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1
Šimončicová, Juliana, Barbora Kaliňáková, and Svetlana Kryštofová. "Aflatoxins: biosynthesis, prevention and eradication." Acta Chimica Slovaca 10, no. 2 (2017): 123–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/acs-2017-0021.
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AbstractFilamentous fungi belonging to Aspergilli genera produce many compounds through various biosynthetic pathways. These compounds include a spectrum of products with beneficial medical properties (lovastatin) as well as those that are toxic and/or carcinogenic which are called mycotoxins. Aspergillus flavus, one of the most abundant soil-borne fungi, is a saprobe that is able growing on many organic nutrient sources, such as peanuts, corn and cotton seed. In many countries, food contamination by A. flavus is a huge problem, mainly due to the production of the most toxic and carcinogenic compounds known as aflatoxins. In this paper, we briefly cover current progress in aflatoxin biosynthesis and regulation, pre- and postharvest preventive measures, and decontamination procedures.
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Sipos, Péter, Ferenc Peles, Dóra Lili Brassó, et al. "Physical and Chemical Methods for Reduction in Aflatoxin Content of Feed and Food." Toxins 13, no. 3 (2021): 204. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13030204.
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Aflatoxins (AFs) are among the most harmful fungal secondary metabolites imposing serious health risks on both household animals and humans. The more frequent occurrence of aflatoxins in the feed and food chain is clearly foreseeable as a consequence of the extreme weather conditions recorded most recently worldwide. Furthermore, production parameters, such as unadjusted variety use and improper cultural practices, can also increase the incidence of contamination. In current aflatoxin control measures, emphasis is put on prevention including a plethora of pre-harvest methods, introduced to control Aspergillus infestations and to avoid the deleterious effects of aflatoxins on public health. Nevertheless, the continuous evaluation and improvement of post-harvest methods to combat these hazardous secondary metabolites are also required. Already in-use and emerging physical methods, such as pulsed electric fields and other nonthermal treatments as well as interventions with chemical agents such as acids, enzymes, gases, and absorbents in animal husbandry have been demonstrated as effective in reducing mycotoxins in feed and food. Although most of them have no disadvantageous effect either on nutritional properties or food safety, further research is needed to ensure the expected efficacy. Nevertheless, we can envisage the rapid spread of these easy-to-use, cost-effective, and safe post-harvest tools during storage and food processing.
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Kemboi, David Chebutia, Gunther Antonissen, Phillis E. Ochieng, et al. "A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa." Toxins 12, no. 4 (2020): 222. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040222.
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Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that contaminate food and feed and have a significant negative impact on human and animal health and productivity. The tropical condition in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) together with poor storage of feed promotes fungal growth and subsequent mycotoxin production. Aflatoxins (AF) produced by Aspergillus species, fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin (T-2), and deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium species, and ochratoxin A (OTA) produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species are well-known mycotoxins of agricultural importance. Consumption of feed contaminated with these toxins may cause mycotoxicoses in animals, characterized by a range of clinical signs depending on the toxin, and losses in the animal industry. In SSA, contamination of dairy feed with mycotoxins has been frequently reported, which poses a serious constraint to animal health and productivity, and is also a hazard to human health since some mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in milk, especially aflatoxin M1. This review describes the major mycotoxins, their occurrence, and impact in dairy cattle diets in SSA highlighting the problems related to animal health, productivity, and food safety and the up-to-date post-harvest mitigation strategies for the prevention and reduction of contamination of dairy feed.
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PALUMBO, Roberta, Ana GONÇALVES, Athanasios GKRILLAS, et al. "Mycotoxins in maize: mitigation actions, with a chain management approach." Phytopathologia Mediterranea 59, no. 1 (2020): 5–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/phyto-11142.
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Maize is the principal staple food/feed crop exposed to mycotoxins, and the co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins and their metabolites has been well documented. This review presents the infection cycle, ecology, and plant-pathogen interactions of Aspergillus and Fusarium species in maize, and current knowledge on maize chain management to mitigate the occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins. Preventive actions include at pre-harvest, as part of cropping systems, at harvest, and at post-harvest, through storage, processing, and detoxification to minimize consumer exposure. Preventive actions in the field have been recognized as efficient for reducing the entrance of mycotoxins into production chains. Biological control of Aspergillus flavus has been recognized to minimize contamination with aflatoxins. Post-harvest maize grain management is also crucial to complete preventive actions, and has been made mandatory in government food and feed legislation.
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Yang, Kunlong, Qingru Geng, Fengqin Song, et al. "Transcriptome Sequencing Revealed an Inhibitory Mechanism of Aspergillus flavus Asexual Development and Aflatoxin Metabolism by Soy-Fermenting Non-Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 19 (2020): 6994. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21196994.
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Aflatoxins (AFs) have always been regarded as the most effective carcinogens, posing a great threat to agriculture, food safety, and human health. Aspergillus flavus is the major producer of aflatoxin contamination in crops. The prevention and control of A. flavus and aflatoxin continues to be a global problem. In this study, we demonstrated that the cell-free culture filtrate of Aspergillus oryzae and a non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus can effectively inhibit the production of AFB1 and the growth and reproduction of A. flavus, indicating that both of the non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains secrete inhibitory compounds. Further transcriptome sequencing was performed to analyze the inhibitory mechanism of A. flavus treated with fermenting cultures, and the results revealed that genes involved in the AF biosynthesis pathway and other biosynthetic gene clusters were significantly downregulated, which might be caused by the reduced expression of specific regulators, such as AflS, FarB, and MtfA. The WGCNA results further revealed that genes involved in the TCA cycle and glycolysis were potentially involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Our comparative transcriptomics also revealed that two conidia transcriptional factors, brlA and abaA, were found to be significantly downregulated, which might lead to the downregulation of conidiation-specific genes, such as the conidial hydrophobins genes rodA and rodB. In summary, our research provides new insights for the molecular mechanism of controlling AF synthesis to control the proliferation of A. flavus and AF pollution.
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Yang, Mingguan, Laifeng Lu, Shuhua Li, et al. "Transcriptomic Insights into Benzenamine Effects on the Development, Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, and Virulence of Aspergillus flavus." Toxins 11, no. 2 (2019): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020070.
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Aspergillus flavus is a soilborne pathogenic fungus that poses a serious public health threat due to it contamination of food with carcinogenic aflatoxins. Our previous studies have demonstrated that benzenamine displayed strong inhibitory effects on the mycelial growth of A. flavus. In this study, we systematically investigated the inhibitory effects of benzenamine on the development, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and virulence in A. flavus, as well as the underlying mechanism. The results indicated that benzenamine exhibited great capacity to combat A. flavus at a concentration of 100 µL/L, leading to significantly decreased aflatoxin accumulation and colonization capacity in maize. The transcriptional profile revealed that 3589 genes show altered mRNA levels in the A. flavus after treatment with benzenamine, including 1890 down-regulated and 1699 up-regulated genes. Most of the differentially expressed genes participated in the biosynthesis and metabolism of amino acid, purine metabolism, and protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum. Additionally, the results brought us to a suggestion that benzenamine affects the development, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and pathogenicity of A. flavus via down-regulating related genes by depressing the expression of the global regulatory factor leaA. Overall, this study indicates that benzenamine have tremendous potential to act as a fumigant against pathogenic A. flavus. Furthermore, this work offers valuable information regarding the underlying antifungal mechanism of benzenamine against A. flavus at the level of transcription, and these potential targets may be conducive in developing new strategies for preventing aflatoxin contamination.
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Gómez-Albarrán, Carolina, Clara Melguizo, Belén Patiño, Covadonga Vázquez, and Jéssica Gil-Serna. "Diversity of Mycobiota in Spanish Grape Berries and Selection of Hanseniaspora uvarum U1 to Prevent Mycotoxin Contamination." Toxins 13, no. 9 (2021): 649. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090649.
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The occurrence of mycotoxins on grapes poses a high risk for food safety; thus, it is necessary to implement effective prevention methods. In this work, a metagenomic approach revealed the presence of important mycotoxigenic fungi in grape berries, including Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger aggregate species, or Aspergillus section Circumdati. However, A. carbonarius was not detected in any sample. One of the samples was not contaminated by any mycotoxigenic species, and, therefore, it was selected for the isolation of potential biocontrol agents. In this context, Hanseniaspora uvarum U1 was selected for biocontrol in vitro assays. The results showed that this yeast is able to reduce the growth rate of the main ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. occurring on grapes. Moreover, H. uvarum U1 seems to be an effective detoxifying agent for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, probably mediated by the mechanisms of adsorption to the cell wall and other active mechanisms. Therefore, H. uvarum U1 should be considered in an integrated approach to preventing AFB1 and OTA in grapes due to its potential as a biocontrol and detoxifying agent.
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COSENTINO, SOFIA, ANDREA BARRA, BARBARA PISANO, MADDALENA CABIZZA, FILIPPO MARIA PIRISI, and FRANCESCA PALMAS. "Composition and Antimicrobial Properties of Sardinian Juniperus Essential Oils against Foodborne Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms." Journal of Food Protection 66, no. 7 (2003): 1288–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-66.7.1288.
