Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Asphaltic bitumen'

La ricerca riguarda lo studio delle modifiche indotte dalla diffusione di acqua e umidità nelle pavimentazioni stradali con riferimento ai materiali bituminosi. Lo scopo è stato quello di analizzare le implicazioni che si sviluppano a livello chimico e reologico in vari bitumi. In questo progetto oltre alla fase sperimentale, è stato utilizzato un software per la simulazione agli elementi finiti. Per quanto concerne la fase di laboratorio, è stato sviluppato un nuovo protocollo di condizionamento. Tre diversi bitumi sono stati soggetti alla diffusione di acqua in forma liquida o vapore, a determinate condizioni ambientali e per svariati intervalli temporali. Grazie a l’utilizzo di due camere climatiche il condizionamento è stato realizzato in modo uniforme a precisi valori temperatura e umidità mantenuti stabili. I materiali analizzati: un bitume soft, uno hard, ed infine uno modificato con l’aggiunta di polimeri. Il dispositivo FTIR-ATR è stato utilizzato per la caratterizzazione chimica, mentre il comportamento reologico è stato analizzato tramite test eseguiti con il DSR. Le avanzate tecnologie presenti nel laboratorio della TU Delft hanno consentito di ottenere notevoli risultati. L’analisi è stata condotta con l’obiettivo di evidenziare i diversi cambiamenti indotti dalla diffusione di acqua liquida o vapore e per analizzare l’influenza della temperatura, del tipo del bitume e dell’incremento del tempo di condizionamento. Una analisi analoga è stata condotta parallelamente, con lo scopo di investigare la correlazione tra il processo di invecchiamento e la diffusione di umidità. Infine, la simulazione agli elementi finiti è stata sviluppata tramite il software CAPA-3D per analizzare il comportamento del bitume in periodi più estesi di diffusione di umidità. Inoltre, il comportamento dei bitumi è stato studiato anche in presenza di particelle di riempitivo. Particelle granitiche e calcaree sono state aggiunte ai bitumi in differenti percentuali.

Le but de ce travail est d’étudier le potentiel d’un bitume naturel (BN) extrait en Albanie pour la production des bitumes durs (BD) et des enrobés à module élevé (EME). Pour la production des BD, différentes techniques de raffinage du pétrole existent. Néanmoins, avec certains bruts pétroliers il est impossible de les fabriquer. De plus, les BD de raffinerie comportent souvent des défauts qui limitent leurs applications. Ces raisons, couplées à des questions d’approvisionnement, conduisent à chercher des méthodes de substitution. Dans ce contexte, il est intéressant d’utiliser des BN. Cette étude a montré que le BN d’Albanie donne des BD et des EME en conformité avec la Normalisation Européenne, résistants au vieillissement et performants aux basses températures. Un dosage adéquat permet de formuler des matériaux d’une dureté désirée en réponse des exigences techniques des applications routières visées tout en facilitant la gestion des stocks de bitumes dans les centrales d’enrobages
The aim of this thesis is to study the potential of a natural bitumen (NB) mined in Albania in the production of hard bitumens (HB) and that of high modulus asphalt concrete (HMAC). Various petroleum refining techniques are available for the production of HB. Nevertheless, this is impossible with some crude oils. In addition, HB from refineries often present shortcomings which limit their applications. These reasons, coupled with practical issues related to HB supply, motivate the research of alternative methods. In this industrial context it is interesting to use NB. This study has shown that the Albanian NB provides HB and HMAC in accordance with European Standards, resistant to aging and relatively performant at low temperatures. The proper dosage of this NB allows the formulation of materials of desired properties, in response to the technical requirements of the considered road applications, facilitating in this way the use of bitumen stocks in asphalt concrete production plants

This doctoral thesis consists of a literature review, presented in two papers, and another six papers describing experimental studies of the influence of different kinds of wax and polyphosporic acid on bitumen and asphalt concrete mixture properties. The literature review should give an extensive description of the field of knowledge concerning wax in bitumen. Effects of wax in crude oil, bitumen and asphalt concrete as well as test methods for studying these effects are described. Theories behind possible mechanisms are also discussed, and commercial wax as additive to bitumen for different purposes included. The experimental parts comprise laboratory studies involving totally five 160/220 penetration base bitumens from different sources, two isolated bitumen waxes, five commercial waxes and one polyphosphoric acid. Asphalt concrete slabs, containing base or modified bitumen were prepared and tested. Binder properties were evaluated using different types of laboratory equipment, such as dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), force ductilometer, as well as equipment for determining conventional parameters like penetration, softening point, viscosity, and Fraass breaking point. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC-FID) were used for chemical characterization. The binders were aged by means of the rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT) and pressure ageing vessel (PAV) in combination. Asphalt concrete properties were evaluated at low temperatures using the tensile strain restrained specimen test (TSRST) and creep test at -25°C. Dynamic creep testing was performed at 40°C, as well as complex modulus tests between 0 and 20°C. Binder test results indicated that the magnitude and type of effect on bitumen rheology depend on the bitumen itself, type of crystallizing fraction in the bitumen and/or type and amount of additive used. Bitumen composition was found to be of decisive importance. Adding polyethylene wax or polyphosphoric acid, especially to a non-waxy 160/220 penetration grade bitumen, showed no or positive effects on the rheological behaviour at low temperatures (decrease in stiffness) as well as medium and high temperatures (increase in complex modulus and decrease in phase angle). However, the corresponding positive effects could not be shown in dynamic creep testing (at 40°C) of asphalt concrete mixtures containing these modified binders. Adding FT-paraffin decreased the physical hardening index for all bitumens. Also polyethylene wax and montan wax showed this effect for some bitumens. Slack wax showed a large increasing effect on physical hardening, and polyphosphoric acid none or a minor negative effect. No correlation between physical hardening index (PHI) and wax content by DSC was found in this study, involving both natural bitumen wax and commercial wax. Addition of the commercial waxes used showed no or marginally positive influence on bitumen ageing properties for the bitumens and test conditions used. Comparing asphalt mixture test results to the corresponding binder test results, the effects on asphalt mixtures from adding commercial wax or polyphosphoric acid were less evident. Significant binder physical hardening by BBR could not be confirmed by TSRST.
QC 20101006

L'additivation chimique des bitumes est un des procédés employé industriellement pour produire des enrobés bitumineux tièdes. Bien que différents additifs commerciaux soient disponibles sur le marché, les mécanismes d'actions impliqués dans la réduction des températures de mise en œuvre demeurent relativement mal connus. Dans le cadre de cette thèse CIFRE TOTAL, trois approches complémentaires ont été étudiées afin d'avoir une meilleure compréhension de ses mécanismes. La particularité de notre démarche vient du fait que ces études ont été réalisées aux températures de mise en œuvre des enrobés bitumineux (90°C - 165°C). Dans un premier temps, une étude rhéologique indique qu'à ces températures, le bitume possède un comportement newtonien sur une large gamme de taux de cisaillement. Nous avons montré que la viscosité du bitume est peu sensible à l'ajout d'additifs mais qu'elle dépend essentiellement de la température. Nous suggérons que la viscosité volumique n'est pas adaptée pour comprendre les phénomènes mis en jeu. Nous proposons alors d'étudier le comportement rhéologique des bitumes en films minces (de quelques dizaines de micromètres). Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons employé une approche tribologique afin de mieux appréhender le comportement des systèmes liant/granulats. Des tests de frottement menés sur avec des matériaux modèles en présence de bitume révèlent qu'en régime de lubrification hydrodynamique, la réponse en frottement n'est pas sensible à l'additivation des bitumes mais à la température. En régime de lubrification limite, notre étude a montré que la réponse en frottement dépend de la température, des matériaux et de l'additivation des bitumes. Enfin, une approche interfaciale indique que les additifs modifient peu la tension superficielle du bitume et le mouillage des granulats dans l'air. En milieu aqueux, l'effet tensioactif de certains additifs est clairement mis en évidence par des essais de détermination de tension interfaciale et par des essais de mouillage. La combinaison de ces trois approches permet une meilleure compréhension des phénomènes se produisant aux niveaux des interfaces granulat/granulat et granulat/bitume
One way to produce Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) consists in adding chemicals to bitumen. Although several! kinds of additives are available on the market the mechanisms of this technology remains still not well understood. This thesis realized within a partnership between TOTAL and the Laboratory of Tribology and Systems Dynamic is focus on three axes to get a better understanding of these mechanisms. One singularity of our approach is due to the fact that experiments were performed at industrial processing temperatures (90°C- 165°C). ln a first lime, a rheological study has shown that bitumen exhibits a Newtonian behaviour at mixing and compacting temperatures. Bitumen viscosity mainly depends on temperature but in not very affected by the chemical additivation. We suggest that the bulk rheology is not adapted to understand the phenomena which are involved and we propose to study the behaviour of thin films of few tens of microns instead. ln a second lime, a tribological approach was employed to better understand mechanisms involved in binder/aggregate systems. Friction tests were performed with model materials. Results are that the friction answer is not sensible to the presence of additives but ta temperature in hydrodynamic lubrication range. ln boundary lubrication range, the response is material-, temperature- and additive-dependant. Finally, results of an interfacial study have shown that the interfacial tension of bitumen and that the wettability of aggregates are not very sensitive ta additives when the experiments are performed in air. When performed in an aqueous medium, interfacial tension measurements and wettability tests clearly allow to reveal the surfactant behaviour of effect of some additives. The combination of the three approaches allow a better understanding of phenomena which are involved at bitumen/aggregates and aggregates/aggregates interfaces

