the empirical results, and (iv) the concluding discussion.