Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Article 6 de la CEDH'

Le principe d'impartialité est essentiellement traité par les juristes français sous l'angle de l'imposante jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme. Néanmoins, l'origine internationale de ce principe restait inexplorée. Cette étude montre que l'impartialité est une exigence récurrente dans les discours sur la justice, et ce depuis l'Antiquité. Malgré son évidence philosophique, la juridicisation du principe d'impartialité s'est révélée sinueuse et inégale à travers l'histoire et les cultures juridiques (Common law/Civil law). Les particularités du régime politique du Royaume-Uni expliquent ainsi l'applicabilité directe du principe dans le trial dès les origines de la Common law. En revanche, en droit français, sa consécration explicite fut tardive et provoquée par l'article 6 CEDH, même si le juge national avait su contourner le silence des textes pour lui procurer une protection indirecte. À coté de ces décalages entre les États, une brève analyse de l'histoire du droit international suffit à constater la présence du principe dans l'ordre juridique international dès le début du XXe siècle. L'étude du principe d'impartialité de la justice illustre alors parfaitement la problématique des rapports de systèmes. Plusieurs interactions importantes peuvent être signalées. Dans un premier temps, le droit international a eu besoin du principe d'impartialité afin de légitimer la construction de son propre ordre, qui passait inévitablement par la juridictionnalisation. Dans un deuxième temps, après avoir accompli sa fonction structurante, il est devenu partie intégrante du droit international substantiel tout en voyant son objet modifié
The principle of impartiality is essentially treate by the French jurists under the angle of the impressive jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights. Nevertheless, the international origin of this principle remained unexplored. This study shows that the impartiality is a recurring requirement in the speeches on the justice, and it since the Antiquit. In spite of its philosophic obvious fact, the juridicisation of the principle of impartiality showed itself sinuous and uneven through the history and the legal cultures (Civilian /Common law). The peculiarities of the political system of the United Kingdom so explain the direct applicability of the principle in the motocross from the origins of Common law. On the other hand, in French law, its explicit consecration was late and provoked by the article 6 EHCR

Le témoignage oral, depuis toujours, occupe, en tant qu'élément de preuve, une place au sein de la procédure pénale française. Pourtant, il n'a cessé de faire l'objet de critiques, ravivées par l'émergence de la preuve scientifique dans le procès pénal contemporain, car considéré comme faillible en raison de sa nature humaine. Cette affirmation repose, notamment, sur un postulat anachronique consistant à considérer le témoignage oral comme unitaire, au travers du seul prisme de sa source, l'homme, cantonné au seul témoin, tel que défini par les règles de procédure, alors qu'il présente en réalité un caractère dual. Or, c'est de cette méconnaissance, conduisant à une appréhension attentatoire à la valeur probatoire du témoignage oral, qu'émergent les objections à son encontre et qui soulèvent la question de sa nécessité dans le procès pénal, quand cette dernière ne devrait souffrir aucune hésitation, non seulement parce que le témoignage oral s'avère un élément de preuve utile à la recherche et à l'établissement de la vérité judiciaire mais également parce qu'il illustre et renforce les principes directeurs du procès pénal, tels qu'édictés par le législateur français et la Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme
Oral testimony has always been taken up as an element of evidence in the French criminal proceedings. However considered as unreliable because human, it hasn't ceased to be the subject of critics, lately revived with the emergence of scientific proof within contemporary penal trial. This statement is based on the anachronistic postulate that oral testimony, considered through the only view of the witness as defined by the procedural rules, is unity, whereas indeed it does present a dual character. The probationary value of oral testimony is suffering from this lack or recognition and its necessity within criminal procedure is also being questioned when there should be no hesitation whatsoever with regard to its use. In fact, oral testimony is not just a useful element of proof when trying to establish the truth, it does also illustrate and strengthen the governing principles of penal trial such as promulgated by the French legislator and the European convention of Human Rights

Dans notre société que l’on peut appeler «société de l’information » ou également société de « surveillance électronique », il est désormais essentiel d’assurer la protection de données à caractère personnel. La mise en place d’une réglementation en matière de protection de données n’a pas toujours été aisée et, dans certains domaines, demeure complexe. Le domaine judiciaire est un exemple marquant de secteur d’activité où il a été difficile de mettre en place des règles spécifiques et appropriées pour la protection de données personnelles. Dans les années quatre-vingt-dix, la question s’était posée de savoir si une protection spécifique des données traitées à des fins judiciaires était nécessaire. Les conclusions avaient été diverses : d’un côté, certains avaient estimé qu’une réglementation spécifique était opportune, d’un autre côté, d’autres considéraient que l’idée de mettre en place une telle réglementation devait être abandonnée. Cette étude semble avoir été – à un certain point – abandonnée. Compte tenu de l’évolution des technologies et de l’évolution des textes européens, il semble essentiel de poser à nouveau cette question et de s’interroger sur la place à conférer aux données traitées à des fins judiciaires dans le système européen actuel de protection de données à caractère personnel. Cette nécessité est corroborée par la jurisprudence de la Cour de Strasbourg. Cette dernière a en effet, été saisie de cas de violations des droits fondamentaux liés à un traitement inapproprié des données dans le domaine judiciaire. De plus, des projets de réforme du système de protection de données personnelles sont actuellement en discussion au niveau européen. En effet, le Conseil de l’Europe et l’Union travaillent actuellement sur la modernisation des textes existants en matière de protection des données à caractère personnel. Il est donc intéressant de s’interroger sur la place réservée à la protection des données judiciaires dans le cadre de ces réformes. La thèse veut tout d’abord rappeler l’importance de protéger les données à caractère personnel en tout temps, en tout lieu et dans n’importe quel domaine d’activité, y compris le domaine judiciaire. Elle a pour but principal, d’une part, de mettre en évidence les problèmes existants en matière de protection de données judiciaires et, d’autre part, d’essayer de répondre à la question de savoir si une réglementation spécifique dans ce domaine doit aujourd’hui être élaborée au niveau européen. Dans la première partie les textes du Conseil de l’Europe et de l’Union européenne en matière de protection des données et leur applicabilité au domaine judiciaire sont tout d’abord analysés. Compte tenu du fait que les textes actuellement en vigueur au niveau du Conseil de l’Europe et de l’Union ont, à première vue, un contenu identique, il a été nécessaire d’analyser ces textes avec un esprit comparatif afin de comprendre comment ceux-ci se concilient et de vérifier leur applicabilité aux données judiciaires. [...]
In our society which can be called "information society" and also society of "electronic surveillance," it is essential to ensure the protection of personal data. The implementation of regulations on data protection has not always been easy, and in some areas, remains complex. The judiciary is a striking example of an area where it has been difficult to establish specificand appropriate rules for the protection of personal data. In the years ninety, the question was raised whether a specific protection for judicial data was necessary. The findings were different: on the one hand, some have estimated that a specificregulation was appropriate, on the other hand, others felt that the idea of establishing such rules must be abandoned. This study seems to have been - at some point - quitted. Given the improvements in technology and the evolution of European legislation, it seems essential to renew this question and try to find out which level of protection is given to judicial data in the current European system of protection of personal data. The importance to renew this question is proven by the case law of the Strasbourg Court. The latter has indeed been referred to cases of human rights violations due to improper processing of data in the judiciary. In addition, plans to reform the system of protection of personal data are currently under discussion at European level. Indeed, the Council of Europe and the European Union are currently working on the modernization of existing texts on the protection of personal data. It is therefore interesting to examine the place reserved for the protection of judicial data in the context of these reforms. The thesis recall the importance of protecting personal data at any time, in any place and in any field of activity, including the judiciary. Its main aim, on the one hand, is to highlight existing problems in the protection of judicial data and, on the other hand, to answer the question of whether a specific regulation in this area must nowadays be developed at European level. In the first part Council of Europe and the European Union’s texts on data protection and theirapplicability to the judicial data were analyzed. Given the fact that the texts currently into force at the Council of Europe and at the European Union, at first glance, have the same content, it has been necessary to analyze them with a comparative approach in order to understand their interoperability and verify their applicability to judicial data. Despite the multitude of texts on data protection present at European level (those of the Council of Europe and of the European Union), a marginal space is reserved to judicial data. The basic principles stated in these texts are in theory applicable to judicial data but in concrete those are not applied. In any case, those texts do not provide effective protection of judicial data. [...]
Nella nostra società, che può essere chiamata “società dell'informazione” o anche società di “sorveglianza elettronica”, è ormai indispensabile garantire la protezione dei dati personali. L'attuazione della normativa in materia di protezione dei dati non è sempre stata cosa facile, e per alcuni settori di attività, essa risulta tutt’ora un’operazione complessa. Il settoregiudiziario ne è un esempio. In effetti, si tratta di un settore in cui è stato difficile elaborare ed attuare regole specifiche ed adeguate per la protezione dei dati personali. Negli anni novanta, ci si è chiesti se fosse necessario provvedere all’adozione di regole specifiche per la protezione dei dati trattati a fini giudiziari. Secondo una prima teoria una regolamentazione specifica risultava opportuna, tuttavia secondo un’altra teoria l'idea di creare una regolamentazione per la protezione dei dati personali trattati in ambito giudiziario doveva essere accantonata. Lo studio di tale questione sembra essere stato - ad un certo punto - abbandonato. Dati i miglioramenti tecnologici intervenuti negli ultimi anni e l'evoluzione della legislazione europea in materia di protezione dei dati, sembra indispensabile porsi nuovamente la questione dell’opportunità di una regolamentazione specifica per il settore giudiziario. Sembra altresì opportuno interrogarsi sull’importanza che attualmente viene attribuita alla protezione dei dati trattati per finalità legali nell’ambito dell’attuale sistema europeo di protezione dei dati personali. Tale necessità sembra essere corroborata dal contenuto della giurisprudenza della Corte di Strasburgo. Quest'ultima è stata, infatti, spesso adita per casi di violazioni dei diritti fondamentali dovuti ad un trattamento illecito dei dati personali per ragioni di giustizia. Inoltre, dei progetti di riforma del sistema di protezione dei dati personali sono attualmente in discussione a livello europeo. Infatti, il Consiglio d'Europa e l'Unione europea stanno attualmente lavorando sulla modernizzazione dei testi esistenti in materia di protezione dei dati personali. E 'quindi altresì interessante esaminare quale importanza è data alla protezione dei dati giudiziari nel contesto di dette riforme. Oltre a ricordare l'importanza della protezione dei dati personali, in qualsiasi momento, in qualsiasi luogo e in qualsiasi settore di attività, tra cui quello giudiziario, l’obiettivo principale delle tesi è, da un lato, di evidenziare i problemi esistenti in materia di protezione dei dati giudiziari e, dall’altro, di valutare l’opportunità dell’esistenza a livello europeo di una normativa specifica per questo settore. Nella prima parte i testi del Consiglio d'Europa e dell'Unione europea in materia di protezione dei dati e la loro applicabilità al settore giudiziario sono analizzati. Tenuto conto del fatto ch i testi attualmente in vigore presso il Consiglio d'Europa e l'Unione europea hanno, di primo acchito, lo stesso contenuto, è stato necessario analizzarli con un’ottica comparatistica al fine di capire come essi si conciliano e di verificare la loro applicabilità ai dati giudiziari