This thesis investigates the fatigue and stiffness properties of multigrade bitumen asphalt and the added effects of recycled asphalt pavements. Through vigorous four-point bending testing, this research highlighted the benefits multigrade bitumen and recycled asphalt has on the longevity of road pavements and the major environmental benefits. Future road pavement designers will be able to adopt these innovative materials and reduce required pavement thickness while utilising recycled materials.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Flexible pavement designers have a choice of two wearing course: either asphalt concrete or surfacing seals. The latter have been widely used by several countries as their preferred wearing course over other methods, especially countries with a limited number of average inhabitants per square kilometre. Moreover, the surfacing seals were identified as an efficient cost effective road preventive maintenance technique. Surfacing seals in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia cover about 65%, 80% and 90% of their surfaced road networks respectively. The preference of surfacing seals is due to their competitive initial cost and ease of construction. In South Africa, the life expectancy of surfacing seals varies between 8 and 12 years with an average of 10 years. This has not been the case in a number of surfacing seals constructed in winter, especially when the night recorded temperature is below 10oC. The dominant failure mechanism is ravelling (chip loss) soon after construction due to traffic loading. This chip loss is linked to the poor adhesion bond development rate in the bitumen-aggregate system during winter adverse conditions. In order to address the issue of premature chip loss the need for the development of a robust adhesion test method was identified. For that purpose, recently, researchers in the bitumen industry developed the Bitumen Bond Strength test method. This method was used in this study. This study intends to contribute to the understanding of binder-aggregate adhesion bond development for winter surfacing seals using the BBS test. Binder type, precoat type and conditioning, aggregate type and curing time are amongst the factors influencing winter seals adhesion bond performance. An experimental matrix involving three types of binder, two types of aggregate, four different precoating fluids, two precoat conditionings and two binder-curing times were then developed and investigated. Winter weather parameters affecting adhesion properties were also taken into consideration during the course of the investigation. Throughout the test, the procedure described in AASHTO TP 91-11 was followed. However, in order to enhance the control of the binder application temperature, a new method for hot applied binder sample preparation was developed as part of this study. The findings show that there is a significant difference between adhesion properties of the hot applied binders (70/100 and S-E1) and the emulsion (SC-E1). In most of the cases, the hot applied binders performed better than the emulsion. The failure mode observed was found to be linked to the condition of the precoating. The influence of the precoat type and conditioning, and effect of binder curing time were significantly highlighted. The use of a dry precoat benefited the adhesion bond strength up to around 50% relatively to the corresponding non-precoated combination. However, a decrement in the bond strength due to precoating of up to 28.7% was also observed. A statistical analysis using ANOVA did not illustrate any statistical significant effect of the aggregate type. The interaction effects analysis using ANOVA revealed the aggregate type interacting with precoat type to be the most influential interaction at level two. The precoat conditioning implication to the adhesion development rate, which influences the time for opening to traffic after construction, was illustrated. Insightful aspects on the compatibility between the binder type and precoat type and conditioning during the aggregate precoating practices and on the time for opening to traffic are highlighted. Finally, the repeatability analysis proved the BBS test to be a repeatable testing method with caution. Recommendations for further studies that could support the conclusions drawn in this study were provided.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Buigbare plaveiselontwerpers het 'n keuse van twee deklae: óf Asfalt of oppervlak seëls. Laasgenoemde word algemeen gebruik deur verskeie lande as hul voorkeur deklaag, veral die lande met beperkte aantal gemiddelde inwoners per vierkante kilometer. Verder, is die seëls geïdentifiseer as 'n doeltreffende koste-effektiewe deklaag tegniek. Oppervlakseëls in Nieu-Seeland, Suid-Afrika en Australië dek ongeveer 65%, 80% en 90% van hul padnetwerke onderskeidelik. Die seëls se voorkeur is te danke aan hul mededingende aanvanklike koste en eenvoudige vorm van die konstruksie. In Suid-Afrika wissel die seël se lewensverwagting tussen 8 en 12 jaar met 'n gemiddeld van 10 jaar. Dit is egter nie die geval van 'n aantal seëls wat in die winter gebou word nie, veral wanneer die aangetekende nagtemperatuur onder 10o C daal nie. Die dominante swigtingsmeganisme is stroping (klipverlies) kort na konstruksie. Hierdie klipverlies is gekoppel aan die power kleef-ontwikkeling van bitumen gedurende die winter. Ten einde die probleem van voortydige klipverlies aan te spreek het die behoefte vir die ontwikkeling van 'n robuuste toetsmetode ontstaan. Om hierdie rede het navorsers onlangs in die bitumenbedryf die “BBS toetsmetode” ontwikkel en is dié toetsmetode in hierdie studie gebruik. Hierdie studie beoog om by te dra tot die begrip van bindmiddel-klip kleefontwikkeling vir die winter seëls dmv die BBS toets. Die faktore, insluitend maar nie beperk tot bindmiddeltipe, voorafdekking (“PRECOAT”) -tipe en kondisionering, aggregaattipe en kuurtyd beïnvloed winter seëls se kleefeienskappe. 'n Eksperimentele matriks met drie tipes bindmiddels, twee tipes aggregate, vier verskillende voorafdekking-vloeistowwe, twee voorafdekking kondisionering en twee bindmiddel kuurtye is toe ontwikkel en ondersoek. Winter weer parameters wat kleefeienskappe beïnvloed is ook in ag geneem tydens die verloop van die ondersoek. Regdeur die studie is die prosedure AASHTO TP 91-11 gevolg, maar ten einde die beheer van die bindmiddel spuittemperatuur te verbeter, is ‘n nuwe metode vir warmspuit-bindmonsters voorbereiding ontwikkel as deel van hierdie studie. Die bevindinge toon dat daar 'n beduidende verskil tussen die kleefeienskappe van die warm aangewende bindmiddels (70/100 en S-E1) en die emulsie (SC-E1) is. In die meeste van die gevalle het die warmspuit-bindmiddels beter as emulsie gevaar. Daar is gevind dat die swigtingsmeganisme verbind word met die toestand van die voorafdekking. Die invloed van voorafdekkingtipe, kondisionering, en die effek van bindmiddelkuurtyd is duidelik uitgelig. Die gebruik van droë voorafdekking het die kleefkrag tot sowat 50% verhoog relatief tot die ooreenstemmende onbedekte klipkombinasie. Daar is egter ook ‘n verlaging van die kleefkrag weens voorafdekking gevind van tot so hoog soos 28,7 persent. Die statistiese ontleding met behulp van ANOVA het geen statisties beduidende effek van die verksillende aggregaattipe te vore gebring nie. Die interaksie-effek analise, met behulp van ANOVA, het wel die interaksie met voorafdekkingtipe met aggregaat die mees invloedryke bevestig. Die voorafdekking kondisioneering het ver rykende kleefkrag implikasies bloot gelê, wat die tyd vir die opening van die verkeer na konstruksie beïnvloed. Insigwekkende aspekte oor die versoenbaarheid tussen die bindmiddeltipe, voorafdekkingtipe, kondisionering, voorafdekkingpraktyk en tyd tot opening vir verkeer word uitgelig. Ten slotte, die herhaalbaarheidsanalise het die BBS toets as 'n herhaalbare toetsmetode met omsigtigheid bewys. Daar is aanbevelings tot verdere studies, wat uit die gevolgtrekking gekom het, gemaak.

The aim of this research is to characterise the laboratory fatigue performance of a typical foamed bitumen mix used in Western Australia. It has also investigated the applicability of Austroads fatigue equation for the design of in-situ foamed bitumen stabilised materials. A new four-point bending device was utilised as a scaled up version which allows testing of much larger beams by removing the constraint that the maximum width and thickness are dominated by maximum aggregate size.

Rutting is recognized to be the major distress mechanism in flexible pavements as a result of increase in tire pressures and axle loads. Rutting is caused by the accumulation of permanent deformation in all or some of the layers in the pavement structure. The accumulation of permanent deformation in the asphalt surfacing layer is now recognized to be the major component of rutting in flexible pavements. This is a consequence of increased tire pressures and axle loads, which subjects the asphalt surfacing layer nearest to the tire-pavement contact area to increased stresses. Thus the study of permanent deformation properties of asphalt mixtures has become the focus of research, which aim to mitigate or reduce rutting in flexible pavements. The research work reported in this thesis aims to contribute towards understanding of the material properties and factors affecting permanent deformation in asphalt mixtures, mechanisms of the permanent deformation, and methods of its prediction.

The specific objectives of this research work include; review and evaluation of available models for permanent deformation of asphalt concrete mixtures, investigation of the effect of volumetric composition, loading and temperature conditions on the permanent deformation of asphalt concrete, and the identification and definition of simple measures of resistance to permanent deformation. To meet the objectives of the study a laboratory investigation is conducted on several asphalt concrete specimens with varying volumetric composition. Two testing procedures are adopted; the repeated load triaxial and triaxial creep and recovery tests. The tests were conducted at two temperature levels of 25 and 50oC under varying stress conditions. A review of literature on factors affecting permanent deformation and available models for prediction of the permanent deformation is also conducted.