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In this work, the chemical compositions and antimicrobial properties of Juniperus essential oils and of their main components were determined. Five berry essential oils obtained from different species of Juniperus growing wild in Sardinia were analyzed. The components of the essential oils were identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. The antimicrobial activities of the oils and their components against food spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms were determined by a broth microdilution method. The GC-MS analysis showed a certain variability in the concentrations of the main constituents of the oils. α-Pinene was largely predominant in the oils of the species J. phoenicea subsp. turbinata and J. oxycedrus. α-Pinene and myrcene constituted the bulk (67.56%) of the essential oil of J. communis. Significant quantitative differences were observed for myrcene, δ-3-carene, and d-germacrene. The results of the antimicrobial assay show that the oils of J. communis and J. oxycedrus failed to inhibit any of the microorganisms at the highest concentrations tested (MLC ≥ 900 μg/ml), while the oils extracted from J. turbinata specimens were active against fungi, particularly against a strain of Aspergillus flavus (an aflatoxin B1 producer). Of the single compounds tested, δ-3-carene was found to possess the broadest spectrum of activity and appeared to contribute significantly to the antifungal activity observed for J. turbinata oils. This activity may be helpful in the prevention of aflatoxin contamination for many foods.
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Womack, E. D., D. L. Sparks, and A. E. Brown. "Aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk products: a short review." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 2 (2016): 305–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2014.1867.
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Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is associated with carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and teratogenicity and as a result, represents a human health problem worldwide. This review will detail the toxicity, analytical methodology, occurrence, and prevention and control of AFM1 in milk and milk products. The probable daily intakes (PDI) per bodyweight (bw) worldwide ranged from 0.002 to 0.26 ng/kg bw/day for AFM1. Nevertheless, the high occurrence of AFM1 demonstrated in this review establishes the need for monitoring to reduce the risk of toxicity to humans. The recommended extraction method of AFM1 from milk is liquid-liquid with acetonitrile because of the acceptable recoveries (85-97%), compatibility with the environment, and cleanest extracts. The recommended analytical technique for the determination of AFM1 in milk is the high performance-liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD), achieving a 0.001 µg/kg detection limit. The HPLC-FLD is the most common internationally recognised official method for the analysis of AFM1 in milk. The suggested extraction and analytical method for cheese is dichloromethane (81-108% recoveries) and ELISA, respectively. This review reports the projected worldwide occurrence of AFM1 in milk of 2010-2015. Of the 7,841 samples, 5,873 (75%) were positive for AFM1, 26% (2,042) exceeded the maximum residue levels (MRL) of 0.05 µg/kg defined by the European Union and 1.53% (120) exceeded the MRL of 0.5 µg/kg defined by the US Food and Drug Administration. The most effective way of preventing AFM1 occurrences is to reduce contamination of AFB1 in animal feed using biological control with atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus, proper storage of crops, and the addition of binders to AFB1-contaminated feed. Controllable measures include the addition of binders and use of biological transforming agents such as lactic acid bacteria applied directly to milk. Though the one accepted method for the control of AFM1 in milk and milk products is the enforcement of governmental MRL.
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Ren, Xianfeng, Qi Zhang, Wen Zhang, Jin Mao, and Peiwu Li. "Control of Aflatoxigenic Molds by Antagonistic Microorganisms: Inhibitory Behaviors, Bioactive Compounds, Related Mechanisms, and Influencing Factors." Toxins 12, no. 1 (2020): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12010024.
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Aflatoxin contamination has been causing great concern worldwide due to the major economic impact on crop production and their toxicological effects to human and animals. Contamination can occur in the field, during transportation, and also in storage. Post-harvest contamination usually derives from the pre-harvest infection of aflatoxigenic molds, especially aflatoxin-producing Aspergilli such as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Many strategies preventing aflatoxigenic molds from entering food and feed chains have been reported, among which biological control is becoming one of the most praised strategies. The objective of this article is to review the biocontrol strategy for inhibiting the growth of and aflatoxin production by aflatoxigenic fungi. This review focuses on comparing inhibitory behaviors of different antagonistic microorganisms including various bacteria, fungi and yeasts. We also reviewed the bioactive compounds produced by microorganisms and the mechanisms leading to inhibition. The key factors influencing antifungal activities of antagonists are also discussed in this review.
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di M’balu Joachim, Umba, Masimango N. Thaddée, and Mvumbi Lelo. "Inhibition du développement de l’Aspergillus flavus par l’acide acétique: Analyse de trois expériences réalisées à Kinshasa- RD Congo." Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences 45, no. 1 (2020): 7809–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.35759/janmplsci.v45-1.5.
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L’Aspergillus flavus est un champignon cosmopolite, très répandu dans la nature et susceptible de contaminer plusieurs aliments. C’est un champignon qui fait beaucoup parler de lui depuis qu’on a découvert qu’il secrète de métabolites hautement toxiques, les aflatoxines, cancérigènes et exerçant d’autres effets nuisibles sur la santé des hommes et des animaux. En effet, les aflatoxines sont de métabolites toxiques secondaires biosynthétisés par certaines souches de micromycètes, notamment Aspergillus flavus. (En fait le terme est un moyen mnémotechnique pour dire : toxines d’Aspergillus flavus).Elles sont produites lorsque les champignons se trouvent dans des conditions de forte humidité relative (80-90%) conjointement à une température élevée (20-30°C).Les dégâts imputables aux aflatoxines sont nombreux aussi bien sur le plan de la santé (humaine et animale) que sur l’économie. En considérant que les mycotoxines ne peuvent jamais être complètement absentes ou éliminées des denrées alimentaires, divers moyens de lutte biologique, chimique ou physique empêchant le développement du champignon produisant l’Aspergillus flavus ont été essayés. L’objectif de ce travail est de faire connaître trois expériences de lutte des aflatoxines par l’acide acétique et de comparer si les résultats obtenus avec les extraits de caieux d’Allium sativum et d’écorces racinaires de Diospyros heterosictricha utilisé comme biopesticides pour inhiber la croissance mycélienne d’Aspergillus flavus. Il ressort des analyses que l’acide acétique exerce effectivement un pouvoir inhibiteur à des pourcentages différents sur le développement de l’Aspergillus flavus. La dose minimale efficace varie d’un auteur à un autre même lorsque les essais sont effectués dans de conditions comparables mais surtout en fonction de dilution. La dose minimale efficace d’inhibition d’Aspergillus flavus est située à 400 ppm (0,04%) estiment certains auteurs. Par contre, d’autres pensent qu’elle est comprise entre 0,02 ml à 15 ml. ABSTRACT Aspergillus flavus is a cosmopolitan fungus, widely distributed in nature and capable of contaminating several foods. It is a mushroom that has been talked about a lot since it was discovered that it secretes highly toxic metabolites, the aflatoxins, carcinogens and having other harmful effects on the health of humans and animals. Aflatoxins are secondary toxic Umba et al., 2020 Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences (J.Anim.Plant Sci. ISSN 2071-7024) Vol.45 (1): 7809-7821 https://doi.org/10.35759/JAnmPlSci.v45-1.5 7810 metabolites biosynthesized by certain strains of micromycetes, notably Aspergillus flavus. (In fact the term is a mnemonic means to say: toxins of Aspergillus flavus). They are produced when the mushrooms are in conditions of high relative humidity (80-90%) together with a high temperature (20-30°C). The damage attributable to aflatoxins is numerous both in terms of health (human and animal) and in terms of the economy. Considering that mycotoxins can never be completely absent or eliminated from food, various means of biological, chemical or physical control preventing the development of the fungus producing Aspergillus flavus have been tried. The objective of this work is to make known three experiences of aflatoxin control by acetic acid and to compare if the results obtained with the extracts of cloves of Allium sativum and root barks of Diospyros heterosictricha used as biopesticides to inhibit the mycelial growth of Aspergillus flavus. Analyses show that acetic acid effectively exerts inhibitory power at different percentages on the development of Aspergillus flavus. The minimum effective dose varies from one author to another even when the tests are carried out under comparable conditions but especially according to dilution. The minimum effective inhibition dose of Aspergillus flavus is located at 400 ppm (0.04%) believe some authors. On the other hand, others think that it is between 0.02 ml to 15 ml.
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Diyaa Aljaza and Basim Turki Alyousif. "Screening of Propyl paraben (PP) for control in situ populations of Aspergillus flavus and AFB1 contamination on stored chilli powder." International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences 11, no. 4 (2020): 6107–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11i4.3283.
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Food spoilage and their contamination with mycotoxins are a significant issue for the food industry, leading to economic losses and a negative impact on public health all over the world. The objective of this study was to examine the preventive effect of different concentrations of Propylparaben (PP) for control of fungal populations and aflatoxin b1 (AFB1) contamination of stored chilli powder in both artificially and naturally contaminations. These treatments were examined at two different water activity (aw) levels (0.90 and 0.95 aw) in stored chilli powder at 30oC for 20 days. The total populations of A. flavus isolated from both artificially and naturally contamination of stored chilli powder at 30oC were significantly reduced by using PP treatments especially, with 2000 ppm. In additions, the AFB1 production was reduced when increased PP concentration compared to the untreated control. In conclusion, the economic and health impacts related to Aspergillus and AFB1 contamination could be minimised by adding PP as a food-grade preservative to stored chilli powder, Results show From a human health perspective, the use of PP is allowed as a food preservative by the (IARC) and (WHO). It must use according to legislation doses (0.1%) introduced by the law of (GRAS) regulations.