This thesis is a critique of the European Court of Human Rights’ case law on the right to a fair trial in criminal cases. It is the result of a focussed and extensive survey of Article 6 case law, and, unlike other work on Article6, does not analyse each component right of Article 6 one-by-one. Instead, the thesis considers ‘cross-cutting’ themes common to all, or many, of the Article 6 component rights: how the Court interprets Article 6, how the Court sees its role in Article 6 cases, how the Court approaches Article 6’s internal structure, the Court’s implied rights jurisprudence, and how the Court assesses alleged Article 6 violations. In considering how the Court assesses alleged violations of Article 6, the thesis charts the Court’s attempts to solve ‘the puzzle of Article 6’: how should violations of Article 6 be assessed in the absence of an express metaprinciple? In this regard the thesis examines notions such as the proceedings as a whole test, counterbalancing and defect-curing, the ‘never fair’ jurisprudence, and the extent to which the public interest may justify restrictions on Article 6. The thesis uses a rule of law framework to test the Article 6 case law for its ability to provide guidance to citizens, lawyers and officials. It argues that the case law is marked by considerable uncertainty, inconsistency, and incoherence, with the result that the ability of that case law to provide guidance is significantly undermined. Indeed, the thesis establishes that there is inconsistency and uncertainty within the various tools and approaches used by the Court, and that there is significant incoherence between those approaches. To the extent the thesis makes a normative argument, it constitutes a robust and targeted call for the Court to adopt in this area of law a renewed, rejuvenated approach that is more consistent, more coherent, and better explained.

Les grands esprits soucieux de la souveraineté nationale pourraient comparer la ratification de la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme par la France, et plus particulièrement la reconnaissance du droit de recours individuel, à l'ouverture de la boîte de Pandore, par laquelle le droit interne serait entré dans un processus irréversible de soumission à la Convention européenne telle qu'interprétée par la Cour européenne, hors de tout contrôle des pouvoirs publics français. Ce serait se méprendre sur la nature de ce processus. Car plus que de soumission, il s'agit d'intégration : la Convention européenne, et notamment son article 6&1 en ce qui concerne la procédure civile, fait désormais partie intégrante du droit français. La confrontation du droit interne avec les normes du procès équitable de la Convention européenne fait par ailleurs ressortir une "conventionnalité" générale des règles de procèdure civile française. .
Fot those great minds who are concerned about national sovereignty, France's ratification of the European Convention on human rights, and most importantly the recognition of individual applications, could be compared to the opening of a Pandora's box, the beginning of a process whereby French law was allegedly bound to submit to the European Convention as interpreted by the European Court of human rights. This is mistaken belief, because this process is not one of submission, but one of incorporation : today, the European Convention is an integral part of French law. As far as civil procedure is concerned, French rules broadly conform with article 6&1 of the Convention. Whenever France has been condemned by the European Court of human rights on the grounds of violation of the Convention, it was most often not for having ignored the fundamental principles of law, but for having interpreted them differently. .

The Senator Lines' case, currently pending before the European Court for Human Rights, reveals a lack of procedural fairness of the European Antitrust enforcement under the terms of the European Convention for Human Rights. But in spite of a well-established concern for Fundamental Rights from the European Community, the later is still not bound by the Convention.
That is why it is critical that the EC accede to the Convention following the example of its branches. Meanwhile, it is necessary to determine whether the Member States could be held responsible for the Community's acts that violate the rights protected by the Convention. That is the question the Court will have to answer in the Senator Lines' case. Nevertheless, the Council Regulation which organises the antitrust enforcement procedure must be reformed in order to ensure an indispensable balance of power.

Inherent in and at the core of the right to fair trial in Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights is the concept of equality of arms, the construct to which this thesis is devoted within the context of criminal proceedings. As a contextual prelude to specific analysis of this concept, a background for Article 6 is first established which identifies influential historical developments in trial rights and provides an outline of the rationale for the Convention and of the content, and applicability, of the article. Thereafter, the thesis offers a theoretical insight on equality of arms, identifying and exploring its value, contemporary international legal basis and constituent elements as per the Strasbourg definition. The insight on the latter recognises an underpinning relationship between the concept of equality of arms and Article 6(3), and introduces the key argument in the thesis: the European Court of Human Rights equates inequality of arms not with procedural inequality in itself, which would be a dignitarian interpretation, but with procedural inequality that gives rise to actual or, in some circumstances, inevitable prejudice. This argument predominates the subsequent survey of case-law in which the Court’s approach to procedural equality is demonstrated and assessed within the context of the right to challenge and call witness evidence (Article 6(3)(d)), the right to adequate time and facilities (Article 6(3)(b)) and the right to legal assistance (Article 6(3)(c)). Though the thesis is based on Article 6 decisions of the Court and, to a lesser extent, the former European Commission of Human Rights, references are made throughout to other national and international legal instruments and judgements whenever instructive.