The literature review indicated that most of the research work done so far concentrated on evaluation of the effect on permanent deformation response of component material properties such as aggregate gradation, aggregate angularity and binder type (or grade). Most of the studies conducted on permanent deformation properties of asphalt mixtures were also found to be based on different testing procedures and methods of evaluation, which makes it difficult to compare them and draw firm conclusions. The literature also indicated that, as yet, there is no comprehensive model for deformation of asphalt concrete.

Results of tests conducted in this study are analysed to investigate the effect of volumetric composition, particularly binder content and void content, and loading conditions on the permanent deformation response of the mixture. Both the binder content and void content are found to significantly influence the permanent deformation characteristics. The effect of loading conditions, i.e., the confining stress and the deviatoric stress, is also found to be significant.

Throughout this study emphasis is placed on methods and parameters that are used to evaluate mixtures for their resistance to permanent deformation.The traditionally used parameters such as the slope and intercept of the power model are evaluated for their sensitivities to changes in volumetric composition. This evaluation is based on the premises that any measure of resistance to permanent deformation should be sensitive to changes in volumetric composition to be good enough. It is found that most of these parameters are not sensitive to changes in volumetric composition and therefore are not suitable for comparison of mixtures made from the same materials but with varying proportion of the components.

Permanent deformation in asphalt concrete is caused by both densification and shear deformation. The mode of deformation in asphalt concrete pavements, for greater part of their service life, is considered to be the shear deformation. Therefore it is necessary to evaluate mixtures for their susceptibility to shear deformation. The shear deformation manifests itself in the form of large lateral deformation relative to axial deformation. It is found that one dimensional analysis, which does not take the lateral deformation into account may lead to misleading results regarding the resistance to permanent deformation of mixtures. Therefore parameters which include volumetric and lateral strain are proposed for use in evaluation of mixtures.

Substantial effort is put into modelling the accumulation of permanent deformation under repeated loading. For this purpose two approaches were selected: the cyclic hardening model based on bounding surface plasticity concept and an elasto-viscoplastic model based on strain decomposition approach. The bounding surface plasticity approach is found to be a convenient method to model the accumulation of permanent deformation. It is demonstrated that deformations calculated using cyclic hardening model based on bounding surface plasticity fits the measured deformation quite well. The elasto-viscoplastic model, which is based on strain decomposition approach, provides a suitable method for analysis of creep and recovery test results. Deformations calculated using this model also fit the measured deformation quite well.

Finally a new composite measure of resistance to permanent deformation is developed. The resistance index is based on strain decomposition approach and is simple to calculate. The index incorporates a parameter related to shear susceptibility of mixtures and is sensitive to changes in volumetric composition. It is believed that this index can be used to compare and select mixtures at mixture design stage. If its applicability to other materials is proved by further research, it can also be linked to performance related specifications, as a simple measure of performance with regard to rutting.

Development of new asphalt technologies to reduce both energy consumption and CO2 production has attracted great interest in recent years. The use of foam bitumen, as one of them, is attractive due to the low investment and production cost. Formation and decay of foam bitumen is a highly dynamic temperature dependent process which makes characterization difficult. In this thesis, new experimental tools were developed and applied for characterizing the foam bitumen during the hot foaming process.  One of the main goals of this study was to improve understanding and characterization of the foam bitumen formation and decay. X-ray radiography was used to study the formation and decay of foam bitumen in 2D representation. The results demonstrate that the morphology of bubble formation depends on the types of bitumen used. Moreover, theoretical investigation based on the 3D X-ray computed tomography scan dataset of bubble merging showed that the disjoining pressure increased as the gap between the bubbles in the surface layer (foam film) decreased with time and finally was ruptured.   Examining the foam bitumen stream right at the nozzle revealed that foam bitumen at a very early stage contains fragmented pieces of irregular size rather resembling a liquid than foam. The result from thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated that residual water content depends on the initial water content, and was found to be between 38 wt% and 48 wt% of the initial water content of 4 wt% to 6 wt%. Moreover the influence of viscosity and surface tension on bubble shape and rise velocity of the bubbles using level-set method was implemented in finite element method. The modeling results were compared with bubble shape correlation map from literature. The results indicated that the bubble shapes are more dependent on the surface tension parameters than to the viscosity of the bitumen, whereas the bitumen viscosity is dominant for bubble rising velocity.

QC 20160303

This thesis evaluates the rheological behaviour of asphalt mixtures and the corresponding extracted binders from the mixtures containing different amounts of Reclaimed Asphalt (RA). Generally, the use of RA is limited to certain amounts. The study materials are Stone Mastic Asphalts including a control sample with 0% RA, and other samples with RA rates of 30%, 60% and 100%. Another set of studied mixtures are Asphalt Concretes (AC) types with again a control mix having 0% RA rate and the other mixtures designs containing 30%, 60% and 90% of reclaimed asphalt which also contain additives. In addition to the bitumen samples extracted from asphalt mixes, there are bitumen samples directly extracted from the original RA. To characterize the viscoelastic behaviour of the binders, Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) tests were conducted on bitumen specimens. The resulting influence of the RA content in the bituminous binders are illustrated through master curves, black diagrams and Cole-Cole plots with regressing these experimental data by the application of the analogical 2S2P1D and the analytical CA model. The advantage of the CA model is in its limited number of parameters and thus is a simple model to use. The 2S2P1D model is an analogical rheological model for the prediction of the linear viscoelastic properties of both asphalt binders and mixtures. In order to study the influence of RA on mixtures, the Indirect Tensile Test (ITT) has been conducted. The master curves of different mixture samples are evaluated by regressing the test data points to a sigmoidal function and subsequently by comparing the master curves, the influence of RA materials is studied. The thesis also focusses on the applicability and also differences of CA model and 2S2P1D model for bitumen samples and the sigmoid function for the mixtures and presents the influence of the RA rate on the investigated model parameters.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The increased use of reclaimed asphalt (RA) in Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSMs), shortcomings in the existing design guidelines and manuals and ongoing developments in the concepts and understanding of these materials require further research into the fundamental properties and behaviour of BSMs. The state-of-the-art of foamed bitumen techniques is reviewed in the literature study. Current best practices in the design of BSMs and pavements incorporating such materials are also included in this literature study. Shortcomings and areas for further improvement of the design practice have been identified. With new environmental legislation, the importance of BSM technology including RA as an environmentally-friendlier and more sustainable construction technique is set to increase in the coming years. Changes in the behaviour of materials and failure mechanisms of BSM mixes are long-term phenomena. This implies that the study of the physico-chemical and mechanical properties of the mixes with increasing amount of RA is vital. Therefore, fundamental understandings of moisture damage and thermo-physical characteristics, which are related to material properties, are required. The main objective of this study is to advance BSM technology by assessing the influence of the selected materials on durability behaviour, temperature distribution and long-term performance in all phases of application (i.e. mix design, construction, and in-service condition). This study begins with a comprehensive literature review of research dealing with the interactions between RA and mineral aggregates. The properties of RA and mineral aggregates were reviewed. This was followed by a review into the mechanical properties of BSM-foam mixes with high percentage of RA and its durability performance. Factors influencing the temperature gradient of BSMs were then identified. Achieving a better understanding of the fundamental performance properties and temperature influence on the behaviour of BSMs with high percentage of RA is one of the key factors of this research, with a view to using the extended knowledge for improvements to current mix design and structural design practices. Finally, the fundamental theories on thermo-conductivity and the mechanical properties of the BSM were used to create a relationship between temperature and mechanical properties in a pavement section. A laboratory testing programme was set up to study the properties and behaviour of BSMs and to establish links with the compositional factors, i.e. the type of binder used, the percentage of RA in the mix and the addition of a small amount of cement as active filler. BSMs were blended in three different proportions of RA and good quality crushed stone materials: 100% RA (with 2 % bitumen content), 50% RA and 50% G2 Hornfels crushed stone (with 2.1% bitumen content) and 100% G2 (with 2.3 % bitumen content). Tri-axial testing was carried out to determine shear parameters, resilient modulus and permanent deformation behaviour, while brushing testing was carried out to determine the possible durability performance of the BSMs. The mixture durability in terms of moisture damage was investigated. Temperature data were collected and a model to accurately simulate the temperature distribution in the BSMs was identified and proposed for further investigation and validation. It was found from the laboratory temperature data collected in this study that the temperature gradient varied according to the depth of the BSMs. A considerable part of the efforts of this study were dedicated to characterise and model the temperature distribution in a pavement section, taking into account the mechanical properties and performance of the BSMs at different temperature layers. The study provides an insight into fundamental mechanical performance, material durability properties, and the thermal capacity and conductivity of the BSM-foam mixes with high percentage of RA. This will assist in improving the current procedure for selection, combining and formulation of the mix matrices for BSMs. In addition, the study provides guidelines that will enable practitioners to confidently understand the relationship between temperature gradient and mechanical behaviours of BSM-foam pavement section. The specific durability-related issues addressed in this study are substance for future research.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die toenemende gebruik van herwonne asfalt (Engels: reclaimed asphalt (RA)) in bitumen gestabiliseerde materiaal (Engels: Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSMs)), tekortkominge in die bestaande ontwerpriglyne- en handleidings en deurlopende verbeteringe in die konsepte en begrip van hierdie material vereis verdere navorsing oor die fundamentele eienskappe en gedrag van BSM. In die literatuurstudie word die huidige stand van kennis van die ontwerp van skuimbitumentegnieke ondersoek. Die literatuurstudie dek ook die huidige beste praktyke in die ontwerp van BSM en plaveisels wat hierdie materiale insluit. Tekortkominge en areas van verdere verbetering in die ontwerppraktyke is geïdentifiseer. Onlangse omgewingswetgewing verhoog die belangrikheid van BSM tegnologie, insluitend RA, as ‘n meer omgewingsvriendelike en volhoubare konstruksie-tegniek. Hierdie faktor sal in die toekoms al hoe belangriker word. Die verandering in die gedrag van materiaal en die falingsmeganismes van BSM mengsels is langtermynverskynsels. Dit impliseer dat die studie van die fisio-chemiese en meganiese eienskappe van mengsels met toenemende verhoudings van RA van kardinale belang is’n Fundamentele begrip van die vogskade en temo-fisiese eienskappe, wat verwant is aan die materiale se eienskappe, word vereis. Die primêre doelwit van die studie is die bevordering van BSM tegnologie deur die invloed van die geselekteerde materiale op duursaamheid, temperatuurverspreiding en langtermyn gedrag in al die fases van toepassing (mengselontwerp, konstruksie en in-dienstoestand) te bepaal. Die verhandeling begin met ‘n omvattende literatuuroorsig van navorsing oor die interaksie tussen RA en mineraalaggregate. Die eienskappe van RA en die mineraalaggregate word bespreek. Dit word gevolg deur ‘n oorsig van die meganiese eienskappe van die BSM-skuimbitumenmengsels met ‘n hoë persentasie RA en die duursaamheidgedrag daarvan. Faktore wat die temperatuurgradient van BSM beïnvloed word dan aangetoon. ‘n Beter begrip van die fundamentele gedragseienskappe en die invloed van temperatuur op die gedrag van BSM met ‘n hoë persentasie RA is een van die sleutelfaktore van hierdie navorsing. Dit het ten doel om die uitgebreide kennis te gebruik om huidige mengselontwerp en strukturele ontwerppraktyke te verbeter. Laastens is die fundamentele teorie van termogeleiding en die meganiese eienskappe van BSM gebruik om ‘n verhouding tussen temperature en meganiese eienskappe in ‘n plaveiselsnit te ontwikkel. ‘n Laboratoriumtoetsprogram is opgestel om die eienskappe en gedrag van BSM te bestudeer en om verwantskappe tussen samestellende faktore soos die tipe bindmiddel gebruik, die persentasie RA in die mengsel en die toediening van klein hoeveelhede sement as aktiewe vuller te bepaal. BSM is in drie verskillende verhoudings van RA en goeie gehalte gebreekte klipmateriaal vermeng: 100% RA met 2 % bitumen, 50% RA en 50 % G2 Hornfels gebreekte klip met 2.1 % bitumen en 100% G2 met 2.3 % bitumen. Drie-assige druktoetse is gebruik om skuifsterkteparameters, elastiese modulus en permanente vervormingsgedrag te bepaal. Borseltoetse is gebruik om die duursaamheidgedrag van BSM te bepaal. Die mengsels se duursaamheid is ook in terme van vogskade ondersoek.