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Damann Jr., K. E. "Atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus biological control of aflatoxin contamination: what is the mechanism?" World Mycotoxin Journal 8, no. 2 (2015): 235–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2014.1719.
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The term ‘competitive exclusion’ involving physical blockage of growth or access of the toxigenic strain to the seed target has been used to describe the mechanism of biological control of aflatoxin contamination. However, recent evidence suggests that a form of intraspecific aflatoxin inhibition requiring growth of the competing strains together during the infection process in such a way that hyphae physically interact or touch is the trigger for preventing induction of aflatoxin synthesis. This direct touch-based inhibition of aflatoxin synthesis is posited to be the mechanistic basis of biological control in this system. Evidence for this idea comes from the published observations that co-culture of toxigenic and atoxigenic strains in a suspended disc system, in which the hyphae physically interact, prevents aflatoxin production. However, growth of the same strains in the same medium in the two compartments of a filter insert plate well system, separating the atoxigenic and toxigenic strains with a 0.4 μm or 3.0 μm filter, allows aflatoxin production approaching that of the toxigenic strain alone. When the strains are mixed and placed in both the insert and the well compartments, the intraspecific aflatoxin inhibition occurs as it did in the suspended disc culture system. This further suggests that neither nutrient competition nor soluble signal molecules, which should pass through the filter, are involved in intraspecific aflatoxin inhibition. When the two strains are separated by a 12 μm filter that would allow some passage of conidia or hyphae between the compartments the aflatoxin synthesis is approximately half that of the toxigenic strain alone. This phenomenon could be termed ‘competitive inclusion’ or ‘competitive phenotype conversion’. Work of others that relates to understanding the phenomenon is discussed, as well as an Aspergillus flavus population biology study from the Louisiana maize agro-ecosystem which has biological control implications.
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Aishwarya, B., G. S. Vaidyanathan, Avaya Manivannan, et al. "Detection and Biodetoxification of Aflatoxins in Food." Asian Journal of Chemistry 33, no. 10 (2021): 2260–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2021.23315.
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Harmful agents such as toxins, chemicals and pollution are causing public health hazards around the world. The food and agriculture sectors in particular are highly sensitive to exposure to toxic waste. Among the various toxic products of microbial extraction, aflatoxin is a deadly mycotoxin produced by the species Aspergillus. Aflatoxin contamination is common in commercial foodstuffs, veterinary foods as well as in cosmetics. However, some viable strategies related to the screening and detection are considered an important response by the scientific community to prevent early-stage contamination, followed by detection or screening approaches. This article presents current study that emphasizes the effectiveness of biosensors as a good indicator of aflatoxin detection strategies and also the detoxification of the identified aflatoxins, which causes food spoilage and industrial losses by physical, chemical and biological methods
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MPHANDE, FINGANI A., BUPE A. SIAME, and JOANNE E. TAYLOR. "Fungi, Aflatoxins, and Cyclopiazonic Acid Associated with Peanut Retailing in Botswana." Journal of Food Protection 67, no. 1 (2004): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-67.1.96.
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Peanuts are important food commodities, but they are susceptible to fungal infestation and mycotoxin contamination. Raw peanuts were purchased from retail outlets in Botswana and examined for fungi and mycotoxin (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid) contamination. Zygomycetes were the most common fungi isolated; they accounted for 41% of all the isolates and were found on 98% of the peanut samples. Among the Zygomycetes, Absidia corymbifera and Rhizopus stolonifer were the most common. Aspergillus spp. accounted for 35% of all the isolates, with Aspergillus niger being the most prevalent (20.4%). Aspergillus flavus/parasiticus were also present and accounted for 8.5% of all the isolates, with A. flavus accounting for the majority of the A. flavus/parasiticus identified. Of the 32 isolates of A. flavus screened for mycotoxin production, 11 did not produce detectable aflatoxins, 8 produced only aflatoxins B1 and B2, and 13 produced all four aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in varying amounts. Only 6 of the A. flavus isolates produced cyclopiazonic acid at concentrations ranging from 1 to 55 μg/kg. The one A. parasiticus isolate screened also produced all the four aflatoxins (1,200 μg/kg) but did not produce cyclopiazonic acid. When the raw peanut samples (n = 120) were analyzed for total aflatoxins, 78% contained aflatoxins at concentrations ranging from 12 to 329 μg/kg. Many of the samples (49%) contained total aflatoxins at concentrations above the 20 μg/kg limit set by the World Health Organization. Only 21% (n = 83) of the samples contained cyclopiazonic acid with concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 μg/kg. The results show that mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi are common contaminants of peanuts sold at retail in Botswana.
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Wacoo, Alex P., Deborah Wendiro, Peter C. Vuzi, and Joseph F. Hawumba. "Methods for Detection of Aflatoxins in Agricultural Food Crops." Journal of Applied Chemistry 2014 (November 13, 2014): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/706291.
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Aflatoxins are toxic carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced predominantly by two fungal species: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These fungal species are contaminants of foodstuff as well as feeds and are responsible for aflatoxin contamination of these agro products. The toxicity and potency of aflatoxins make them the primary health hazard as well as responsible for losses associated with contaminations of processed foods and feeds. Determination of aflatoxins concentration in food stuff and feeds is thus very important. However, due to their low concentration in foods and feedstuff, analytical methods for detection and quantification of aflatoxins have to be specific, sensitive, and simple to carry out. Several methods including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectroscopy, enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA), and electrochemical immunosensor, among others, have been described for detecting and quantifying aflatoxins in foods. Each of these methods has advantages and limitations in aflatoxins analysis. This review critically examines each of the methods used for detection of aflatoxins in foodstuff, highlighting the advantages and limitations of each method. Finally, a way forward for overcoming such obstacles is suggested.
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Tumukunde, E., G. Ma, D. Li, J. Yuan, L. Qin, and S. Wang. "Current research and prevention of aflatoxins in China." World Mycotoxin Journal 13, no. 2 (2020): 121–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2019.2503.
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Since their discovery in the 1960s, aflatoxins were found to have a considerable impact on the health of humans and animals as well as the country’s economy and international trade. Aflatoxins are often found in nuts, cereals and animal feeds, which has a significant danger to the food industry. Over the years, several steps have been undertaken worldwide to minimise their contamination in crops and their exposure to humans and animals. China is one of the largest exporters and importers of food and animal feed. As a result, many studies have been carried out in China related to aflatoxins, including their distribution, pollution, detection methods, monitoring, testing and managing. Chinese scientists studied aflatoxins in microbiological, toxicological, ecological effects as well as policies relating to their controlling. China has thus put into practice a number of strategies aiming at the prevention and control of aflatoxins in order to protect consumers and ensure a safe trade of food and feed, and the status and enlargement of these strategies are very important and useful for many consumers and stakeholders in China. Therefore, this article aims at the detriment assessments, regulations, distribution, detection methods, prevention and control of aflatoxins in China. It equally provides useful information about the recent safety management systems in place to fight the contamination of aflatoxins in food and feed in China.
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Leite, F. M. N., Leite de Souza, J. M. L. de Souza, C. B. da C. Cartaxo, V. de S. Álvares, and C. R. da Cunha. "Incidence of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and aflatoxins in Brazil nuts in the Amazon forest environment." World Mycotoxin Journal 7, no. 2 (2014): 199–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2012.1488.
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This work aimed to evaluate, in the Amazon Forest environment, the effect of time on contamination of Brazil nuts with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and aflatoxins after falling of the pods. Samples were collected at three different times and analysed for water activity, potentially aflatoxigenic fungi A. flavus and A. parasiticus, other fungi and aflatoxins. The mean values for the parameters tested were: water activity 0.98; A. flavus and A. parasiticus 1.3×101 colony forming units (cfu)/g; other fungi 3.2×103 cfu/g; aflatoxin B1 0.073 μg/kg, aflatoxin B2 0.009 μg/kg, aflatoxin G1 0.034 μg/kg and aflatoxin G2 0.007 μg/kg. The incidence of A. flavus and A. parasiticus was not significantly affected by the time, during which the pods were on the forest soil. Moreover, aflatoxins levels were low during the whole study period, suggesting that adverse forest conditions were not the main factor that stimulate the production of aflatoxins.
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GOURAMA, HASSAN, and LLOYD B. BULLERMAN. "Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus: Aflatoxigenic Fungi of Concern in Foods and Feeds†: A Review." Journal of Food Protection 58, no. 12 (1995): 1395–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-58.12.1395.