The government of Sweden encourage the development of electricity produced from renewable sources by maintaining an electricity certificates system in which producers that use renewable sources in their production are given certificates. The system is regulated in the Swedish Electricity Certificates Act (lag (2003:113) om elcertifikat). To prevent fraudulent behaviour a penalty fee is charged upon producers that have recieved certificates due to incorrect or misleading information. The penalty fee can be appealed to a court but under the Electricity Certificates Act it is not allowed to reduce or adjust. The purpose of this thesis is to analyse if the penalty fee in the Electricity Certificates Act meets the requirements of legal certainty in article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention) including right to a fair trial and to be seen as innocence until proven guilty. The method used is analysing applicable sources in accordance with the Swedish legal hierarchy in which laws have the highest value. The Convention is incorporated into Swedish law and has the same legal value as such. Judgments from the European Court of Human Rights on the Swedish tax surcharge are used for guidance on how to interpret article 6 in the Convention. Two cases from Swedish courts concerning the penalty fee are used to find what problems the penalty fee encounters in a legal process. The rules on the penalty fee does not allow adjustments of it and circumstances in each case cannot be taken into consideration, therefore the penalty fee can be charged even when it would be unreasonable and there is a conflict with legal certainty in article 6 of the Convention. For that matter rules on evidentiary issues also has to be implemented. Courts can refuse to use rules which are in conflict with the Convention, but it is concluded that a change in regulation is needed.

The objective of the thesis is to analyse law, case law, recommendations and opinions and to some extent legal doctrine to produce commercially viable advice (in other words, a check-list) on what to think about when conducting a balancing test as of GDPR Article 6.1 (f)

Objectives This study aimed to determine the relationship between stunting in children 6 to 36 months old and maternal employment status in Peru. Methods A secondary data analysis was conducted using information from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Peru. We used a representative sample of 4637 mother-child binomials to determine the association between stunting in children 6 to 36 months of age and the employment status of their mothers. Results The prevalence of stunting among children was 15.9% (95% CI: 13.9–16.7). The prevalence of working mothers was 63.7%. No association was found between maternal employment status and the presence of stunting in children [prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.04; 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.9 to 1.2; p = 0.627). However, on multivariate analysis we found that the prevalence of stunting was significantly higher among children of mothers performing unpaid work (12.4%) (PR = 1.38; 95% CI: 1.2–1.6; p < 0.001) compared with those of paid working mothers. Conclusion No significant association was found between maternal employment status and the presence of stunting in children 6 to 36 months of age. However, children of mothers doing unpaid work are at higher risk of stunting. These findings support the implementation of educational programs and labour policies to reduce the prevalence of stunting among children. © 2019 Chávez-Zárate et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Revisión por pares
Revisión por pares

Approved for public release; distribution in unlimited.
This thesis examines the evolution of NATO as an institution in the International System by reference to Articles 4, 5 and 6 of the Washington Treaty of 1949. Initially, the thesis considers NATO from an international relations perspective. It then proceeds to examine the institutional evolutionary process of the Alliance since its inception and implementation in 1949. Furthermore, it explores the significance and the meaning of the aforementioned Articles. This thesis utilizes the case study method and refers to four distinct events that have shaped allied policies and strategies: the Suez Crisis of 1956, the establishment of the politico-military consultation process, the Yom Kippur War (1973), and the end of the Cold War (1989-1991). It also examines the allied policies after the events of September 11, 2001. Moreover, it identifies a general pattern of events pertinent to crisis creation inside NATO when the organization is facing a defense issue outside the Euro-Atlantic area. Finally, the thesis concludes that NATO is more than an ordinary military Alliance, as advocated by its longevity, agility and adaptability, which allows the Alliance to maintain a central position in the International System as a robust politico-military organization.
Lieutenant Commander, Hellenic Navy

La première partie de l’étude est consacrée à l’invocation, intra et extra muros, du droit à un procès équitable. Sont analysés ainsi, dans un premier temps, l’applicabilité directe de l’article 6 et la subsidiarité de la Convention par rapport au droit national et de la Cour Européenne des Droits de l’Homme par rapport aux juridictions nationales. Le droit à un procès équitable étant un droit jurisprudentiel, l’étude se focalise, dans un second temps, sur l’invocabilité des arrêts de la Cour Européenne et plus précisément sur l’invocabilité directe de l’arrêt qui constate une violation du droit à un procès équitable dans une affaire mettant en cause l’Etat et l’invocabilité de l’interprétation conforme à l’arrêt qui interprète l’article 6 dans une affaire mettant en cause un Etat tiers. L’introduction dans l’ordre juridique français et hellénique de la possibilité de réexamen de la décision pénale définitive rendue en violation de la Convention a fait naitre un nouveau droit d’accès à la Cour de cassation lequel trouve son terrain de prédilection aux violations de l’article 6 et constitue peut-être le pas le plus important pour le respect du droit à un procès équitable après l’acceptation (par la France et la Grèce) du droit de recours individuel. Quant au faible fondement de l’autorité de la chose interprétée par la Cour Européenne, qui est d’ailleurs un concept d’origine communautaire, cela explique pourquoi un dialogue indirect entre la Cour Européenne et la Cour de cassation est possible sans pour autant changer en rien l’invocabilité de l’interprétation conforme et le fait que l’existence d’un précédent oblige la Cour de cassation à motiver l’interprétation divergente qu’elle a adoptée.La seconde partie de l’étude, qui est plus volumineuse, est consacrée aux garanties de bonne administration de la justice (article 6§1), à la présomption d’innocence (article 6§2), aux droits qui trouvent leur fondement conventionnel dans l’article 6§1 mais leur fondement logique dans la présomption d’innocence et aux droits de la défense (article 6§3). Sont ainsi analysés le droit à un tribunal indépendant, impartial et établi par la loi, le délai raisonnable, le principe de l’égalité des armes, le droit à une procédure contradictoire, le droit de la défense d’avoir la parole en dernier, la publicité de l’audience et du prononcé des jugements et arrêts, l’obligation de motivation des décisions, la présomption d’innocence, dans sa dimension procédurale et personnelle, le « droit au mensonge », le droit de l’accusé de se taire et de ne pas contribuer à son auto-incrimination, son droit d’être informé de la nature et de la cause de l’accusation et de la requalification envisagée des faits, son droit au temps et aux facilités nécessaires à la préparation de la défense, y compris notamment la confidentialité de ses communications avec son avocat et le droit d’accès au dossier, son droit de comparaître en personne au procès, le droit de la défense avec ou sans l’assistance d’un avocat, le droit de l’accusé d’être représenté en son absence par son avocat, le droit à l’assistance gratuite d’un avocat lorsque la situation économique de l’accusé ne permet pas le recours à l’assistance d’un avocat mais les intérêts de la justice l’exigent, le droit d’interroger ou faire interroger les témoins à charge et d’obtenir la convocation et l’interrogation des témoins à décharge dans les mêmes conditions que les témoins à charge et le droit à l’interprétation et à la traduction des pièces essentielles du dossier. L’analyse est basée sur la jurisprudence strasbourgeoise et centrée sur la position qu’adoptent la Cour de cassation française et l’Aréopage
The first party of the study is dedicated to the invocation of the right to a fair trial intra and extra muros and, on this basis, it focuses on the direct applicability of Article 6 and the subsidiarity of the Convention and of the European Court of Human Rights. Because of the fact that the right to a fair trial is a ‘‘judge-made law’’, the study also focuses on the invocability of the judgments of the European Court and more precisely on the direct invocability of the European Court’s judgment finding that there has been a violation of the Convention and on the request for an interpretation in accordance with the European Court’s decisions. The possibility of reviewing the criminal judgment made in violation of the Convention has generated a new right of access to the Court of cassation which particularly concerns the violations of the right to a fair trial and is probably the most important step for the respect of the right to a fair trial after enabling the right of individual petition. As for the weak conventional basis of the authority of res interpretata (“autorité de la chose interprétée”), this fact explains why an indirect dialogue between the ECHR and the Court of cassation is possible but doesn’t affect the applicant’s right to request an interpretation in accordance with the Court’s decisions and the duty of the Court of cassation to explain why it has decided to depart from the (non-binding) precedent.The second party of the study is bigger than the first one and is dedicated to the guarantees of the proper administration of justice (Article 6§1), the presumption of innocence (Article 6§2), the rights which find their conventional basis on the Article 6§1 but their logical explanation to the presumption of innocence and the rights of defence (Article 6§3). More precisely, the second party of the study is analyzing the right to an independent and impartial tribunal established by law, the right to a hearing within a reasonable time, the principle of equality of arms, the right to adversarial proceedings, the right of the defence to the last word, the right to a public hearing and a public pronouncement of the judgement, the judge’s duty to state the reasons for his decision, the presumption of innocence, in both its procedural and personal dimensions, the accused’s right to lie, his right to remain silent, his right against self-incrimination, his right to be informed of the nature and the cause of the accusation and the potential re-characterisation of the facts, his right to have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of the defence, including in particular the access to the case-file and the free and confidential communication with his lawyer, his right to appear in person at the trial, his right to defend either in person or through legal assistance, his right to be represented by his counsel, his right to free legal aid if he hasn’t sufficient means to pay for legal assistance but the interests of justice so require, his right to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him and his right to the free assistance of an interpreter and to the translation of the key documents. The analysis is based on the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights and focuses on the position taken by the French and the Greek Court of Cassation (Areopagus) on each one of the above mentioned rights