Les bitumes subissent des phenomenes de vieillissement qui se repercutent sur la degradation des chaussees bitumeuses. Des etudes ont ete entreprises pour connaitre les causes et les structures responsables de ce vieillissement dans le but de trouver des additifs appropries capables d'empecher cette degradation. L'analyse d'un bitume apres vieillissement montre une augmentation de la teneur en asphaltenes et une apparition de fonctions polaires. Notre travail consiste a modeliser ce vieillissement. Le phenalene et ses derives semblent etre de bons modeles des structures polyaromatiques presentes dans les asphaltenes. Nous avons realise, pour modeliser l'augmentation de la teneur en asphaltenes, des reactions d'additions nucleophiles de derives soufres sur la phenalenone. Parallelement, dans le but de representer l'apparition des fonctions polaires telles que les sulfoxydes et les carbonyles, nous avons realise des reactions d'oxydation de derives soufres et de groupements methyleniques benzyliques. Ces resultats s'averent interessants puisqu'ils permettent de conclure que les derives du phenalene sont des modeles correctement choisis pour les asphaltenes et que les modeles de reaction propose tel que l'addition nucleophile et de l'oxydation explique de facon satisfaisante l'augmentation de la teneur en asphaltenes et l'apparition de fonctions polaires detectes lors du vieillissement des bitumes

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The use of foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion as binders for use in road rehabilitation is gaining favour globally. High-level road facilities through to unpaved roads requiring attention are being treated with these binders due to environmental, economic and practical benefits in the use of cold bituminous mixes. In addition, static and mobile plant with the capability of performing stabilisation using bitumenemulsion and foamed bitumen has become commercially available and widely utilised, as a result of development in recycling technology and lapse in patent rights on foam nozzles. An understanding of the behaviour and failure mechanisms of these cold mixes, as well as sound guidelines for the mix design procedures of cold mixes, especially foamed bitumen, and design guidelines for pavements structures incorporating these materials, are lacking however. Mix designs are carried out primarily on the basis of experience and pavement designs are empirically based. The main objective of this dissertation is to address the need for a fundamental understanding of foamed bitumen and foamed bitumen mixes, and in so doing to develop techniques for adjudicating mixes, optimising their composition and rationalising their design both as mixes and as layers in road pavements. At the same time the exploration of new applications for foamed bitumen and the possibilities for progressive related technology, is a priority. To commence, this study includes an appraisal of most of the literature available on foamed bitumen. This is followed by a fundamental investigation of the colloidal mass of foam that is produced when small quantities of cold water are added to hot bitumen. Factors influencing the quality of the foam are identified and a Foam Index is developed for characterisation and optimisation of the foam. The spatial composition of a cold foamed bitumen mix, including Interaction of the foam with moist mineral aggregate, is also addressed in this dissertation. In particular, the stiffening of the filler mastic using foamed bitumen as binder is analysed. Techniques of optimising the sand type and content in the mix are also developed and guidelines for desired aggregate structures for foam treatment are established. The temperature of the mineral aggregate has been shown to have a profound influence on the behaviour and performance of a foamed bitumen mix. This has been selected as a focal area of further investigation and the research has lead to the development of a new process called "The half-warm foamed bitumen treatment process" that can produce mixes with almost the quality of hot mix asphalt with up to 40% less energy consumption. Other processes developed in this research include the use of cold mix asphaltic blocks for construction of road pavements in developing areas. This technology enhances the use of a high labour component in road construction in an economically competitive manner. The dissertation provides details for mix design and construction of the cold mix blocks. Finally, the study includes models for the performance prediction of foamed bitumen mixes. In particular, foamed mixes that exhibit stress-dependent behaviour have been investigated and models established on the basis of triaxial testing and accelerated pavement testing for the prediction of permanent deformation of such layers under repeated loading. Practical applications of the research findings are summarised in Appendix F. This includes: • methods for optimisation of the foamed bitumen properties, • guidelines for the selection of the ideal aggregate structure for cold foamed mixes, • procedures for carrying out cold mix design in the laboratory (including mixing, compaction and curing), • procedures for manufacturing half-warm foamed mixes in the laboratory, • methods for manufacturing cold mix blocks, and • pavement design methods for road structures incorporating foamed mix layers. Appendix G outlines statistical techniques that are relevant to the design of experiments in pavement engineering including examples of applications of these procedures. The techniques are applied selectively in the relevant chapters of the dissertation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die gebruik van skuim bitumen en bitumen emulsie as bindmidel in pad rehabilitasie begin groter voorkeur wêreldwyd geniet. Van hoë vlak padfasiliteite tot ongeplaveide paaie wat aandag benodig, word met hierdie binders behandel vanweë die omgewings-, ekonomiese en praktiese voordele wat hierdie koue bitumen mengsels inhou. Voorts is statiese en mobiele masjinerie wat die vermoë het om stabilisasie in die gebruik van bitumenemulsie en skuimbitumen te bewerkstellig, in die handel verkrygbaar. Dit word algemeen gebruik as 'n uitvloeisel van ontwikkelings in herwinningstegnologie en die verslapping van patenteregte op skuim sproeikoppe. 'n Leemte bestaan in die begrip van die gedrags- en swigtingsmeganismes van hierdie koue mengsels, asook goeie riglyne vir die mengselontwerp van koue mengsels en in besonder skuimbitumen, en ontwerpriglyne vir plaveisel strukture waar hierdie materiaal geinkorporeer is. Mengselontwerpe word hoofsaaklik uitgevoer op grond van ondervinding, terwyl plaveiselontwerpe empiries gebaseer is. Die hoofdoel van die verhandeling is om die behoefte vir 'n fundamentele begrip van skuim bitumen en skuimbitumen mengsels aan te spreek, en daardeur tegnieke te ontwikkel vir die be-oordeling van mengsels, optimsering van hul samestelling en rasionalisering van hulontwerp vir beide mengsels en plaveisellae. Terselfdertyd is die ondersoek na nuwe toepassings van skuim bitumen en die moontlikhede van nuwe tegnologie 'n prioriteit. As beginpunt sluit hierdie studie 'n waardeskatting van die meeste literatuur beskikbaar op skuim bitumen in. Dit word gevolg deur 'n basiese ondersoek na die kolloidale massa van skuim wat geproduseer word wanneer klein hoeveelhede koue water by warm bitumen gevoeg word. Faktore wat die gehalte van die skuim beinvloed word uitgewys en 'n Skuim Indeks is ontwikkel vir die karakterisering en optimisering van die skuim. Die ruimtelike samestelling van 'n koue bitumen mengsel, wat die interaksie van die skuim met vogtige minerale samevoegings (aggregate) insluit, word ook aangespreek. Besondere aandag word gewy aan die verharding van die vuiler mastiekgom wat gebruik word as bitumen binder. Tegnieke om die sandtipe en inhoud van die mengsel te optimiseer is ontwikkel en riglyne vir die verlangde samevoegingstrukture (aggregate strukture) vir skuimbehandeling is opgestel. Daar is bevind dat die temperatuur van die minerale aggregaat 'n duidelike invloed op die gedrag en verrigting van 'n skuimbitumen mengsel het. Dit is gekies as In fokuspunt vir verdere studie en die navorsingswerk daarop het gelei tot die ontwikkeling van In nuwe proses wat "Die half-warm skuim bitumen behandelings proses" genoem word. Hierdie proses produseer mengsels wat byna gelykstaande is aan die gehalte van warm gemengde asfalt, maar met tot 40% minder energie verbruik. Ander prosesse wat met dié navorsing ontwikkel is, sluit koue gemengde asfaltiese blokke in, wat gebruik word in die konstruksie van padplaveisel in ontwikkelende gebiede. Hierdie tegnologie bevorder die ekonomiese gebruik van 'n hoë arbeidskomponent in padkonstruksie. Die studie stel besonderhede vir die mengselontwerp en konstruksie vir koue gemengde blokke voor. Laastens sluit die studie modelle in vir die werkverrigtingsvoorspelling van skuimbitumen mengsels. Op basis van drie-assige proewe in die laboratorium en versnelde belasting van paaie is modelle ontwikkel vir skuim bitumen mengsels wat spanningsafhanklike gedrag vertoon (die sogenaamde "granulêre" groep) om die permanente deformasie in die lae as gevolg van herhaalde verkeersbelasting te voorspel. 'n Opsomming van al die praktiese toepassings van die ontwikkelings van die navorsing word in Appendix F verskaf. Dit sluit in: • optimesering van die eienskappe van skuimbitumen, • riglyne vir gewenste samestelling van aggregaat in skuimbitumen mengsels, • ontwerp metodes vir koue skuimbitumen mengsels in die laboratorium (meng, verdigting en curing), • produksie metodes vir half-warme mensels in die laboratorium, • produksie metodes vir blokke wat met koue mengsels gemaak word, en • plaveiselontwerp metodes van strukture wat skuimbitumen lae inkorporeer. Appendix G gee 'n oorsig van statistiese tegnieke wat relevant is vir die ontwerp van eksperimente, insluitend voorbeelde van toepassings van die prosedures in plaveiselingenieurswese. Die tegnieke word selektief toegepas in die relevante hoofstukke van die verhandeling.