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Aspergillus flavus and the closely related subspecies parasiticus have long been recognized as major contaminants of organic and nonorganic items. A. flavus, a common soil fungus, can infest a wide range of agricultural products. Some A. flavus varieties produce aflatoxins, which are carcinogenic toxins that induce liver cancer in laboratory animals. A. flavus var. flavus, A. flavus subsp. parasiticus, and A. nomius share the ability to produce aflatoxins. Identification of the A. flavus species group is mainly based on the color and macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the fungus. A. flavus growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis depend on substrate, moisture, temperature, pH, aeration, and competing microflora. The growth of A. flavus and aflatoxin production are sometimes unavoidable. Aflatoxins are considered natural contaminants; the ideal control approach is prevention of mold growth and aflatoxin production. The detection of members of the A. flavus species group in foods and feed is generally carried out by using plate techniques such as surface spread or direct plating. Research on alternative fungal detection methods is still in its infancy. Few immunoassay techniques have been investigated in this regard. Aflatoxins are generally analyzed by chemical methods, although immunochemical methods which use antibodies are becoming common analytical tools for aflatoxins.
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Phuong Thao, Le Thi. "ISOLATION AND SELECTION OF AFLATOXINS PRODUCING ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS FROM PEANUT." Vietnam Journal of Science and Technology 55, no. 5A (2018): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.15625/2525-2518/55/5a/12187.
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Aspergillus flavus is known as the main producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins. The presence of this fungus and aflatoxins is an important impactson food safety, human and animal health. Peanut is one of the most important crops in Vietnam and is suitable to substrate for aflatoxins producing fungus growth. The isolation and identification of Aspergillus flavus species from peanut is an initial step for further study in Aflatoxins contamination control in peanut. 28 peanut samples selected in Luc Nam district - Bac Giang province were used for fungus isolation. The isolated fungus were purified, conducted DNA extract, amplified PCR products then performed sequencing ITS gene and used BLAST software to check alignment to identification the strains. As the result, 4 strains alignedwith Aspergillus flavus strains from National Center for Biology Information - United Nation such as: TUHT115, KP214054.1, MTCC 8654, ZJ4-A. Those strains were checked and confirmed the aflatoxins production in peanut samples.
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Abdallah, Mohamed F., Kris Audenaert, Sarah De Saeger, and Jos Houbraken. "Revisiting an Aspergillus flavus Strain Isolated from an Egyptian Sugarcane Field in 1930." Microorganisms 8, no. 11 (2020): 1633. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111633.
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The aflatoxin type B and G producer Aspergillus novoparasiticus was described in 2012 and was firstly reported from sputum, hospital air (Brazil), and soil (Colombia). Later, several survey studies reported the occurrence of this species in different foods and other agricultural commodities from several countries worldwide. This short communication reports on an old fungal strain (CBS 108.30), isolated from Pseudococcus sacchari (grey sugarcane mealybug) from an Egyptian sugarcane field in (or before) 1930. This strain was initially identified as Aspergillus flavus; however, using the latest taxonomy schemes, the strain is, in fact, A. novoparasiticus. These data and previous reports indicate that A. novoparasiticus is strongly associated with sugarcane, and pre-harvest biocontrol approaches with non-toxigenic A. novoparasiticus strains are likely to be more successful than those using non-toxigenic A. flavus strains. Further studies on the association between A. novoparasiticus and Pseudococcus sacchari might shed light on the distribution (and aflatoxin contamination) of this species in sugarcane. Additionally, the interaction between A. novoparasiticus, Pseudococcus sacchari, and sugarcane crop under different scenarios of climate change will be critical in order to get more insight into the host–pathogen interaction and host resistance and propose appropriate prevention strategies to decrease mycotoxin contamination and crop loss due to A. novoparasiticus attack.
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KACHAPULULA, PAUL W., JULIET AKELLO, RANAJIT BANDYOPADHYAY, and PETER J. COTTY. "Aflatoxin Contamination of Dried Insects and Fish in Zambia." Journal of Food Protection 81, no. 9 (2018): 1508–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-527.
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ABSTRACT Dried insects and fish are important sources of income and dietary protein in Zambia. Some aflatoxin-producing fungi are entomopathogenic and also colonize insects and fish after harvest and processing. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, immune-suppressing mycotoxins that are frequent food contaminants worldwide. Several species within Aspergillus section Flavi have been implicated as causal agents of aflatoxin contamination of crops in Africa. However, aflatoxin producers associated with dried fish and edible insects in Zambia remain unknown, and aflatoxin concentrations in these foods have been inadequately evaluated. The current study sought to address these data gaps to assess potential human vulnerability through the dried fish and edible insect routes of aflatoxin exposure. Caterpillars (n = 97), termites (n = 4), and dried fish (n = 66) sampled in 2016 and 2017 were assayed for aflatoxin by using lateral flow immunochromatography. Average aflatoxin concentrations exceeded regulatory limits for Zambia (10 μg/kg) in the moth Gynanisa maja (11 μg/kg), the moth Gonimbrasia zambesina (Walker) (12 μg/kg), and the termite Macrotermes falciger (Gerstacker) (24 μg/kg). When samples were subjected to simulated poor storage, aflatoxins increased (P < 0.001) to unsafe levels in caterpillars (mean, 4,800 μg/kg) and fish (Oreochromis) (mean, 23 μg/kg). The L strain morphotype of A. flavus was the most common aflatoxin producer on dried fish (88% of Aspergillus section Flavi), termites (68%), and caterpillars (61%), with the exception of Gynanisa maja, for which A. parasiticus was the most common (44%). Dried fish and insects supported growth (mean, 1.3 × 109 CFU/g) and aflatoxin production (mean, 63,620 μg/kg) by previously characterized toxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi species, although the extent of growth and aflatoxigenicity depended on specific fungus-host combinations. The current study shows the need for proper storage and testing of dried insects and fish before consumption as measures to mitigate human exposure to aflatoxins through consumption in Zambia.
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IQBAL, QUMER, MUHAMMAD AMJAD, MUHAMMAD RAFIQUE ASI, and AGUSTIN ARIÑO. "Assessment of Hot Peppers for Aflatoxin and Mold Proliferation during Storage." Journal of Food Protection 74, no. 5 (2011): 830–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-10-449.
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Aflatoxin contamination and mold proliferation in three hot pepper hybrids (Sky Red, Maha, and Wonder King) were studied during 5 months of storage at three temperatures (20, 25, and 30°C) and under different packaging conditions (low-density polyethylene bags and jute bags). The presence of aflatoxins in hot pepper samples was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a UV-Vis detector. Sampling for analysis of aflatoxins, total mold counts, and Aspergillus counts was carried out at 0, 50, 100, and 150 days of storage. Hot peppers packed in jute bags were more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination than those packed in polyethylene bags; aflatoxin concentrations were 75% higher in peppers stored in jute bags. The effect of storage temperature resulted in aflatoxin concentrations that were 61% higher in hot peppers stored at 25 and 30°C than in those stored at 20°C. Of the three pepper hybrids, Wonder King was more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, with a maximum of 1.50 μg/kg when packed in jute bags and stored at 25°C for 150 days. However, no sample exceeded the maximum permitted level for total aflatoxins in spices established by European Union regulations (10 μg/kg). Total mold counts and Aspergillus counts increased with storage duration, but all counts were significantly lower in peppers stored in polyethylene bags. A gradual increase in temperature during prolonged storage of hot peppers in combination with aeration may be the main reasons for increases in fungal biomass and Aspergillus proliferation with the subsequent aflatoxin production.
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Pickova, Darina, Vladimir Ostry, Jakub Toman, and Frantisek Malir. "Aflatoxins: History, Significant Milestones, Recent Data on their Toxicity and Ways to Mitigation." Toxins 13, no. 6 (2021): 399. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060399.
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In the early 1960s the discovery of aflatoxins began when a total of 100,000 turkey poults died by hitherto unknown turkey “X” disease in England. The disease was associated with Brazilian groundnut meal affected by Aspergillus flavus. The toxin was named Aspergillus flavus toxin—aflatoxin. From the point of view of agriculture, aflatoxins show the utmost importance. Until now, a total of 20 aflatoxins have been described, with B1, B2, G1, and G2 aflatoxins being the most significant. Contamination by aflatoxins is a global health problem. Aflatoxins pose acutely toxic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects. Besides food insecurity and human health, aflatoxins affect humanity at different levels, such as social, economical, and political. Great emphasis is placed on aflatoxin mitigation using biocontrol methods. Thus, this review is focused on aflatoxins in terms of historical development, the principal milestones of aflatoxin research, and recent data on their toxicity and different ways of mitigation.
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Sarmento Amoras, Eloiza, and Anderson Luiz Pena Costa. "Aflatoxins: A Brief Review of their Chemical Properties, Toxicological Effects and Control Measures." Archives of Ecotoxicology 2, no. 3 (2020): 43–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.36547/ae.2020.2.3.43-46.
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Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by the fungi of the genus Aspergillus. These substances cause food poisoning with clinical manifestations that vary according to the time of exposure and concentration of the dose ingested, representing a serious public health problem for compromising the food security, also causing considerable economic losses both in the production of stocked vegetable foods, as well as in the livestock contaminated with these substances through the feed. Therefore, this literature review aims to introduce some aspects related to the contamination of food by the fungi of the genus Aspergillus, the chemical and toxicological properties of the aflatoxins, as well as the strategies of control to avoid them in food.