Sous l’Ancien Régime, la souffrance physique était un élément essentiel de la peine. Les détenus étaient maintenus en captivité pour le rachat de leur faute dans un but d’amendement. La privation de liberté se caractérisant par la cruauté et l’insalubrité des conditions de détention, la médecine en milieu pénitentiaire a longtemps été considérée comme « un supplément d’âme » de l’institution carcérale et reléguée au rang de « sous-médecine » par l’ensemble du champ médical du fait de sa soumission à l’administration.C’est dans cette conception de la peine que s’inscrit la Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen de 1789 qui affirme que la loi ne doit établir que les peines strictement nécessaires. Au début du XXe siècle, l’administration pénitentiaire soigne encore ses détenus. Ceci a conduit à de véritables désastres psychologiques et sanitaires, car le médecin dépendait des institutions pénitentiaires et non sanitaires. Jusqu’à la Libération, l’Histoire de la santé et des professions de santé en prison est marquée par une profonde continuité qui s’exprime, d’abord au travers d’une opposition continue entre l’expression de philanthropie des reformes et la confrontation à une réalité austère de la santé dans une prison totalitaire. L’autonomie de ceux qui ont la charge de la santé en prison n’est guère garantie. Les prisons échappent encore aux grandes révolutions sanitaires et hygiéniques.L’apparition du virus du Sida et des pathologies, bouleverse les mentalités. Un mouvement émerge, entre les années 1970 et 1980, d’une société civile exigeant le respect des droits de la personne alors que les évolutions scientifiques et politiques, mais aussi carcérales font peu à peu apparaître les limites de cette nouvelle organisation : l’affirmation à une administration chroniquement pauvre et dont le soin ne constitue certes pas la mission première relègue tout le dispositif au fond d’un entonnoir pauvreté, alors que les premières approches épidémiologiques pointent chez cette population une surmorbidité au regard de l’âge, en particulier au niveau des pathologies infectieuses, addictives et dentaires
Under the Old Regime, physical suffering was an essential element of punishment. The detainees were kept in captivity for the purpose of reparation of their fault for the purpose of amendment. Since deprivation of liberty is characterized by cruelty and unhealthy conditions of detention, medicine in prisons has long been considered as "an extra soul" of the prison institution and relegated to the rank of "deputy doctor" by the entire medical field because of its submission to the administration.It is in this conception of punishment that the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which states that the law must establish only those penalties that are strictly necessary, is part of this concept. At the beginning of the 20th century, the prison administration still treats its prisoners. This led to real psychological and health disasters, as the doctor depended on prison and non-health institutions. Until the Liberation, the history of health and the health professions in prison is marked by a profound continuity that is expressed, first of all through a continuous opposition between the expression of philanthropy in reforms and the confrontation with an austere reality of health in a totalitarian prison. The autonomy of those in charge of health in prison is hardly guaranteed. Prisons are still exempt from the great sanitary and hygienic revolutions.The appearance of the AIDS virus and pathologies is changing mentalities. Between the 1970s and 1980s, a movement emerged from a civil society demanding respect for human rights, while scientific and political developments, as well as political and prison developments, gradually revealed the limits of this new organization: the affirmation of a chronically poor administration, whose care is certainly not its primary mission, relegates the whole system to the bottom of a poverty funnel, while the first epidemiological approaches point to an over-morbidity in this population in terms of age, particularly in terms of infectious, addictive and dental diseases

Collective bargaining is the main tool for harmonizing conflicts of interests in a working relationship. Restrictions to this right have become important in the Public Sector due to their intensive process when establishing. Prohibition of wage increases through collective bargaining has led the government work in the last 9 years. The Budget Laws for 2013 and 2014 have adopted provisions that endure this restriction. The following paper pretends to analyze these restrictions validity from the parameters given by the Constitution and the International Agreements on the matter.
La  negociación colectiva es el principal instrumento para la armonización de intereses contradictorios en el contexto de una relación laboral. En el sector público, las restricciones a este derecho han cobrado relevancia debido a la intensidad con la que se han ido estableciendo. La prohibición de incrementos salariales a través de negociación colectiva ha marcado la pauta de actuación estatal estos últimos nueve años. Es así que las leyes de presupuesto de los años 2013 y 2014 han recogido disposiciones que buscan perennizar esta restricción. El siguiente texto busca analizar la validez de estas restricciones a partir de los parámetros establecidos por la Constitución y los tratados internacionales sobre la materia.

Issuing soft law instruments on the enforcement of abuse of a dominant position in different competition law systems has never been a global trend in the last decade than before. In the European Union (EU), the European Commission published the “Guidance on the Commission's Enforcement Priorities in Applying Article 82 of the EC Treaty to Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings” (the Guidance) in February 2009 as yet the final formal stage during the “modernisation” of Art.102 TFEU. As an official candidate for EU membership, Turkey is unlikely to distance itself from the developments in the EU. Within this context, “Guidelines on the Assessment of Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings” (the Guidelines on Art.6) were published on April 7, 2014. Evident from their structure and substantive content, the Guidelines on Art.6 are closely modelled on the Guidance. Although the transposition of the Guidance into Turkish competition law seems prima facie desirable in terms of the harmonisation of Turkey's domestic competition law with the EU acquis, the question as to whether the Guidelines on Art.6 have suited to Turkey's own needs gains significance. Despite being the first secondary legislation on Art.6 of the Act on the Protection of Competition 1994 in Turkey, a lack of much-needed guidance on the problematic areas in the enforcement of Art.6 may well result in the Guidelines on Art.6 being a missed opportunity to establish a coherent policy on Art.6. This thesis explores whether there is a need for adopting Guidelines in relation to Art.6 in Turkish competition law, examines whether the Guidance can or should be used as a model, and finally gives reflections on how the legal regime and content of these Guidelines can be best tailored to the enforcement of Art.6 in Turkey.

The terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 had a significant impact upon how governments counter terrorism. The UK introduced and implemented an array of measures, each taking a pre-emptive and preventative approach, to tackle terrorism. The change in counter-terrorism law and policy post-9/11 has, as this thesis will show, increasingly become reliant upon fear-based risk and uncertainty rather than evidence-based guilt. This thesis will examine some of those UK measures used post-9/11, which were seen as some of the more controversial measures. When analysing each measure there will be an assessment of the human rights issues associated with those measures, specifically under Article’s 5 and 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The assessment of these rights with each measure will provide a legal understanding of the wider academic and legal implication of those measures, these include the right to a fair trial. Having assessed the human rights implications of each measure, a risk assessment is undertaken. This enables further analysis of each measure and holistically identifies the wider risk implications of such counter terrorism measures. Such risks may include negative perceptions of the police, the UK or provide indirect support for the radicalisation of new terrorists. This process is developed within the thesis and becomes known as the ‘tri-relationship'. Throughout, the measures examined will be seen to erode those human rights principles ordinarily guaranteed by the criminal justice system, for example liberty. Instead, the measures give way to a new counter-terrorism justice system which has become increasingly normalised by the measures introduced and accepted by the courts. This is despite the implications on human rights and risks involved. This thesis will show that the measures introduced by the UK to achieve securitization, fail to achieve the long-term protective aims of the UK Counter-Terrorism Strategy.

In the early 1990s the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicted that the gravest effects of climate change could be on human migration, as millions would be displaced by coastal erosion, flooding, and drought. Today, this is considered a reality that is coming ever closer. Yet, there are currently no binding international frameworks dedicated to the issue of climate induced migration. In addition, the current regime of international refugee law is woefully inadequate at responding to the issue. Individuals that do not fall under the refugee definition are thus commonly left with the general scope of international human rights law standards, so-called complementary protection.   On these premises, this thesis sets out to examine the circumstances under which the non-refoulement principle in international human rights law could be applied in the context of climate change effects and especially slow onset processes, and how the principle could potentially be developed. Principally through examining jurisprudence concerning the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights, this thesis finds that while there is a possibility for non-refoulement obligations to arise due to the effects of climate change, the precise scope of such protection is unclear. Although case law has emerged and continues to do so, the complex nature of climate induced migration and the undeveloped jurisprudence on this issue leaves important questions unanswered. This thesis finds that there seems to be no obvious response to the question whether climate change is a relevant factor in the legal analysis of non-refoulement claims, and whether it should be. Furthermore, there are great challenges in discerning the required intensity of harm for the threshold to be met and protection to be granted. In addition, this thesis finds that applying the non-refoulement principle in the context of slow onset processes entails several difficulties, particularly concerning the timing and prediction of the harm. It is therefore concluded that, as long as there is no framework dedicated to the issue of climate induced migration, clarity will be much needed in case law as to the scope of non-refoulement obligations in the context of, especially, slow onset processes due to climate change.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Direito apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
RESUMOO Tribunal Europeu dos Direitos Humanos, em Soering c. Reino Unido (1989, § 113), afirmou não excluir que uma decisão de extraditar, “nas circunstâncias em que o fugitivo tenha sofrido ou tenha o risco de sofrer uma flagrante denegação de justiça no país requerente”, possa implicar numa violação ao Artigo 6.º da CEDH. Apesar de obiter dicta, tais afirmações tiveram efeitos práticos relevantes na jurisprudência posterior do Tribunal. Na primeira parte, a presente dissertação descreve como o risco de denegação do processo equitativo pelo Estado requisitante, segundo a jurisprudência do Tribunal Europeu, pode levar ao dever de não extraditar, nos termos do Artigo 6.º, e analisa o método atualmente utilizado pela Corte parar aferir tais violações em geral e nos pedidos de extradição. A dissertação defende que tais métodos carecem de clareza, em parte, devido às inconsistências e incoerências da jurisprudência do TEDH na análise das infringências do Artigo 6.º pelos próprios Estados signatários, com prejuízo para a segurança jurídica no âmbito da cooperação judiciária internacional em matéria criminal na Europa. Na segunda parte, aplicam-se algumas das conclusões da primeira parte aos mecanismos de cooperação judiciária da União Europeia (em especial ao MDE) e à cooperação judiciária Brasil-Portugal, na perspectiva do Brasil enquanto Estado requisitante, a fim de ilustrar, por meio de dois institutos e práticas processuais brasileiros utilizados na Operação Lava-Jato (a atração da competência pela “prevenção” e a colaboração premiada dos arguidos presos), a insegurança jurídica decorrente da jurisprudência do TEDH para essas relações.
ABSTRACTThe European Court of Human Rights, in Soering v United Kingdom (1989, § 113), did not exclude that a decision to extradite, "in circumstances where the fugitive has suffered or risks suffering a flagrant denial of a fair trial in the requesting country", might amount to a breach of Article 6 ECHR. These statements have, despite obiter dicta, had relevant practical effects in the Court's subsequent case-law. In the first part, this paper describes how the risk of a fair trial denial in the requesting State, according to the European Court, imply in the duty not to extradite under Article 6, and analyzes the tools currently used by the Court to assess such violations in general and in extradition requests. This paper argues that such methods lack clarity, in part due to the inconsistencies and incoherence of ECtHR case-law in assessing infringements of Article 6 by the contracting States themselves, in prejudice to legal certainty in the context of international judicial cooperation in criminal matters in Europe. In the second part, this dissertation applies some of the of the first part’s conclusions to EU’s mechanisms of judicial cooperation (especially the EAW) and to Brazil-Portugal judicial cooperation, from the perspective of Brazil as the requesting State, in order to illustrate, through two Brazilian procedural institutes and practices from the “Operation Car Wash” (the “prevent-competent” judge and plea bargaining with arrested defendants), the legal uncertainty deriving from ECtHR’s case-law for these relations.

碩士
國立臺北大學
法律學系一般生組
99
As merger & acquisition(hereinafter M & A) activities are getting more and more thriving in Taiwan, the issues regarding protecting shareholders’ interest in M & A activities are getting more and more important. One of the most important issues is how to ensure the fairness of the exchange ratio for shareholders, and in order to deal with this issue, article 6 of Business Mergers and Acquisitions Act established the “independent expert” mechanism, requiring that every public corporation involved in M & A transactions retain at least one independent expert to examine the fairness of exchange ratio and issue his/her opinion to the board of directors and shareholders. Since the independent expert mechanism was established, almost every M & A transaction’s exchange ratio has been proven fair by an independent expert, but the number of controversies over the fairness of exchange ratio has not decreased—shareholders did not believe in the opinions from independent expert, which increased the litigation cost and decreased the efficiency of transactions on a large scale. In Chapter 2, this thesis will expatiate on the relevant regulations of independent expert in Taiwan and how this mechanism works currently, and then derive seven main problems with it, including (1) whether to maintain the requirement of retaining an independent expert in a M & A transaction; (2) should we create some exceptions when maintaining the requirement,; (3) how to ensure an independent expert’s independence; (4) how to ensure that an independent expert has enough expertise; (5) there is no uniform guideline to operate valuation process; (6) there is no uniform requirement for what should be written in an opinion; (7) an independent expert’s civil liability is unclear. In Chapter 3 and 4, the mechanism in the United States and the European Union similar to the independent expert in Taiwan will be introduced respectively. In the United States’ M & A practice, a fairness opinion issued by an investment banker is often acquired by board of directors, because it is very critical for proving that directors have already fulfilled their duty of care in a M & A transaction. As for the European Union, Directive 78/85/EEC, 82/91/EEC, and 2005/56/EC require the member states to legislate for founding independent expert mechanism to inspect the fairness of exchange ratio in M & A transactions, which is quite similar to the independent expert in Taiwan but rather delicate in many perspectives. In Chapter 5, this thesis will attempt to suggest some solutions for the seven problems presented in Chapter 2 by referring the United States and the European Union practice introduced in Chapter 3 and 4, hoping that these suggestions will help the independent expert mechanism in Taiwan improve and can really protect shareholders’ interest in M & A transactions.