Cold mix asphalt (CMA) emulsion technology could become an attractive option for the road industry as it offers lower startup and equipment installation costs, energy consumption and environmental impact than traditional alternatives. The adhesion between bitumen and aggregates is influenced by diverse parameters, such as changes in surface free energies of the binder and aggregates or the presence of moisture or dust on the surface of aggregates, mixing temperatures, surface textures (including open porosity), nature of the minerals present and their surface chemical composition, as well as additives in the binder phase. The performance of cold asphalt mixtures is strongly influenced by the wetting of bitumen on surfaces of the aggregates, which is governed by breaking and coalescence processes in bitumen emulsions. Better understanding of these processes is required. Thus, in the work this thesis is based upon, the surface free energies of both minerals/aggregates and binders were characterized using two approaches, based on contact angles and vapor sorption methods. The precise specific surface areas of four kinds of aggregates and seven minerals were determined using an approach based on BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller) theory, by measuring the physical adsorption of selected gas vapors on their surfaces and calculating the amount of adsorbed vapors corresponding to monolayer occupancy on the surfaces. Interfacial bond strengths between bitumen and aggregates were calculated based on measured surface free energy components of minerals/aggregates and binders, in both dry and wet conditions. In addition, a new experimental method has been developed to study bitumen coalescence by monitoring the shape relaxation of bitumen droplets in an emulsion environment. Using this method, the coalescence of spherical droplets of different bitumen grades has been correlated with neck growth, densification and changes in surface area during the coalescence process. The test protocol was designed to study the coalescence process in varied environmental conditions provided by a climate-controlled chamber. Presented results show that temperature and other variables influence kinetics of the relaxation process. They also show that the developed test procedure is repeatable and suitable for studying larger-scale coalescence processes. However, possible differences in measured parametric relationships between the bitumen emulsion scale and larger scales require further investigation. There are several different research directions that can be explored for the continuation of the research presented in this thesis. For instance, the rationale of the developed method for analyzing coalescence processes in bitumen emulsions rests on the assumption that the results are applicable to large-scale processes, which requires validation. A linear relationship between the scales is not essential, but it is important to be able to determine the scaling function. Even more importantly, qualitative effects of the investigated parameters require further confirmation. To overcome the laboratory limitations and assist in the determination of appropriate scaling functions further research could focus on the development of a three-dimensional multiphase model to study coalescence processes in more detail, including effects of surfactants, pH and other additives such as mineral fillers and salts. Additionally, better understanding of the breaking process and water-push out could help significantly to optimize CMA mix design. Different methods, both numerical and experimental could be explored for this.
Cold mix asphalt (CMA) eller kall asfaltbetong med hjälp av emulsionsteknik kan vara ett attraktivt alternativ för vägbyggnadsindustrin då det möjliggör lägre uppstart- och investeringskostnader, lägre energiförbrukning och mindre miljöpåverkan än traditionella alternativ. Adhesionen mellan bindemedel och stenpartiklarna påverkas av ett flertal parametrar, så som förändring i fri ytenergi hos både bindemedel och partiklar i närvaro av fukt eller damm på stenytorna, blandningstemperatur, yttextur (inklusive ytporositet), mineralegenskaper och ytornas kemiska sammansättning lika väl som tillsatsmedel i bindemedlen. Beteendet hos kall asfaltbetong är starkt påverkad av vätningsegenskaperna hos bindemedlet när det kommer i kontakt med stenmaterialet och detta i sin tur är beroende på bitumenemulsionens brytegenskaper och förmåga att blandas. Bättre förståelse av dessa processer är av största vikt. I detta arbete är avhandlingen baserad på fri ytenergi hos både mineraler/aggregat och bindemedel, baserat på kontaktvinkel och på ångabsorptionsmetoder. Den exakta specifika ytan hos fyra typer av aggregat och sju mineraler undersöktes med en metod baserad på BET (Brunauer, Emmett och Teller):s teorier genom att mäta den fysiska adsorptionen av utvalda gaser på ytorna och beräkna mängden adsorberad ånga som korresponderade mot ytlagret. Styrkan hos kontaktytornas bindning mellan bindemedlet och stenaggregaten beräknades baserat på mätningar av den fria ytenergin hos bägge ingående komponenterna, dels i torrhet dels i våta omgivningar. Som tillägg har en ny experimentell metod utvecklats för att studera bitumens blandbarhet genom att studera bitumendroppars relaxation i en emulsionsmiljö. Genom att använda denna metod har korelationen mellan sväriska droppar av bitumen undersökts mot förändringen i ytans area under blandningsprocessen. Testprotokollet utformades för att studera blandningsprocessen i varierande miljöer i en klimatkammare. Presenterade resultat visar att temperatur och andra variabler påverkar de kinetiska förhållandena vid relaxationsprocessen. De visar även att den utvecklade testmetoden är repeterbar och passar för studier av storskaliga blandningsprocesser. Det bör dock påpekas att vidare studier krävs för att påvisa skillnaderna mellan bitumenemulsionsskalan och större skalor. Framtida forskning kommer att koncentreras på utveckling av tredimensionella multifas­modeller för att studera blandningsförlopp på en mer detaljerad nivå, inkluderande effekter på ytaktiva ämnen, pH-värden och andra additativ så som mineralfiller och salt. Som tillägg kommer nyttan av nya karaktäriseringsmetoder att utvärderas, så som lågvikelspridning av neutroner eller kombinationer av röntgen, neutronradiologi och datortomografi, för att studera brytmekanismer hos bitumenemulsioner vid kontakt med mineraler och aggregat.