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Zhou, S., W. Kong, J. Cao, A. F. Logrieco, S. Yang, and M. Yang. "Effect of Aspergillus flavus contamination on the inherent quality of Glycyrrhiza uralensis." World Mycotoxin Journal 7, no. 1 (2014): 83–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2013.1622.
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Glycyrrhiza uralensis is a common edible plant of the Chinese Materia Medica (CMM). Such a herb might be naturally contaminated with toxicogenic fungi producing various mycotoxins that can cause serious harm to humans. So far, studies have focused mainly on mycotoxin detection in CMM, but the effect of mycotoxin production on the inherent quality of CMM has not been investigated and elucidated. In the present study, sterilised G. uralensis was inoculated and incubated with Aspergillus flavus for several days to investigate the effect of aflatoxins accumulation on the inherent quality of G. uralensis. Changes in content of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, and the herb's four bioactive components, i.e. glycyrrhizic acid, liquiritin apioside, liquiritin and liquiritigenin, were detected using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence and photodiode array detection, respectively. The results showed that incubation of G. uralensis with A. flavus for 10 days resulted in the accumulation of aflatoxins, especially aflatoxin B1 and B2, and the reduction of the four bioactive components. From the negative correlation between the content of aflatoxins and bioactive components, it can be concluded that fungal contamination does not only result in harmful mycotoxins in CMM, but also influences its inherent quality.
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BAQUIÃO, ARIANNE COSTA, MAITÊ M. M. DE OLIVEIRA, TATIANA A. REIS, PATRÍCIA ZORZETE, DANIELLE D. ATAYDE, and BENEDITO CORRÊA. "Monitoring and Determination of Fungi and Mycotoxins in Stored Brazil Nuts." Journal of Food Protection 76, no. 8 (2013): 1414–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-13-005.
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Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) is an important commodity from the Brazilian Amazon, and approximately 37,000 tons (3.36 × 107 kg) of Brazil nuts are harvested each year. However, substantial nut contamination by Aspergillus section Flavi occurs, with subsequent production of mycotoxins. In this context, the objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the presence of fungi and mycotoxins (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid) in 110 stored samples of cultivated Brazil nut (55 samples of nuts and 55 samples of shells) collected monthly for 11 months in Itacoatiara, State of Amazonas, Brazil. The samples were inoculated in duplicate onto Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus agar and potato dextrose agar for the detection of fungi, and the presence of mycotoxins was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The most prevalent fungi in nuts and shells were Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., and Penicillium spp. A polyphasic approach was used for identification of Aspergillus species. Aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid were not detected in any of the samples analyzed. The low water activity of the substrate was a determinant factor for the presence of fungi and the absence of aflatoxin in Brazil nut samples. The high frequency of isolation of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi strains, mainly A. flavus, and their persistence during storage increase the chances of aflatoxin production on these substrates and indicates the need for good management practices to prevent mycotoxin contamination in Brazil nuts.
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RUIZ, JOSÉ A., ANTONIO BENTABOL, CRUZ GALLEGO, ROSARIO ANGULO, and MANUELA JODRAL. "Mycoflora and Aflatoxin-Producing Strains of Aspergillus flavus in Greenhouse-Cultivated Green Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)." Journal of Food Protection 59, no. 4 (1996): 433–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-59.4.433.
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The fungal contamination in green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was studied according to their location and height during growth in greenhouses. The genera most frequently isolated were Aureobasidium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Height and location did not have a significant influence on the fungal contamination of the beans. A strain of A. flavus was isolated which had the capacity to synthesize aflatoxins in vitro.
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VALENTE, SILVIA, GIOVANNA ROBERTA MELONI, SIMONA PRENCIPE, et al. "Effect of Drying Temperatures and Exposure Times on Aspergillus flavus Growth and Aflatoxin Production on Artificially Inoculated Hazelnuts." Journal of Food Protection 83, no. 7 (2020): 1241–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/jfp-20-061.
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ABSTRACT Aspergillus flavus may colonize hazelnuts and produce aflatoxins in the field and during storage. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of drying temperature and exposure times on the viability of A. flavus and its ability to produce aflatoxins during the drying process and storage. Hazelnuts were inoculated with A. flavus and dried at different temperatures to reach 6% moisture content and a water activity (aw) of 0.71, a commercial requirement to avoid fungal development and aflatoxin contamination. Hazelnuts were dried at 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50°C and subsequently stored at 25°C for 14 days. After drying at 30, 35, and 40°C, increased amounts of A. flavus were evident, with the highest concentration occurring after drying at 35°C ([6.1 ± 2.4] × 106A. flavus CFU/g). At these temperatures, aflatoxins were detected only at 30 and 35°C. Aflatoxins, however, were present at higher levels after drying at 30°C, with concentrations of 1.93 ± 0.77 μg/g for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and 0.11 ± 0.04 μg/g for aflatoxin B2 (AFB2). After 14 days of storage, the highest A. flavus concentration and the highest levels of mycotoxins were detected in samples treated at 35°C ([8.2 ± 2.1] × 107A. flavus CFU/g and 9.30 ± 1.58 μg/g and 0.89 ± 0.08 μg/g for AFB1 and AFB2, respectively). In hazelnuts dried at 45 or 50°C, no aflatoxins were found either after drying or storage, and a reduction of A. flavus viable conidia was observed, suggesting that a shorter and warmer drying is essential to guarantee nut safety. The lowest temperature that guarantees the lack of aflatoxins should be selected to maintain the organoleptic quality of hazelnuts. Therefore, 45°C should be the recommended drying temperature to limit A. flavus growth and aflatoxin contamination on hazelnuts. HIGHLIGHTS
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Valencia-Quintana, Rafael, Mirta Milić, Daniela Jakšić, et al. "Environment Changes, Aflatoxins, and Health Issues, a Review." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 21 (2020): 7850. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17217850.
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Crops contaminated by aflatoxins (AFs), the toxic and carcinogenic mycotoxins produced namely by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, have severe impacts on human health. Changes in temperature and water availability related to actual climate changes (increased temperature, heavy rainfalls, and droughts) are modulating factors of mould growth and production of mycotoxins. To protect human and animal health from the harmful effects caused by AFs, the development of a safe and effective multifaceted approach in combating food and feed contamination with AFs is necessary. This review aims to collect and analyze the available information regarding AF presence in food and feed to reinforce AF management and to prevent health issues related to the AF exposure in the light of actual climate changes.
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Diaz, G., M. Lozano, and A. Acuña. "Prevalence of Aspergillus species on selected Colombian animal feedstuffs and ability of Aspergillus section Flavi to produce aflatoxins." World Mycotoxin Journal 2, no. 1 (2009): 31–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2008.1041.
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A total of 57 samples of feedstuffs commonly used for animal nutrition in Colombia (maize, soybean, sorghum, cottonseed meal, sunflower seed meal, wheat middlings and rice) were analysed for Aspergillus contamination. Aspergillus fungi were identified at species level and their ability to produce aflatoxins was determined by highperformance liquid chromatography. A total of 31 of the feedstuffs analysed (54.4%) were found to contain Aspergillus spp. The most contaminated substrate was maize (100%) followed by cottonseed meal (80%), sorghum (60%) and wheat middlings (60%). Soybean showed lower levels of contamination (10%). No Aspergillus spp. could be isolated from rice or sunflower seed meal. Total Aspergillus strains isolated were 50, with 28 belonging to section Flavi (56%), 17 to section Nigri (34%), 4 to section Circumdati (8%) and 1 to section Fumigati (2%). Among section Flavi, 17 isolates were identified as A. flavus, seven as A. parasiticus, two as A. oryzae and two as A. tamarii. Production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus section Flavi was screened by liquid chromatography. About three quarters of the A. flavus strains (76.5%) produced aflatoxin B1 (0.2 to 240.4 µg/g) and aflatoxin B2 (0.2 to 1.6 µg/g), while all A. parasiticus strains produced the four naturally occurring aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1 from 0.6 to 83.5 µg/g, aflatoxin B2 from 0.3 to 4.8 µg/g, aflatoxin G1 from 0.4 to 19.3 µg/g and aflatoxin G2 from 0.1 to 1.0 µg/g). This is the first study demonstrating the presence of highly toxigenic Aspergillus fungi in Colombian animal feedstuffs.
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Mukhtar, Fatima. "Implication of aflatoxins as potent carcinogens." Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 12, no. 1 (2020): 39–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v12i1.7s.
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Aspergillus species influence human and animal health directly and indirectly with a significant economic impact on the society. A. flavus and A. parasiticus are the two major species that produce aflatoxins. Several mycotoxins are reported from several other mycotoxigenic fungi of which the aflatoxins are the most toxic and damaging polyketides. Economically important crops such as maize, rice, cotton seed, peanuts, and spices are all susceptible to contamination of aflatoxin. The aim of this review is to make an extensive review and come up with ways to curtail this global challenge on how to manage aflatoxin contamination in crops and other food products since the toxins have been classified as potent carcinogens and about 25% of food is being lost due to aflatoxin contamination annually. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) conducted evaluation of several chemicals of their carcinogenic potential and classified aflatoxins as most potent natural, known human carcinogens. The methodology was by selecting the most recent researches conducted on new techniques to be employed in overcoming the issue of aflatoxin contamination both during the pre and post-harvest strategies. The Data gathered was subjected to appropriate statistical tool so as to come up with more improved techniques. It was found that both chemical and physical methods have certain drawbacks which may lead to drop in human and animal health, cause a significant decline in the quality of food products, losses of nutritional value, high cost and cause undesirable health effects, but biological methods using microorganisms seems more promising, they provide an attractive alternative tool for removing toxins and safeguarding the value of food and feed in an eco-friendly way.