碩士
國立中正大學
法律學研究所
102
To trace the article 6 and 7 of ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) concerning Right to life implement in the criminal justice practice and the trend of Taiwanese criminal procedure, the concept of “Right to life” and the practical cases made by Taiwan Supreme Court (TSC) during the past five years (2009-2014) will be examined in this paper. Through the examination of TSC’s judgments towards some significant issues, such as right to life (article 6), capital punishment, “the most serious crimes”, procedural guarantees, etc., the following facts are discovered. First, to show the application of the Convention, TSC always cite the Article of the ICCPR in the TSC criminal judgments, but there is no further specific standards and interpretation when dealing with individual cases. And in some cases, there is some misunderstanding of the interpretation in ICCPR. Second, the different opinions from separate courts in TSC are often against each other. As a result, the predictability of sentence and people’s rights are sacrificed. Therefore, not only the violation of the ICCPR in criminal judgment is increasing, but TSC also has to face the profound distrust of the people. As a solution, the author gives his point of view: It is particularly necessary for TSC to reconsider its long-term neglect of the correct interpretation in ICCPR, especially in the human rights standards of death penalty and related cases. Besides, to reduce these negative impacts, a system inside TSC, which can standardize the currently inconsistent views of its separate courts, must soon be accurately established by the legislative authority.

碩士
國立臺北大學
法律學系一般生組
100
According to the "Communications Protection And Surveillance Law" was amended in 2007, the related issues are derived from “Criminal Evidence Act” must be resolved. This article is from Article 5 and Article 6 of the Communication Protection And Surveillance Law and the Inter-application with Article 158-4 of Criminal Procedure Law, the statutory requirements of the Communication Surveillance, and from various types of violation of statutory requirements to review the admissibility of evidence. The structure of dissertation is as follow: Chapter Ⅰ illustrates the motivations, methods and realm of this thesis. Chapter Ⅱ is the introduction of basic concept of communication surveillance and the constitutional restrictions on. Chapter Ⅲ is the introduction of legal restrictions on the elements of 18 U.S.C. §2510-2522 and the Communication Protection And Surveillance Law. Chapter Ⅳ, through the discuss of the exclusion of evidence to understand the development trends of theories and practices. Chapter Ⅴ focuses on the rules of exclusion of evidence of illegal interception of communications, article 5 and article 6 of the Communication Protection And Surveillance Law and the inter-application with Article 158-4 of Criminal Procedure Law, and the cases made by supreme court. Furthermore, discuss various types of violation of statutory requirements to review the admissibility of evidence. Chapter Ⅵ concludes the further discussion on the exclusion of evidence of illegal interception of communications and questions in the foregoing chapters of this dissertation. And the conclusion and suggestions are provided in this chapter.

碩士
東吳大學
會計學系
92
Tax incentives are a means for “tax reduction & exemption” that are offered by government to achieve a specific purpose. The equipment or technologies used for automation investment tax credit of the existing tax incentive in Taiwan have been in effect since the Investment Incentive Act. The Research & Development and Personnel Training Expenses investment tax credit rate exceeds Business Profit Tax rate after many amendments. Therefore, the effect of investment tax credit is valued by industry, government, and academic institutes. The scope of tax inventive introduced in this text includes the investment tax credit of automation equipment and technology; also, the investment tax credit of R&D and personnel training expenses. Take the listed company that was incorporated in one of the cities (counties) before 1998 for example, it bases the data of 1998~2002 to study the impact of tax incentives on operating performance; also, it studies whether there is a time difference between tax incentive and operating performance. Without a doubt, there is a positive relation between the operating performance of the industry and the amount of investment tax credit for automation equipment or technology; however, the test result is insignificant statistically. Moreover, it is proven to be true that there is a time difference between the investment tax credit of automation equipment or technology and operating performance; however, the test result is insignificant statistically. It could be that even though the tax incentive of automation equipment and technology helps reduce operating cost; however, even though the invested equipment does help minimize manpower or improve efficiency it does not help improve operating performance immediately that is already one term or several terms behind, or, it could be that the expense for automation equipment is insufficient to generate effective operating performance. There is a positive relation between operating performance and the investment tax credit of R&D and personnel training expenses; moreover, the test result is significant statistically. There is a time difference between the investment tax credit of R&D and personnel training expense and operating performance; moreover, the test result is significant statistically. Although, the R&D and personnel training expense is booked in the year, the effect does defer into the future.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
104
Both Article 12 and Article 14 of the Labor Standards Act are defined as the termination of a contract without giving advance notice to the employer by significant cause under the Article 489 of Civil Code. There is significant research on Article 12 resulting in numerous theories. However, research for Article 14 is hard to find. Among them, Act Article 14, Paragraph 1, Subparagraph 6 of the Labor Standards Act served as general clause of termination of a contract without giving advance notice to the employer by significant cause and this accounts for over 60% of relevant court judgments. Therefore, this thesis focused on Article 14, Paragraph 1, Subparagraph 6. It analyzes the requisite elements of Subparagraph 6 in court judgments over the past few decades. The thesis uses Subparagraph 6 to classify situations where labor declares the reason of termination and further look into labor contracts and regulations and how the court defines when an employer breaches a labor contract or violates any labor statute or administrative regulation in a manner likely to adversely affect the rights and interests of the particular worker. The thesis also analyzes the command disputes in Subparagraph 6, displaying the disputed issue and the trend for future judgements of clause 14, to be the cornerstone of the study of Article 14 of the Labor Standards Act.

碩士
南臺科技大學
財經法律研究所
106
Dismissal is a form of labor contract termination by the employer, which is the most severe measure taken by an employer for reasons of the employee. In Taiwan, the action of firing employees is mainly based on the provisions of Item 1, Article 12 of the Labor Standard Act. At the same time, provisions of Item 1, Article 12 are subject to the exclusion period of Item 2 of the same Article. This paper discusses the doctrinal dismissal based on Paragraph 4, Paragraph 6, Item 1, Article 12 of the Labor Standard Act. In addition, this paper also reviews the application of Paragraph 4, Paragraph 6, Item 1, Article 12 of the Labor Standard Act in practice through the practical insights and court judgment cases, and finds out the common dismissal of each provision for the source of the law in reality. After the practical case analysis and induction, this paper describes the dismissal. In Taiwan, companies have established the dismissal procedure (such as the system of three demerits) and organizations similar to the personnel evaluation council as part of the procedure before the dismissal. However, there still seems to be deficiencies in the right of offering an explanation and the provision of appeal channels before the dismissal of employees. This paper argued that the right of offering an explanation and the provision of appeal channels can avoid lawsuits of dismissal disputes, which can serve as a direction for future efforts. Therefore, as for dismissal, this part is the focus that should be reinforced now. According to the basis of dismissal, in accordance with the actual operation of Item 1, Article 12 of the Labor Standard Act, the actual practice of Paragraph 1, Paragraph 2 and Paragraph 5 is mostly not separated from the original provisions. As for Paragraph 4, due to the “severe violation” in the provision is the dismissal derived from the uncertain legal concept, in addition to causing the largest number of cases, it also has the problems of too large covering range. The controversy of “absenteeism” in Paragraph 6 is mostly caused by other disputes between the employer and the employee, such as work transfer, leave disputes and the recovery of working hours. Therefore, as for common dismissals, through the analysis of practical cases and court judgments, this paper establishes the systematic and general judgment standard and provides reference for employers while carrying out the dismissal based on accumulated court judgments. In addition, the Principle of the Final Means of judging whether dismissal is reasonable tends to be gradually valued in practice. Since this principle lacks general usage standards in the case of this paper, it is still necessary to establish the judgment standard in the future.