QC 20160901

L'oxydation et le vieillissement de la matiere se traduisent le plus souvent par des evolutions structurales entrainant des modifications de comportement. Ceci est particulierement important en industrie, notamment pour les produits fossiles et derives. Ainsi, les phenomenes de vieillissement des bitumes routiers peuvent etre suivis par differentes methodes physiques et rheologiques. Cependant, pour mieux les apprehender, il est necessaire d'etudier l'evolution chimique des bitumes, en preservant au maximum leur integralite (approche globale). L'etude de leur oxydation apres vieillissement par test rtfot (en film mince, a chaud et sous air) ou en service (sur la route), a ete menee ponctuellement par prise de spectres irtf et de fluorescence uv en excitation-emission synchrones (ees). L'evolution des bitumes a ete simulee par oxydation en continu, dans une cellule irtf mise au point a cet effet. Resituer les phenomenes naturels et les tests industriels, en comparant les indices obtenus en discontinu avec ceux en continu, a permis de mieux apprehender les chemins reactionnels de ces matieres organiques complexes. Dans cet objectif, des indices de vieillissement ont ete determines a partir des spectres des bitumes et de leurs fractions asphalteniques et malteniques. En fluorescence uv ees, ces indices traduisent l'etat de condensation des especes aromatiques presentes. En irtf, les indices decrivent les structures chimiques et les groupements fonctionnels. Leur evolution est correlee a celle des indices de fluorescence. Cette etude a permis de mettre en evidence des differences de reactivite selon l'origine du bitume (sa composition, etc. ) et les conditions d'utilisation. L'analyse en composantes principales (acp) des bitumes, en fonction soit de leurs proprietes rheologiques et mecaniques, soit de leurs indices spectrometriques, est semblable. En consequence, l'influence du taux et de la nature de certaines structures chimiques du liant sur ses proprietes rheologiques est indeniable. Il est maintenant possible, connaissant la structure initiale des bitumes, d'estimer sinon de prevoir une partie de leurs comportements rheologiques et chimiques, durant les vieillissements thermiques et sur site, par une regression multilineaire de certains indices spectrometriques. L'interet des outils analytiques developpes (indices spectrometriques d'irtf et de fluorescence uv), simples a realiser, ne s'arrete pas a l'etude du vieillissement des bitumes. En effet, l'etude prospective realisee sur les bitumes polymeres a aussi demontre la pertinence de l'information apportee par cette methodologie analytique. Les fractions bitumineuses responsables du gonflement du polymere ont ainsi ete determinees. De meme, il est possible, par comparaison avec une banque de donnees spectrales, de prevoir les phenomenes de demixtion de polymere au sein du bitume et l'interet industriel de ces melanges

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of crumb rubber on the performance characteristics of porous asphalt mixture in terms of binder/aggregates affinity and mixture cohesion. The recycling of scrap tires in asphalt pavements appears as an important alternative providing a large-scale market. The characteristics of bitumen are very important with regard to service life of porous asphalt pavement. The experimental study consists of two main steps: Step I, sample fabrication by Marshall method with and without crumb rubber (worth mentioning that the mix design was performed in the first stage of the research.) and Step II, was dedicated to testing procedure in in order to investigate on performance characteristics of the porous asphalt mixtures. During the experimental work in accordance to the Cantabro weight loss, to obtain the grade of cohesion between the aggregate and bitumen, the Rolling Bottle Test (RBT) in order to investigate on the effects of CR on bitumen affinity have been conducted and the results were compared. The experimental tests result which has been performed in the laboratory of the University of Bologna shows that adding CR in both Cantabro weight loss and RBT could enhance the cohesion and affinity properties, which represents higher resistance to early raveling and stripping.

Incorporating recycled tyre rubber into flexible pavement applications by means of Recycled Tyre Rubber-Modified Bitumen RTR-MBs would solve a serious waste problem, save energy and materials, and enhance pavement life and performance. On the other hand, the excessive high-temperature viscosity of rubberised binders imposes handling difficulties during the mixing and compaction process. Therefore, producing rubberised binders with acceptable high-temperature viscosity, and equally having desirable mechanical properties that are truly reflected in asphalt mixtures, was the main aim of this study. Three different types of recycled tyre rubber, with two different base bitumens, were selected to produce different combinations of rubberised binders. The three different sources of recycled tyre rubber are; (1) normal ambiently produced tyre rubber (2) cryogenically produced tyre rubber that was pre-treated with Warm Mix Additive (Sasobit®) in order to reduce the high-temperature viscosity of rubberised binders and (3) normal ambiently produced recycled tyre rubber containing 20% devulcanised rubber. The two base bitumens were selected with large differences in their physical and rheological properties in order to identify the effect of the base bitumen on the interaction mechanism and the final rubberised bitumen properties; a hard base bitumen with a penetration of 40 dmm and a soft bitumen with a penetration of 200 dmm were, therefore, chosen. The laboratory experimental design has been divided into three main parts in order to accomplish the main objectives of the study; Part 1: Optimise the blending variables (temperature and time) based on the rheological characteristics of binders. This was carried out through low shear mixing by using the Brookfield Viscometer with a modified Dual Helical Impeller (DHI). The blending variables (temperature and time) were investigated based on their influence on measurements of the linear and nonlinear viscoelastic properties. The rheological measurements including dynamic mechanics analysis (DMA) and Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) tests were conducted using the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). Part 2: Manufacture the rubberised bitumens by using the Silverson L4RT High Shear Mixer based on the optimised blending variables that were identified from Part 1. The produced rubberised bitumens in addition to their base bitumens were characterised for their fatigue and rutting properties. Different test methods were used to evaluate the fatigue and rutting resistance of binders. The fatigue testing involved the SHRP parameter, Time Sweep tests and the essential work of fracture using the double-edged notched tension (DENT) test. The dissipated energy approach was used to characterise the fatigue properties of binders. The effect of artificial ageing (short and long term ageing) was also investigated. The rutting testing involved the SHRP parameter, Shenoy Parameter, Zero Shear Viscosity, and non-recoverable compliance Jnr from the MSCR test. Part 3: A typical stone mastic gradation (10mm) suitable for surface courses was selected from the British specification BS EN 13108-5/ PD 6691:2007 for designing rubberised bitumen mixtures (using the different rubberised bitumens from Part 2) in addition to the control mixture (without rubber). The fatigue and rutting properties of different mixtures were evaluated. The fatigue testing was carried out using the Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test in the Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT machine) equipment and SuperPave Indirect Tensile Test IDT using the INSTRON. The rutting was evaluated using the Repeated Load Axial Test (RLAT) in the NAT machine. Also, the mixture testing included evaluating the stiffness of mixtures and moisture susceptibility using the Indirect Tensile Stiffness Test (ITSM). The results of this work have indicated that pre-treatment of the recycled rubber can significantly reduce the high-temperature viscosity; however, the fracture properties of binders are compromised, i.e. it makes the bituminous binders fragile and hence more susceptible to cracking. In general, the addition of rubber can produce bituminous materials with enhanced rutting and fatigue characteristics. This is especially evident for rubberised bitumen manufactured using very soft base bitumen (200 dmm penetration). The results of the RLAT have revealed that mixtures made using this binder were even more rutting resistant than mixtures made using the hard base bitumen H (40 dmm penetration). Such results suggest that rubberised bitumens produced with a very soft base bitumen can be a very effective option for pavements that are prone to both low temperature cracking and permanent deformation. All test methods and parameters, for binders and mixtures, have proven that the addition of rubber can improve the fatigue and rutting properties of materials.

Roads are assets to the society and an integral component in the development of a nation’s infrastructure. To build and maintain roads; considerable amounts of materials are required which consume quite an amount of electrical and thermal energy for production, processing and laying. The resources (materials and the sources of energy) should be utilized efficiently to avoid wastes and higher costs in terms of the currency and the environment. In order to enable quantification of the potential environmental impacts due to the construction, maintenance and disposal of roads, an open life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for asphalt pavements was developed. Emphasis was given on the calculation and allocation of energy used for the binder and the additives. Asphalt mixtures properties can be enhanced against rutting and cracking by modifying the binder with additives. Even though the immediate benefits of using additives such as polymers and waxes to modify the binder properties are rather well documented, the effects of such modification over the lifetime of a road are seldom considered. A method for calculating energy allocation in additives was suggested. The different choices regarding both the framework design and the case specific system boundaries were done in cooperation with the asphalt industry and the construction companies in order to increase the relevance and the quality of the assessment. Case-studies were performed to demonstrate the use of the LCA framework. The suggested LCA framework was demonstrated in a limited case study (A) of a typical Swedish asphalt pavement. Sensitivity analyses were also done to show the effect and the importance of the transport distances and the use of efficiently produced electricity mix. It was concluded that the asphalt production and materials transportation were the two most energy consuming processes that also emit the most GreenHouse Gases (GHG’s). The GHG’s, however, are largely depending on the fuel type and the electricity mix. It was also concluded that when progressing from LCA to its corresponding life cycle cost (LCC) the feedstock energy of the binder becomes highly relevant as the cost of the binder will be reflected in its alternative value as fuel. LCA studies can help to develop the long term perspective, linking performance to minimizing the overall energy consumption, use of resources and emissions. To demonstrate this, the newly developed open LCA framework was used for an unmodified and polymer modified asphalt pavement (Case study B). It was shown how polymer modification for improved performance affects the energy consumption and emissions during the life cycle of a road. From the case study (C) it was concluded that using bitumen with self-healing capacity can lead to a significant reduction in the GHG emissions and the energy usage.  Furthermore, it was concluded that better understanding of the binder would lead to better optimized pavement design and thereby to reduced energy consumption and emissions. Production energy limits for the wax and polymer were determined which can assist the additives manufacturers to modify their production procedures and help road authorities in setting ‘green’ limits to get a real benefit from the additives over the lifetime of a road.