 Key words: Aflatoxin, Contamination, Crops, Pre and Post-harvest.
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Olsen, M., P. Johnsson, T. Möller, R. Paladino, and M. Lindblad. "Aspergillus nomius, an important aflatoxin producer in Brazil nuts?" World Mycotoxin Journal 1, no. 2 (2008): 123–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2008.1032.
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The relationship between aflatoxin B1 and G1 was examined in samples from 199 aflatoxin contaminated lots of inshell Brazil nuts imported to Europe. In most of the samples, the relationship between B1 and G1 were approximately 50/50 indicating that the major responsible aflatoxin producing fungi cannot be Aspergillus flavus, which produces solely B aflatoxins. Fungal strains were isolated from two batches of Brazil nuts and isolates of both A. nomius and A. flavus could be identified. The A. nomius isolates were good producers of both B and G aflatoxins, while the A. flavus strains only produced B aflatoxins. In conclusion, this study suggests that A. nomius is an important producer of aflatoxins in Brazil nuts and that its occurrence, and possibly other B and G aflatoxin producers, should be further examined since this may influence strategies for prevention and control of aflatoxins in Brazil nuts.
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MUPUNGA, I., S. L. LEBELO, P. MNGQAWA, J. P. RHEEDER, and D. R. KATERERE. "Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Peanuts and Peanut Butter from Bulawayo, Zimbabwe." Journal of Food Protection 77, no. 10 (2014): 1814–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-129.
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Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that may contaminate food and pose a health risk, especially in developing countries, where there is a lack of food security and quality is subsumed by food insufficiency. Aflatoxins are the most toxic known mycotoxins and are a significant risk factor for liver and kidney cancer, teratogenicity, undernutrition, and micronutrient malabsorption in both humans and animals. The main aim of the study was to determine the extent of fungal and aflatoxin contamination in peanuts and peanut butter being sold in both the formal and informal markets in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Eighteen peanut samples and 11 peanut butter samples were purchased from retail shops and the informal market. Fungal contamination was determined using standard mycology culture methods, while aflatoxin contamination was determined using high-performance liquid chromatography–fluorescence detection. Four of the six peanut samples tested for fungal contamination were infected with Aspergillus flavus/parasiticus, ranging from 3 to 20% of the kernels examined, while 27% (3 of 11) of the peanut butter samples were infected with A. flavus/parasiticus. Ninety-one percent (10 of 11) of the peanut butter samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (mean, 75.66 ng/g, and range, 6.1 to 247 ng/g), and aflatoxin B1 was the most prevalent (mean, 51.0 ng/g, and range, 3.7 to 191 ng/g). Three of the 18 peanut samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (range, 6.6 to 622 ng/g). The commercial peanut butter samples had very high aflatoxin levels, and manufacturers should be sensitized to the detrimental effects of aflatoxins and measures to reduce contamination.
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Rajarajan, P. N., K. M. Rajasekaran, and N. K. Asha Devi. "Aflatoxin Contamination in Agricultural Commodities." Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research 1, no. 04 (2013): 148–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.30750/ijpbr.1.4.25.
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Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found when certain grains are grown under stressful conditions such as draught. The mold occurs in soil, decaying vegetation, hay and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration and invades all types of organic substrates whenever and wherever the conditions are favourable for its growth. Favourable conditions include high moisture content and high temperature.The aflatoxin group is comprised of aflatoxin B1,B2,G1 and G2. In addition , aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a hydroxylated metabolite of AFB1, is excreted in the milk of dairy cows consuming an AFB1-contaminated ration. Aflatoxin B1 a prototype of the aflatoxins, is widely recognized as the most potent hepato carcinogenic compound and along with other certain members of the group, possess additional toxic properties including mutagenicity, tetrogenicity, acute cellular toxicity and it suppresses the immune system. Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed has gained global significance as a result of its deleterious effects on human as well as animal health. The marketability of food products is adversely affected by aflatoxin contamination.
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Jovanovic, Dragoljub, Radmila Markovic, Stamen Radulovic, Svetlana Grdovic, Milena Krstic, and Dragan Sefer. "Aflatoxins in feed." Veterinarski glasnik 72, no. 1 (2018): 14–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vetgl1801015j.
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Background. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites, which are synthesized from a large number of intermediates from the primary metabolism of saprophytic molds. Aflatoxins, due to their genotoxic and carcinogenic effects, are the most important group of mycotoxins from the aspect of their impact on human and animal health. Of all known aflatoxins, AFB1 is the most frequent, with the most harmful impact on human and animal health. Scope and Approach. Due to their prevalence and toxicity, monitoring the presence of aflatoxins in the food chain is required. The scope of this paper is to provide information on the presence of aflatoxins in animal feed and in milk. This paper describes temperature increases in Europe that are contributing to the increased presence of aflatoxins in food, as well as aflatoxin prevention and protection measures. Key Findings and Conclusions. During the last decade, serious contamination of corn with aflatoxins was recorded in southern Europe. In the summer of 2012, Serbia recorded high concentrations of aflatoxins in corn and milk. Based on climate change data, it is expected that aflatoxin contamination in corn will become more frequent.
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Mutegi, C. K., P. J. Cotty, and R. Bandyopadhyay. "Prevalence and mitigation of aflatoxins in Kenya (1960-to date)." World Mycotoxin Journal 11, no. 3 (2018): 341–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2018.2362.
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Aflatoxins are highly toxic metabolites of several Aspergillus species widely distributed throughout the environment. These toxins have adverse effects on humans and livestock at a few micrograms per kilogram (μg/kg) concentrations. Strict regulations on the concentrations of aflatoxins allowed in food and feed exist in many nations in the developing world. Loopholes in implementing regulations result in the consumption of dangerous concentrations of aflatoxins. In Kenya, where ‘farm-to-mouth’ crops become severely contaminated, solutions to the aflatoxins problem are needed. Across the decades, aflatoxins have repeatedly caused loss of human and animal life. A prerequisite to developing viable solutions for managing aflatoxins is understanding the geographical distribution and severity of food and feed contamination, and the impact on lives. This review discusses the scope of the aflatoxins problem and management efforts by various players in Kenya. Economic drivers likely to influence the choice of aflatoxins management options include historical adverse health effects on humans and animals, cost of intervention for mitigation of aflatoxins, knowledge about aflatoxins and their impact, incentives for aflatoxins safe food and intended scope of use of interventions. It also highlights knowledge gaps that can direct future management efforts. These include: sparse documented information on human exposure; few robust tools to accurately measure economic impact in widely unstructured value chains; lack of long-term impact studies on benefits of aflatoxins mitigation; inadequate sampling mechanisms in smallholder farms and grain holding stores/containers; overlooking social learning networks in technology uptake and lack of in-depth studies on an array of aflatoxins control measures followed in households. The review proposes improved linkages between agriculture, nutrition and health sectors to address aflatoxins contamination better. Sustained public awareness at all levels, capacity building and aflatoxins related policies are necessary to support management initiatives.
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Ekpakpale, Daniella O., Bart Kraak, Martin Meijer, Kolawole I. Ayeni, Jos Houbraken, and Chibundu N. Ezekiel. "Fungal Diversity and Aflatoxins in Maize and Rice Grains and Cassava-Based Flour (Pupuru) from Ondo State, Nigeria." Journal of Fungi 7, no. 8 (2021): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7080635.
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Grains and cassava-based foods serve as major dietary sources for many households in Nigeria. However, these foods are highly prone to contamination by moulds and aflatoxins owing to poor storage and vending practices. Therefore, we studied the fungal diversity in maize, cassava-based flour (pupuru), and rice vended in markets from Ondo state, Nigeria, and assessed their aflatoxin levels using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Molecular analysis of 65 representative fungal isolates recovered from the ground grains and pupuru samples revealed 26 species belonging to five genera: Aspergillus (80.9%), Penicillium (15.4%), and Talaromyces (1.9%) in the Ascomycota; Syncephalastrum (1.2%) and Lichtheimia (0.6%) in Mucoromycota. Aspergillus flavus was the predominant species in the ground grains and pupuru samples. Aflatoxins were found in 73.8% of the 42 representative food samples and 41.9% exceeded the 10 μg/kg threshold adopted in Nigeria for total aflatoxins.
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Aristil, Junior, Giovanni Venturini, and Alberto Spada. "Occurrence of Toxigenic Fungi and Aflatoxin Potential of Aspergillus spp. Strains Associated with Subsistence Farmed Crops in Haiti." Journal of Food Protection 80, no. 4 (2017): 626–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-278.