碩士
淡江大學
日本研究所碩士班
94
About “The Abolition of the Death Penalty”, it has been the tide and trend internationally. It indeed is helpful to protect and promote the human rights., therefore, numerous International Communities’ NGO are in response to abolish the inhuman Death Penalty to protect humanity righteousness and enhancement. Based on the constitution of Japan and Article 6 of the ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), the framework of the Thesis has been constructed from that and also evolved to prove that “The Abolition of the Death Penalty” been paid much attention by the International Communities. Then gradually focus on Japan Constitution’s relevant article to see how to define the Right of Life, and even the analysis of life right’s protection. Moreover, continue to have more research and discussion about impetus of “The Abolition of the Death Penalty” by further focusing on the Article 6 of the ICCPR and the Article 36 of the Japan Constitution. According to the misunderstanding of “The Abolition of the Death Penalty” from those past traditional theory and people, we expect “The Abolition of the Death Penalty” can be highlight and respected much more on the path of life right development, through this Thesis’ counterevidence and interpretation. Moreover, for the Article 36 of the Japan Constitution to explore its ism of “The Abolition of the Death Penalty ”, guide its framework and also do the research of Death Penalty’s erroneous judgment and re-judgment false accusation after Death Penalty. By the Article 6 of the ICCPR, to know the expectation of “The Abolition of the Death Penalty”, finally, to find the conclusion of the Article 6 of ICCPR’s goal of “The Abolition of the Death Penalty”. With the experience in Europe and America which replacing Death Penalty by life imprisonment, let it be the example of learning in Japan instead of harangue but by concrete action.

In the decades after attaining independence from its colonial masters, Rwanda’s two principal ethnic groups, the Hutus and the Tutsis, suffered worsening tensions which often resulted in the perpetration of atrocities. Peace agreements brokered by the international community did not ease these ethnic tensions. In April 1994, the ethnic crisis took a different dimension following the assassination of the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi. A full-blown genocide was committed by the Hutus who targeted their Tutsi and Hutu-moderates victims because of their ethnic identity and tolerant political views respectively. In a hundred days, about a million Tutsis and Hutu-moderates were massacred. Gross violations of human rights had been committed. The planning, preparation and execution of these atrocities were done by almost everyone within the Hutu majority: the leadership (both civilian and military), business men, the clergy, artists, professors, journalists, militias, the commoners, and other civil society actors. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) under the leadership of General Paul Kagame overthrew the Rwandan Armed Forces (RAF) and brought the genocide to an end. In an effort to build a government of national unity, the Government of Rwanda under the leadership of President Paul Kagame requested the United Nations Security Council to establish a tribunal for the trial of persons who bear responsibility for the atrocities committed in Rwanda. In response to this request, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 955 (8 November 1994) creating the second United Nations’ ad hoc international criminal tribunal, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). Annexed to Resolution 955 was the Statute of the ICTR. The Statute gave the Tribunal jurisdiction over three crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity and violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II. Amongst other things, it also defined on which individuals it would impose criminal responsibility. The definition of genocide and the punishable acts as contained in the Statute of the ICTR (Article 2) were simply imported from the United Nations’ Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948 (Article III). One of these punishable acts is direct and public incitement to commit genocide (Article 2(3)(c) of the Statute of the ICTR). As seen in Article 6(1) of the Statute of the ICTR, there are five different modes of participation that would lead to the imposition of criminal responsibility: planning, instigating, ordering, committing or otherwise aiding and abetting. Instigation is one of these modes of participation. An examination of the jurisprudence of both the Trial and Appeal Chambers of the ICTR reveals that there is an overlap between direct and public incitement to commit genocide under Article 2(3)(c) and instigation as a mode of participation under Article 6(1). The Trial and Appeal Chambers have contributed enormously to the development of the jurisprudence of direct and public incitement to commit genocide under Article 2(3)(c). Now settled as an inchoate crime in international criminal law, criminal responsibility is imposed irrespective of whether the direct and public incitement successfully results in the commission of genocide. On the other hand, instigation is one of the modes of participation which would lead to the imposition of criminal responsibility. Participation under Article 6(1) is not limited to any particular crime, but extends to all the crimes over which the ICTR has jurisdiction – genocide, crimes against humanity and violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II. The jurisprudence of the Trial and Appeal Chambers on Article 6(1) states that criminal responsibility can only be imposed where it is proved that the accused’s mode of participation substantially contributed to the commission of the crime. Therefore, instigation, which is one of the modes of participation, must be shown to have substantially contributed to the commission of the crime for criminal responsibility to be imposed. In my opinion, this requirement of substantial contribution for the imposition of criminal responsibility is wrong. It emanates from a poor understanding of Article 6(1) and the construction of the words therein. It is a judicial invention which does not square with established principles of criminal responsibility in general and inchoate crimes in particular. This thesis critiques the jurisprudence of the ICTR on instigation as a mode of participation under Article 6(1). Instigation is a recognised mode of participation in international crimes. Under the common law system, it is also an inchoate crime. International instruments and the jurisprudence of the Trial and Appeal Chambers have recognised the inchoate nature of incitement. However, in the construction of Article 6(1) wherein instigation features as a mode of participation, the Trial and Appeal Chambers erred. I illustrate in this thesis that a correct construction and understanding of Article 6(1) shows its inchoate and bifurcated character: first, any of the modes of participation must lead to any of the stages of any of the crimes (planning, preparation or execution). These modes of participation are not limited to any particular crime. Therefore, if instigation leads to the planning or preparation of any of the crimes, that renders it inchoate (which is understood to mean a criminal activity that is incomplete, still at its initial stage). Second, the imposition of criminal responsibility is bifurcated. In other words, it must go through two stages: first, there must be a mode of participation, and second, it must lead to any of the stages of the crimes. Third, the substantial contribution requirement does not square with a strict construction of Article 6(1). In articulating the different stages that a mode of participation must lead to, it states ‘planning, preparation or execution’ of any of the crimes. The use of a disjunctive word ‘or’ rather than a conjunctive word ‘and’ suggests that any of the modes of participation that leads to any of these stages (planning, preparation or execution) of any of these crimes (genocide, crimes against humanity, violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II) would suffice. Therefore, to require that there must be a substantial contribution to commission of a crime before criminal responsibility can be imposed under Article 6(1) is a clear limitation to the last stage of the crime, which is execution (or commission). As evidenced by the cases tried at the Tribunal, Article 2(3)(c) which addresses the inchoate crime of direct and public incitement to commit genocide and Article 6(1) which deals with the imposition of criminal responsibility, do overlap. In other words, incitement that qualifies as direct and public incitement to commit genocide under Article 2(3)(c) may as well qualify as instigation to any of the crimes over which the ICTR has jurisdiction under Article 6(1). From the delivery of its first judgment in the case of The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu,1 the Trial Chambers did not recognise the confluence 1 Judgment, Case No. ICTR-96-4. T. Ch. I, 2 September 1998. between these two Articles. However, in the case of The Prosecutor v Callixte Kalimanzira,2 the Trial Chambers made this observation, and outlined a set of guidelines on how to resolve cases of overlap. Though a colossal step in fixing this problem, the guidelines are faulted because they repeat the same mistakes made by previous Trial Chambers: first, they limit instigation only to genocide even under Article 6(1); second, they still hold that criminal responsibility can be imposed under Article 6(1) only when it is proved that the mode of participation substantially contributed to the commission of the crime. While it resonates with conventional wisdom today that incitement, synonymous with instigation, is limited to the crime of genocide, this thesis critiques the jurisprudence of both the Trial and Appeal Chambers of the ICTR and argues that instigation is a mode of participation in crimes against humanity following a strict construction of Article 6(1). Furthermore, incitement that qualifies as ‘direct and public incitement’ to commit genocide under Article 2(3)(c) may also qualify as instigation to commit genocide, crimes against humanity, or both under Article 6(1). Third, ‘direct and public incitement’ to commit genocide under Article 2(3)(c) is limited to the crime of genocide, and must fulfil the caveats of ‘direct’ and ‘public’. Meanwhile, instigation under Article 6(1) does not need to meet any requirement as long as it leads to the ‘planning, preparation or execution’ of any of the crimes over which the ICTR has jurisdiction. The poor construction of Article 6(1) has resulted in huge controversies about instigation as a mode of participation in crimes over which the ICTR has jurisdiction under Article 6(1). More specifically, instigation, which is one of the modes, overlaps with the wording of Article 2(3)(c) which deals with the inchoate crime of direct and public incitement to commit genocide. The substantial contribution requirement is a judicial invention which does not align squarely with established principles of criminal responsibility for inchoate crimes. It is the unfortunate outcome of a poor construction of Article 6(1) and has orchestrated a confused understanding of instigation as a mode of participation. It has blurred and obfuscated instigation as a mode of participation in crimes against humanity; stagnated the evolution of the jurisprudence on instigation to 2 Judgment, Case No. ICTR-05-88-T, T. Ch. III, 22 June 2009. commit crimes against humanity; and above all, propelled international criminal law on an ambitious and controversial mission from which it must retreat