QC 20120926

Thesis (MScEng (Civil Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
The need for a more reliable testing procedure for the characterisation and Quality Assurance/ Control of Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSMs), besides UCS and ITS testing, has long been recognised by the roads industry. In fact, at CAPSA 2004 and CAPSA 2007, discussions of improved test methods for granular materials, i.e. possible replacement tests for CBR procedures, were conducted in workshops. Triaxial testing for the evaluation of shear parameters is widely recognised as a reliable method of measuring these critical performance properties of granular and Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSMs). However, the triaxial test in its current state as a research test has little chance of extensive use by practitioners and commercial laboratories, because of complexity, cost and time issues. Major adaptations to the research triaxial test are necessary, before this useful test can have a chance of being accepted by road practitioners. The main aim of this study is to investigate possibilities of developing a simple, affordable, reliable and robust test for characterizing granular and bitumen stabilized materials thus linking test outcome with in-situ performance. This is achieved through the innovative design and manufacture of a prototype triaxial cell capable of accommodating 150 mm diameter by 300 mm deep specimens. The cell is simpler than the research (geotechnical) triaxial cell and the operational protocols have been streamlined, thereby reducing the time and steps required in assembling specimens and testing them. In order to ensure the development of an appropriate triaxial cell for industry, a survey was conducted aimed at investigating currently available facilities, testing capacity and resources within civil engineering laboratories in South Africa. Findings of the survey (Appendix 4) have provided guidance with regard to the nature and sophistication of any new tests to be developed. The survey highlighted some of the limitations and lack of sophistication of the current loading frames used for CBR and UCS testing such as lack of electronic LVDTs, limited overhead space, limited loading capacity and others. Most laboratories would need to invest in new loading facilities to carry out triaxial tests. A review of the test procedure for monotonic triaxial test showed that two main factors contribute to the complexity of the research (geotechnical) triaxial cell namely, time taken to assemble the specimen accurately in the cell and secondly the inherent design of the cell which makes it water and/or air tight at relatively high pressures. The design of the Simple Triaxial Test, therefore, was aimed at overcoming the drawbacks of research triaxial test e.g. fitting a membrane to each specimen to be tested, through considerable simplification by means of a new structure design and procedure of assembly of specimen into the cell. The advantage of addressing these issues would be reduction in the number of steps required in the test procedure and therefore reduction in testing time. The design of the cell particularly was preceded by a conceptualization process that involved investigation of numerous options. Concepts such as the bottle, encapsulated-tube, bottle and sandwich concepts were considered and given reality checks. In addition, available triaxial procedures of a similar nature e.g. Texas Triaxial, were evaluated and analyzed. Ultimately, with some trials and innovation, a design was developed for a simple triaxial cell comprising a steel casing with a latex tube which is then introduced around the specimen sitting on a base plate. It is based on the ‘tube concept’ in which the specimen acts like a ‘rim’ and the cell acts like a ‘tyre’ providing confinement to the triaxial specimens for testing, within the tube. This approach eliminates the use of O-rings and membranes for the specimen and tie-rods for the triaxial cell, thus reducing testing time considerably. The overall dimensions of the cell are 244 mm diameter by 372 mm height (Appendix 5). The cell was manufactured at Stellenbosch University Civil Engineering workshop and preliminary tests were conducted under this study. Parallel tests were also conducted with the Research Triaxial Test setup at Stellenbosch University in order to determine if preliminary results obtained with the Simple Triaxial Test setup were comparable therefore providing a means of validating the data. Results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that variability between Simple Triaxial Test (STT) and Research Triaxial Test (RTT) results is less significant whilst that within samples of STT and RTT results is quite significant. Comparisons also show that good correlation were obtained from Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Hornfels + 3.3 % Emulsion + 0 % Cement mix and mixes with the G2 base course aggregate whilst completely different correlation was obtained from RAP + 3.3 % Emulsion + 1% Cement. It is evident however that the differences observed stem from material variability i.e. random variability to one degree or the other and not to the STT apparatus. It is recommended for future research that more STT versus RTT testing be done especially on a mix with known mechanical properties when compacted to a specified dry density, e.g. graded crushed stone (G1) compacted to 100% mod. AASHTO. In summary, a locally made, low cost, relatively durable triaxial cell with relatively easy and quick specimen assembly procedures has been developed. It is now possible to perform triaxial tests on 150 mm diameter by 300 mm high specimen relatively easily and quickly. However, the challenge of validating results obtained, as well as improving the manufacture process of its main component, the tube, still remains.

In this Study, the surface energy was investigated for six penetration grade 70/100 bitumen binders. Wilhelmy Plate and the Sessile Drop were used to determine the contact angles. The purpose of this study was to compare the Wilhelmy Plate method with the Sessile Drop method, and to compare the significance of Owens-Wendt model with the significance of Acid Base model by correlating surface energy components. Better R2 –values were found for surface energy components by using the Owens-Wendt model than by using the Acid Base model. It was concluded here that Owens-Wendt model is a better model for determining surface energy components of bituminous binders than the Acid Base model since bituminous binders have low energy surfaces. For both instruments: When using Diiodomethane as a probe liquid the biggest variations among the binders were observed. When using water as a probe liquid the least variations among the binders were observed. The advancing contact angles for water determined for these six bitumen binders using the Wilhelmy plate method do not exceed the 90 degree by much, suggesting that bitumen is not extremely hydrophobic. The Sessile Drop method offers a faster and more convenient way to measure the surface energy components of bitumen binders than the Wilhelmy Plate method.

Det är viktigt att vägarna håller så länge som möjligt. En faktor som har en påverkan i asfaltens långvarighet är bitumen. När bitumenet föråldras försämras dess egenskaper som ökar risken att skador uppstår på asfalten. Med hjälp av olika tillsatser kan bitumenets egenskaper förbättras. En av dessa egenskaper är bitumenåldring. Sammanlagt finns det tre olika skeden i bitumenåldring. Av dessa tre skeden kommer tillverknings- och användningsskedet att undersökas. I detta examensarbete kommer tre olika tillsatsers påverkan i bitumenföråldring att undersökas. Detta kommer utföras genom laborationer där olika metoder som penetration, mjukpunkt, fraass brytpunkt, DSR, Iatroscan, GPC och FTIR kommer användas. Det kommer också utföras styvhetestester på de tillverkade asfaltskropparna. Resultaten som tas fram i detta examensarbete tyder på att Rediseten har bäst värden avseende åldring utav bitumen. Men detta tros inte vara på grund av tillsatsens inverkan i bitumen utan möjligheten att sänka temperaturen vid tillverkningen av asfalten.
It is important that roads last as long as possible. One factor that has a prolonged effect on asphalt is bitumen. When bitumen ages the characteristics deteriorates which increases the risk for damages on the asphalt. With the help of different additives the characteristics of bitumen could improve. One of these characteristics is bitumen aging. There are three different stages in bitumen aging. Of these three stages will the production and user stage be examined. In this thesis will three additives effect on bitumen aging be examined. This will be performed by doing laboratory experiments where different methods will be used such as penetration, softening point, fraass breaking point, DSR, latroscan, GPC and FTIR. Stiffness tests will be made on the constructed asphalt bodies. Results in this thesis interprets that Rediset has the best values when it comes to aging of bitumen. It is not believed to be the additives effect in the bitumen but the fact that the additive gives the opportunity to lower the temperature during the production of the asphalt.

Moisture induced damage of hot mix asphalt pavements has a significant economic impact in terms of excessive maintenance and rehabilitation costs. The moisture sensitivity of an asphalt mix depends on the combined effects of material properties, mixture design parameters, loading conditions and environmental factors. Traditional methods to assess moisture sensitivity of asphalt mixes rely on mechanical tests that evaluate the mix as a whole. These methods do not measure material properties and their role in moisture sensitivity of the mix independently. This information is very important to select materials resistant to moisture induced damage, or to modify locally available materials to improve their resistance to moisture damage for economic reasons. The objective of this research is to develop experimental and analytical tools to characterize important material properties that influence the moisture sensitivity of asphalt mixes. Quality of adhesion between the aggregate and bitumen binder in wet and dry conditions plays an important role on the moisture sensitivity of the asphalt mix. A part of this research work was to develop the Wilhelmy plate method and the Universal Sorption Device to measure the surface free energy components of the bitumen and aggregate with adequate precision and accuracy, respectively. Surface energy of these materials was used to identify parameters based on thermodynamics that can quantify their interfacial adhesion and propensity to debond in the presence of water. The thermodynamic parameters were shown to correlate well with the moisture sensitivity of asphalt mixes determined from laboratory tests. Specific surface areas of the aggregates were also used to account for the influence of mechanical interlocking at the micro scale. In some mixes, chemical bonding also contributes to the adhesion between bitumen and aggregate. The use of a micro calorimeter was introduced in this research as a versatile and fast tool to quantify the combined effects of physical and chemical adhesion between these materials.