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ABSTRACT Subsistence farming and poor storage facilities favor toxigenic fungal contamination and mycotoxin accumulation in staple foods from tropical countries such as Haiti. The present preliminary study was designed to evaluate the occurrence of toxigenic fungi in Haitian foodstuffs to define the mycotoxin risk associated with Haitian crops. The objectives of this research were to determine the distribution of toxigenic fungi in the Haitian crops maize, moringa, and peanut seeds and to screen Aspergillus section Flavi (ASF) isolates for production of aflatoxins B1 and G1 in vitro. Maize, moringa, and peanut samples were contaminated by potential toxigenic fungal taxa, mainly ASF and Fusarium spp. The isolation frequency of Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. was influenced by locality and thus by farming systems, storage systems, and weather conditions. Particularly for ASF in peanut and maize samples, isolation frequencies were directly related to the growing season length. The present study represents the first report of contamination by toxigenic fungi and aflatoxin in moringa seeds, posing concerns about the safety of these seeds, which people in Haiti commonly consume. Most (80%) of the Haitian ASF strains were capable of producing aflatoxins, indicating that Haitian conditions clearly favor the colonization of toxigenic ASF strains over atoxigenic strains. ASF strains producing both aflatoxins B1 and G1 were found. Understanding the distribution of toxigenic ASF in Haitian crops and foodstuffs is important for determining accurate toxicological risks because the toxic profile of ASF is species specific. The occurrence of toxigenic fungi and the profiles of the ASF found in various crops highlight the need to prevent formation of aflatoxins in Haitian crops. This study provides relevant preliminary baseline data for guiding the development of legislation regulating the quality and safety of crops in this low-income country.
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SANCHIS, V., N. SALA, A. PALOMES, P. SANTAMARINA, and P. A. BURDASPAL. "Occurrence of Aflatoxin and Aflatoxigenic Molds in Foods and Feed in Spain." Journal of Food Protection 49, no. 6 (1986): 445–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-49.6.445.
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A survey was carried out to obtain data on the occurrence of aflatoxin and aflatoxigenic mold contamination of foods in Spain. A variety of commodities amounting to 338 samples were analyzed, comprising cereal grains, mixed feeds, edible nuts, wheat flour for bread-making, biscuits, sliced bread, soya beans and breakfast cereals. The results reveal a rather low incidence of aflatoxin contamination in samples tested. Aflatoxins were detected in 4 of 27 samples of mixed feeds at levels below 5 μg/kg; one sample of peanuts was contaminated with 120 μg aflatoxin B1/kg and 22 μg aflatoxin B2/kg. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were also detected in a lot of whole maize flour, averaging 8 μg/kg and 3 μg/kg, respectively. Of a total of 288 samples tested, 100% showed variable incidences of fungal contamination. Maize samples were the ones most frequently contaminated with Aspergillus flavus (54.5%). Strains of A. flavus isolated from maize samples also showed the highest proportion of aflatoxigenic molds (17.2%) compared with those isolated from other sources.
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El Tawila, Mahmoud, Serdar Sadeq, Alrasheedi Amani Awad, Jamil Serdar, Mohamed Hussein Fahmy Madkour, and Mohamed M. Deabes. "Aflatoxins Contamination of Human Food Commodities Collected from Jeddah Markets, Saudi Arabia." Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 8, E (2020): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2020.4643.
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BACKGROUND: Aflatoxins (AFs) are fungal secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus. They contaminate of dietary food with AFs is a worldwide problem that affects both food safety and agricultural economies.
 AIM: The aim of this study was designed to investigate the AFs contents of human food commodities mostly consumed in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
 METHODS: The study was designed in vitro, contents in six food categories. A total of 288 samples were collected from 78 different markets in Jeddah. AFs were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector using immunoaffinity column clean-up.
 RESULTS: The results indicated that the incidence rate 27.3% of nut samples collected from Jeddah, were contaminated with AFB1, AFB2. The concentrations of AFs (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) were ranged from 0.19–482.4, 0.09–3.34, 0.19–87.1, to 0.09–579 μg/kg in the nut samples.
 CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate the importance of routine monitoring of AFs contamination in various dry foods for human consumed should be performed regularly and the nuts contained high levels of AFs. The legal regulations must be unauthorized for human consumption to control the health risks associated with AFs.
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Guan, S., T. Zhou, Y. Yin, M. Xie, Z. Ruan, and J. Young. "Microbial strategies to control aflatoxins in food and feed." World Mycotoxin Journal 4, no. 4 (2011): 413–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2011.1290.
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Aflatoxins are a group of toxic and carcinogenic fungal metabolites. They are commonly found in cereals, nuts and animal feeds and create a significant threat to the food industry and animal production. Several strategies have been developed to avoid or reduce harmful effects of aflatoxins since the 1960s. However, prevention of aflatoxin contamination pre/post harvest or during storage has not been satisfactory and control strategies such as physical removing and chemical inactivating used in food commodities have their deficiencies, which limit their large scale application. It is expected that progress in the control of aflatoxin contamination will depend on the introduction of technologies for specific, efficient and environmentally sound detoxification. The utilisation of biological detoxification agents, such as microorganisms and/or their enzymatic products to detoxify aflatoxins in contaminated food and feed can be a choice of such technology. To date, many of the microbial strategies have only showed reduced concentration of aflatoxins and the structure and toxicity of the detoxified products are unclear. More attention should be paid to the detoxification reactions, the structure of biotransformed products and the enzymes responsible for the detoxification. In this article, microbial strategies for aflatoxin control such as microbial binding and microbial biotransformation are reviewed.
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DORNER, JOE W. "Efficacy of a Biopesticide for Control of Aflatoxins in Corn." Journal of Food Protection 73, no. 3 (2010): 495–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-73.3.495.
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A 2-year study was carried out to determine the efficacy of a biopesticide in reducing aflatoxin contamination in corn. The biopesticide, afla-guard, delivers a nontoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus to the field where it competes with naturally occurring toxigenic strains of the fungus. Afla-guard was applied to entire fields in two areas of Texas at either 11.2 or 22.4 kg/ha. Specific nontreated fields in close proximity to treated fields were designated as controls. Samples of corn were collected at harvest and analyzed for aflatoxins and density of toxigenic and nontoxigenic isolates of A. flavus. Aflatoxin concentrations were generally quite low in 2007, but the mean concentration in treated samples (0.5 ppb) was reduced by 85% compared with controls (3.4 ppb). In 2008, samples from treated and control fields averaged 1.5 and 12.4 ppb, respectively, an 88% reduction. There were no significant differences between the two afla-guard application rates. In conjunction with the reductions in aflatoxin contamination, treatments produced significant reductions in the incidence of toxigenic isolates of A. flavus in corn.
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Kabbashi, Esameldin Bashir Mohamed, Mohamed Ali Elnour, and Safa Hassan Ahmed. "Aflatoxins in roasted peanut in Khartoum a hidden and notorious risk to children." Food Biology 6 (May 22, 2017): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.19071/fbiol.2017.v6.3214.
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Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of about twenty species of the genus Aspergillus. The most important of these species is Aspergillus flavus which was reported for the first time and referred as responsible for the X – turkey disease in 1960 in Great Britain which later on named aflatoxicosis. These toxins pose a limitless risk to man and his domestics by causing a number of diseases and carcinomas. However, since the production of these toxins is rather inevitable accordingly an interdisciplinary management is the answer for managing them. The management of these toxins includes preharvest and postharvest measures such as good agricultural practices (GAP), check of imports, exports, food and feed stuffs, specifying tolerable and action limits and curing by suitable methods.This experiment aimed at having a rapid check for the total aflatoxins in roasted peanut in samples (five groups and 25 in total) collected from the three main cities of the triangular capital Khartoum (Khartoum proper, Khartoum North and Omdurman).Rapid check of aflatoxins has a lot of merits and edge over the other laboratory methods. Twenty five samples of roasted peanut were checked using Aflacheck® test kids (the method used enabled checking 10 ppb total aflatoxins in test samples). Readings revealed that the contamination percentage was 60% for each of the sample groups collected from the two sites in Khartoum proper and 100% for the sample groups collected from two sites in Khartoum north and Omdurman, separately. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in contamination (at 5% confidence level) between the results from Khartoum proper from one side and the samples collected from Khartoum North and Omdurman areas in the other side. However, the overall contamination percentage was 84%.These results,collectively, are alarming (0 tolerance) fora deadly health risk of this roasted peanut contaminated with aflatoxins to consumers of who the majority are children.
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Xu, Jia, Peng Wang, Zehua Zhou, Peter John Cotty, and Qing Kong. "Selection of Atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus for Potential Use in Aflatoxin Prevention in Shandong Province, China." Journal of Fungi 7, no. 9 (2021): 773. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7090773.