Dissertação de Mestrado em Direito apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
A presente pesquisa se justifica devido ao intenso fluxo migratório que tem ocorrido via Mar Mediterrâneo e o consequente desrespeito aos direitos humanos dos refugiados por alguns países. Analisou-se a proteção internacional dos refugiados, o direito de asilo na Europa e em alguns países europeus, o princípio da não-repulsão e a proteção internacional do indivíduo no mar, fazendo uma análise de alguns casos decididos pelo Tribunal Europeu dos Direitos Humanos - TEDH e outros dois que não foram analisados pelo mencionado Tribunal, porém relacionados ao tema do presente trabalho. Assim, demonstrou-se que os Estados têm o dever de assistência, de busca e salvamento no mar e de proteger aqueles que necessitam de proteção, não enviando os migrantes de volta à situação de perseguição ou em situações em que a vida pode estar em risco, ou seja, não violando o princípio da não-repulsão. Para este estudo utilizou-se o método dedutivo, aplicando técnicas de pesquisa bibliográfica com consultas em livros, revistas eletrônicas, legislação e pesquisa jurisprudencial. Chegou-se à conclusão de que, apesar do dever de assistência, de busca e salvamento no mar, os Estados têm o dever de respeitar o princípio da não-repulsão, não enviando os migrantes às situações de tortura e tratamento desumanos e degradantes (conforme há a proibição no artigo 3º da Convenção Europeia dos Direitos Humanos - CEDH). Muitos Estados europeus cometem violações dos direitos humanos dos refugiados repetidas vezes, seja colocando-os em campos de refugiados em situações precárias, seja enviando-os de volta para locais que não são seguros, seja repelindo-os coletivamente (violação ao artigo 4º do Protocolo nº4 da CEDH), ou quer deixando os migrantes à deriva causando acidentes, etc.; assim, notou-se que as condenações realizadas pelo TEDH não são suficientes para inibir novas ações violadoras dos Estados, tampouco para ressarcir os danos causados para os migrantes. Dessa forma, deve haver uma mudança de mentalidade tanto das autoridades como da comunidade internacional em prol da proteção das pessoas que precisam de ajuda, inclusive, criar medidas ou sanções internacionais eficazes, na esfera diplomática, política e econômica, como forma de punir o país infrator; também devem ser adotadas medidas eficazes que não sobrecarregam os Estados de entrada, sendo este um dos pontos da proposta do Novo Pacto Sobre Migração e Asilo, que ainda necessita de aprovação do Conselho da UE e do Parlamento Europeu.
The present research is justified due to the intense migratory flow that has occurred via the Mediterranean Sea and consequent disrespect for the human rights of refugees by some countries. The international protection of refugees, the right of asylum in Europe and in some European countries, the principle of non-refoulement and the international protection of the individual at sea were analyzed and it makes an analysis of some cases decided by the European Court of Human Rights - ECHR and two others that were not analyzed by the mentioned Court but related to the theme of the present work. Thus, it was demonstrated that States have a duty to assist, search and rescue at sea and to protect those in need of protection by not sending migrants back to persecution or in situations where life may be at risk , that is, not violating the principle of non-refoulement. For this study, the deductive method was used, bibliographic research techniques with consultations in books, electronic journals, legislation, and precedents research were applied. It was concluded that, despite the duty of assistance, search and rescue at the sea, the States have a duty to respect the principle of non-refoulement, not sending migrants to situations of inhuman and degrading torture and treatment (according to the prohibition in Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights - ECHR). Many European States repeatedly violate the human rights of refugees, either by placing them in refugee camps in precarious situations, or by sending them back to places that are not safe, or by repelling them collectively (violation of Article 4 of Protocol number 4 of the ECHR), or either leaving migrants adrift causing accidents, etc.; thus, it was noted that the condemnations carried out by the ECHR are not sufficient to inhibit new violating actions by States, nor to compensate for the damage caused to migrants. Thus, there must be a change in mentality of both the authorities and the international community in favor of protecting people who need help, including, creating effective international measures or sanctions, in the diplomatic, political and economic spheres as a way to punish the offending country; effective measures must also be taken in order not to burden the State of entry, this being one of the points of the proposal of the New Pact on Migration and Asylum which still needs approval from the EU Council and the European Parliament.

A elevação da proteção legal da propriedade intelectual ao plano do comércio internacional, via Acordo TRIPS, acentuou o clássico conflito entre a inovação e o acesso, em especial no campo farmacêutico e médico. Foi provocada uma revolução na transferência informal de tecnologia e no licenciamento obrigatório. O Direito da OMC, norteado pelo princípio da proteção exclusivamente aduaneira, tradicionalmente legitima barreiras ao comércio, contra a lógica da OMC, enquanto medidas de proteção da saúde pública. Em contraste, a solução de Doha, convertida em Emenda ao Acordo TRIPS sob o Artigo 31bis, foi a resposta ao protecionismo consagrado pelo próprio Direito da OMC. Sobre o Artigo 31bis do Acordo TRIPS, centro da controvérsia, subjaz um significativo ceticismo. Assinala-se o seu uso apenas uma única vez. A saúde pública, aliada ao comércio, é cada vez mais global. O Direito da OMC, enquanto encoraja a inovação médica a nível global, abriga uma valiosa rota de acesso a medicamentos e outras tecnologias médicas que não pode ser abandonada pelo teatro internacional.
The elevation of the legal protection of intellectual property to the realm of international trade, via the TRIPS Agreement, accentuated the classic conflict between innovation and access, especially in the pharmaceutical and medical areas. A revolution was triggered in the informal transfer of technology and compulsory licensing. The WTO Law, guided by the principle of general elimination of quantitative restrictions, traditionally legitimizes barriers to trade, against the logic of the WTO, as measures to protect public health. In contrast, the Doha solution, converted into an Amendment to the TRIPS Agreement under Article 31bis, was the response to the protectionism treasured in the WTO Law itself. There is a significant skepticism about Article 31bis of the TRIPS Agreement, which is at the heart of the controversy. Its use is noted only once. Public Health, combined with trade, is increasingly performed on a global scale. The WTO Law, while encourages global medical innovation, houses a valuable route of access to medicines and other medical technologies that cannot be abandoned by the international community.