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Aspergillus flavus is a common filamentous fungus widely present in the soil, air, and in crops. This facultative pathogen of both animals and plants produces aflatoxins, a group of mycotoxins with strong teratogenic and carcinogenic properties. Peanuts are highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination and consumption of contaminated peanuts poses serious threats to the health of humans and domestic animals. Currently, the competitive displacement of aflatoxin-producers from agricultural environments by atoxigenic A. flavus is the most effective method of preventing crop aflatoxin contamination. In the current study, 47 isolates of A. flavus collected from peanut samples originating in Shandong Province were characterized with molecular methods and for aflatoxin-producing ability in laboratory studies. Isolates PA04 and PA10 were found to be atoxigenic members of the L strains morphotype. When co-inoculated with A. flavus NRRL3357 at ratios of 1:10, 1:1, and 10:1 (PA04/PA10: NRRL3357), both atoxigenic strains were able to reduce aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels, on both culture media and peanut kernels, by up to 90%. The extent to which atoxigenic strains reduced contamination was correlated with the inoculation ratio. Abilities to compete of PA04 and PA10 were also independently verified against local aflatoxin-producer PA37. The results suggest that the two identified atoxigenic strains are good candidates for active ingredients of biocontrol products for the prevention of aflatoxin contamination of peanuts in Shandong Province.
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Bhatnagar, D., K. Rajasekaran, M. Gilbert, J. W. Cary, and N. Magan. "Advances in molecular and genomic research to safeguard food and feed supply from aflatoxin contamination." World Mycotoxin Journal 11, no. 1 (2018): 47–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2017.2283.
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Worldwide recognition that aflatoxin contamination of agricultural commodities by the fungus Aspergillus flavus is a global problem has significantly benefitted from global collaboration for understanding the contaminating fungus, as well as for developing and implementing solutions against the contamination. The effort to address this serious food and feed safety issue has led to a detailed understanding of the taxonomy, ecology, physiology, genomics and evolution of A. flavus, as well as strategies to reduce or control pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination, including (1) biological control, using atoxigenic aspergilli, (2) proteomic and genomic analyses for identifying resistance factors in maize as potential breeding markers to enable development of resistant maize lines, and (3) enhancing host-resistance by bioengineering of susceptible crops, such as cotton, maize, peanut and tree nuts. A post-harvest measure to prevent the occurrence of aflatoxin contamination in storage is also an important component for reducing exposure of populations worldwide to aflatoxins in food and feed supplies. The effect of environmental changes on aflatoxin contamination levels has recently become an important aspect for study to anticipate future contamination levels. The ability of A. flavus to produce dozens of secondary metabolites, in addition to aflatoxins, has created a new avenue of research for understanding the role these metabolites play in the survival and biodiversity of this fungus. The understanding of A. flavus, the aflatoxin contamination problem, and control measures to prevent the contamination has become a unique example for an integrated approach to safeguard global food and feed safety.
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Wood, Garnett E. "Aflatoxins in Domestic and Imported Foods and Feeds." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 72, no. 4 (1989): 543–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/72.4.543.
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Abstract Aflatoxins, metabolic products of the molds Aspergillus flams and A. parasiticus, may occur in foods and feeds. These toxins cannot be entirely avoided or eliminated from foods or feeds by current agronomic and manufacturing processes and are considered unavoidable contaminants. To limit aflatoxin exposure, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set action levels for these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. FDA continually monitors food and feed industries through compliance programs. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal year 1986. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, corn and corn products, tree nuts, cottonseed, milk, spices, manufactured products, and miscellaneous foods and feeds. Correlations were highest between aflatoxin contamination and geographical areas for corn/corn products and cottonseed/cottonseed meal. Higher incidences of aflatoxin contamination in corn and corn products designated for human consumption were observed in samples collected in the southeastern states (32 and 28%, respectively). A higher incidence of contamination was observed in corn designated for animal feed from Arkansas-Texas (74%) than from the southeastern states (47%). Only 3% of feed corn from corn belt states contained detectable aflatoxins. All aflatoxin-contaminated cottonseed was collected in the Arizona-California area; 80% of cottonseed meal analyzed from this area also contained detectable levels of aflatoxins. No aflatoxin Mi was detected in any of the 182 samples of fluid milk and milk products examined. The percentage of samples that contain measurable levels of aflatoxins is expected to vary with commodities from year to year; thus, the 1986 information can be used as a baseline for comparison to determine the effectiveness of control efforts exerted by the food and feed industries.
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PARK, KUN-YOUNG, KYU-BOK LEE, and LLOYD B. BULLERMAN. "Aflatoxin Production by Aspergillus parasiticus and Its Stability During the Manufacture of Korean Soy Paste (Doenjang) and Soy Sauce (Kanjang) by Traditional Method." Journal of Food Protection 51, no. 12 (1988): 938–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-51.12.938.
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Aflatoxin (AF) production and its stability on meju (crushed Korean soybean cake) by a pure culture of Aspergillus parasiticus and a mixed culture of A. parasiticus. A. oryzae and Bacillus subtilis (fermentation 1) during the manufacture by traditional methods of Korean soy paste (doenjang) and soy sauce (kanjang) were studied. There was a difference in the amount of aflatoxin production on different varieties of soybeans, but the pattern of toxin production was similar. During fermentation, more total aflatoxins were produced under the mixed culture condition. Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) production was highly stimulated though it degraded quickly, whereas aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) synthesis was low. The exposure of the meju to sunlight during fermentation had no effect in reducing aflatoxin synthesis. When the meju fermented under natural conditions (fermentation 2) with a contamination by A. parasiticus, high levels of aflatoxins were still produced. After a month of ripening of the fermented meju with charcoal in brine, more AFG1 than AFB1 was degraded in both the pure and mixed culture samples (degradation %; B1:2–69%, G1:31–84%). When the meju was ripened in water, most of the aflatoxins were degraded (B1:95–99%, G1:100%) in a month, accompanied by a significant increase in pH (p<0.05). A greater amount of aflatoxins (96–100%) was detected in the meju when it was ripened in brine, however, lower amounts (25–85%) of aflatoxins remained in meju ripened in water. During three months of ripening in brine, 83–98% of AFB1 and 98–100% of AFG1 were degraded in fermentation 1, but the degradation rate was slower (B1 :63%, G1:98%) following fermentation 2. The total levels of aflatoxins remaining were significantly (p<0.05) reduced when charcoal was added to the mixture.
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DE CASTRO, M. FERNANDA P. P. M., IVANIA A. PACHECO, LUCIA M. V. SOARES, REGINA P. Z. FURLANI, DALMO C. DE PAULA, and SCHEILLA BOLONHEZI. "Warehouse Control of Aspergillus flavus Link and A. parasiticus Speare on Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) by Phosphine Fumigation and its Effect on Aflatoxin Production." Journal of Food Protection 59, no. 4 (1996): 407–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-59.4.407.
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Six stacks of 36 bags containing ca. 50 kg of unshelled peanuts with moisture contents in the range of 18.0 to 21.0% (wet basis) (average 19.3%) were formed in a commercial warehouse located in a peanut-producing area in São Paulo, Brazil. Three stacks were fumigated with phosphine for 7 days. An initial dose of 3.0 g of aluminum phosphide per m3 was applied. A second and a third application of the same dose were carried out 24 and 144 h later. Before fumigation, infection by Aspergillus flavus and/or A. parasiticus was either not detected in the peanut mass or was very low (1 to 13%), but contamination with aflatoxins (up to 191 μg/kg) was found in all stacks. After the fumigation treatments, a striking increase in infection was observed in the nonfumigated stacks (73 to 100% infected kernels) while in the fumigated stacks, A. flavus and/or A. parasiticus were either not detected or were isolated in insignificant amounts, indicating that phosphine was able to control fungal development in spite of the high moisture content of the kernels. After the fumigation period, the contamination levels of aflatoxins in the treated stacks remained unchanged, while the untreated stacks showed a staggering increase (up to 10,000 μg/kg of peanuts). After a month, however, no difference was observed in aflatoxin contamination and infection by A. flavus and A. parasiticus between the untreated and the treated stacks.
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Benkerroum. "Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4 (2020): 1215. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041215.
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This review aims to update the main aspects of aflatoxin production, occurrence and incidence in selected countries, and associated aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Means to reduce aflatoxin incidence in crops were also presented, with an emphasis on the environmentally-friendly technology using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are unavoidable widespread natural contaminants of foods and feeds with serious impacts on health, agricultural and livestock productivity, and food safety. They are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species distributed on three main sections of the genus (section Flavi, section Ochraceorosei, and section Nidulantes). Poor economic status of a country exacerbates the risk and the extent of crop contamination due to faulty storage conditions that are usually suitable for mold growth and mycotoxin production: temperature of 22 to 29 °C and water activity of 0.90 to 0.99. This situation paralleled the prevalence of high liver cancer and the occasional acute aflatoxicosis episodes that have been associated with these regions. Risk assessment studies revealed that Southeast Asian (SEA) and Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain at high risk and that, apart from the regulatory standards revision to be more restrictive, other actions to prevent or decontaminate crops are to be taken for adequate public health protection. Indeed, a review of publications on the incidence of aflatoxins in selected foods and feeds from countries whose crops are classically known for their highest contamination with aflatoxins, reveals that despite the intensive efforts made to reduce such an incidence, there has been no clear tendency, with the possible exception of South Africa, towards sustained improvements. Nonetheless, a global risk assessment of the new situation regarding crop contamination with aflatoxins by international organizations with the required expertise is suggested to appraise where we stand presently.