Dans un contexte politique où les enjeux énergétiques et environnementaux sont de plus en plus importants, il faut favoriser les techniques économes en énergie et plus respectueuse de l'environnement. Parmi ces pratiques, l'utilisation d’enrobés à l’émulsion de bitume s'est révélée être prometteuse. La fabrication et la conception d’une chaussée comprenant une couche d’enrobé à l’émulsion sont très empiriques et reposent sur des compétences locales qui tendent à en limiter le développement. La première étape pour concevoir une chaussée consiste à connaître le comportement mécanique réversible engendrées par de lourd trafic de chaque matériau qui la compose. Lors d'une deuxième étape, ces valeurs doivent être comparées aux critères de durabilité mécanique des matériaux. Dans le cas de l'enrobé à l’émulsion, aucune loi de comportement mécanique n'a été établie pour tenir compte à la fois de son états frais et durcis. Ce travail de thèse vise donc à pallier à ce manque et à améliorer les connaissances acquises sur ce matériau. Pour cela, un modèle évolutif pour l’enrobé à l’émulsion intégrant l'évolution du matériau de son état frais à l'état durci a été développé. De plus, un nouvel essai de caractérisation a été développé et mis en place pour permettre de suivre l’évolution des performances mécaniques réversibles du matériau. Les résultats obtenus à partir des différentes campagnes d’essais ont permis de caler le modèle et de montrer la pertinence du modèle
Given a political context in which energy and environmental stakes have become increasingly dominant, road engineering practices have favoured saving energy and protecting the environment. Among these practices, the use of cold mixes treated with bitumen emulsion has proven to be a suitable technique. Cold mix design however, as well as the design of pavements including cold mix asphalt layers, is highly empirical and based on local skills. From prior experience, the transposition of established local rules from one site to another and their application to medium or heavy traffic pavements are not simple steps and tend to limit the development of this environmentally-friendly pavement technique. The first step in designing a pavement consists of knowing the stress-strain relationship of its constitutive materials in order to determine the stresses and strains generated by heavy lorry traffic. During a second step, these values must be compared with the mechanical durability of materials by reliance on damage tests comprising large numbers of load cycles. In the case of CMA, no mechanical behaviour law has been established to take into account both the fresh and cured states. This work aims to improve the knowledge acquired on this material. For this, an evolutiv model for the cold mix asphalt with bitumen emulsion incorporating the evolution of the material from its fresh state to its cured state has been developed. In addition, a new characterization test was developed and put in place to monitor the evolution of the reversible mechanical performance of the material. The results obtained from the test campaigns helped to calibrate the model and show the relevance of the model

For some time, sustainability has been the major principle of development across the globe, and all aspects of society are somehow affected by the concept. Companies are faced with stricter regulations and are forced to look for solutions to reduce their environmental impact. A key challenge in society is reducing dependence on fossil fuels in favour of renewable materials. The asphalt industry is a sector that has a substantial environmental impact where one of the main components of asphalt is the binder, bitumen, which is produced from petroleum. One prominent alternative with notable binding capabilities, which resembles the chemical structure of bitumen, is lignin. The work on substituting bitumen with lignin has come the furthest in the Netherlands, where they have been able to substitute 50 % of bitumen with lignin. Several demonstration roads have also been laid, and extensive research on the concept is ongoing. This study was conducted with the Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE) and the LignoCity initiative. The study aims to examine the current technical- and business market situation of lignin-based asphalt, and through this, present a roadmap for the introduction of lignin-based asphalt to the Swedish market. The research method is qualitative in the form of a case study with semi-structured interviews. The gathered data was analysed and presented through the processes of thematic analysis, and a systematic combining approach was utilized throughout the study. The study highlights both obstacles and potentials for the introduction of lignin-based asphalt to the Swedish market. The main obstacles were found to be the need for long-term testing and evaluation in Swedish climate and conditions. Passive manufacturers hesitant to invest in the concept, and buyers restrained by regulations also act as significant barriers. The findings suggest that projects and collaborations between actors on the market are necessary to encourage new developments. Procurement procedures and tax-policies should also be amended to favour sustainable solutions. Benefits such as carbon sequestration, noise reduction, and lower rolling resistance should be emphasized.

Asphalt materials exhibit self-healing characteristics. In order to evaluate the healing capabilities of these materials, numerous investigations are carried out by researchers. These investigations include various definitions of healing and mechanical test methods to quantify the extent of healing. Irrespective of these extensive studies, there is no unique method to evaluate the healing in asphalt materials. The biasedness to the test conditions and complexity due to the involvement of other phenomena such as stress relaxation and strain recovery make the characterization of healing a challenging process. The work presented in this thesis includes the development of experimental and analytical approaches to contribute to the understanding of healing in asphalt materials. The thesis focuses on both fracture mechanics and damage mechanics-based approaches to evaluate the healing in asphalt materials. In the first case, three-point bending tests are carried out to characterize the healing following the fracture. The experimental protocol is carefully designed to avoid the effect due to low temperature physical hardening of the material during the rest period. Different healing indices appealing to linear elastic fracture mechanics and viscoelastic fracture mechanics are compared. While healing is generally defined based on the recovery of certain parameters following the rest period, the comparison across healing indices shows that the quantitative interpretations of healing are dependent on the post-processing methods. The damage mechanics-based approach discussed in this study includes creep and recovery tests in shear. Here, unlike the first case, the samples are not fractured during the test. The damage is considered to be a part of the viscoplastic deformation and the recovery of viscoplastic deformation is defined as the healing. The method proposed in this study is useful to isolate the viscoelastic effects to quantify the healing of damage.
Asfaltmaterial uppvisar självläkande egenskaper. För att utvärdera dess läkande förmågor utförs många undersökningar av forskare. Dessa undersökningar inkluderar olika definitioner av läkning och mekaniska testmetoder för att kvantifiera graden av läkningen. Trots dessa omfattande studier finns det ingen unik metod för att utvärdera läkning i asfaltsmaterial. Påverkan av testförhållandena och komplexiteten från inverkan av andra fenomen, såsom spänningsrelaxation och töjningsåterhämtning, gör karakteriseringen av läkning en utmanande process. Arbetet som presenteras i denna uppsats inkluderar utvecklingen av experimentella och analytiska metoder för att bidra till förståelsen av läkning i asfaltsmaterial. Uppsatsen fokuserar på både brottmekaniks- och skademekaniksbaserade metoder för att utvärdera läkning i asfaltsmaterial. I det första fallet utförs trepunktsböjningstest för att karakterisera läkningen efter brott. Det experimentella protokollet är noggrant designat för att undvika effekten av hårdnande vid låg temperatur under viloperioden. Dessutom jämförs olika läkningsindex baserade på linjärelastisk brottmekanik och viskoelastisk brottmekanik. Trots att läkning generellt definieras baserat på återhämtningen av vissa parametrar efter viloperioden, så visar jämförelsen av läkningsindexen att den kvantitativa tolkningen av läkning beror på metoderna för efterbehandling.  Den skademekaniksbaserade metoden som diskuteras i denna studie inkluderar kryp- och återhämtningstest i skjuvning. Till skillnad mot det första fallet så spricker här inte proven. Skadan anses istället vara del av den viskoplastiska deformationen och återhämtningen av viskoplastisk deformation är definierad som läkning. Metoden som föreslås i denna studie är användbar för att isolera de viskoelastiska effekterna för att kvantifiera läkningen av skada.

La croissance de caution vis-à-vis l'utilisation des produits pétroliers dans la construction a nécessité le besoin de développement des alternatives. Le BTP, en particulaire pour le secteur routière, a un certain nombre des piste ou les produits pétrolières ont utilisés, par exemple le liant pour les enrobés comme les agents régénérant (pour recyclage des enrobés), mais aussi le produits qui sont utilisés sur le chantier comme les anti-adhérents (ARA) et les débituminants (BR). Alors, il y a une besoin de remplacer les produits d'origines pétrolières par les alternatives bio-sourcés. Ce présent ouvre est une partie d'un projet qui va développer une nouvelle filière dédiée à la production de nouvelles formulations pour le BTP à partir de la transformation des huiles végétales et des graisses animales. Ce thèse concerne les produits développés seront destinés au l'asphalte, et alors, deux types d'applications sont particulièrement visés : (i) des agents anti-adhérents et (ii) des agents régénérants. Un débituminant sera développé aussi. Les produits anti-adhérents ont pour fonction d'empêcher le bitume d'adhérer aux engins de travaux sans effet secondaire, théoriquement, sur la matrice liante.. L'objet du travail est de caractériser l'efficacité et l'innocuité des agents anti-adhérents développés dans le cadre du projet et de développer les méthodes expérimentales visant à les évaluer. Trois essais principaux ont été développés pour caractériser la performance et innocuité des anti-adhérents vis-à-vis des essais qui ont optimisé leur implémentation et paramètres. La performance des anti-adhérents a été caractérisé par l'essai de glissance des enrobés. L'innocuité des anti-adhérents ont été caractérisés par des essais de fendage sur les enrobés et par l'essai de la dégradation de bitume. L'essai de la dégradation de bitume a servi aussi comme une mesure de la performance de débituminant. Les essais sur les anti-adhérents commerciaux d'Etats-Unis et la France a trouvé que ils ont deux modes de fonctionnement : i) lixiviation du bitume et ii) en formation d'une interface entre le les enrobés et la surface métallique. Même comme les deux modes ont été trouvé dans des certains anti-adhérents, le mode interface ont été trouvé préférable, grâce à l'option de garder les mêmes applications du produit pour plusieurs cycles de usage. Ensuite, un produit - basé sur glycérol sourcé de l'agro-industrie - a été développé. Les débituminants commerciaux ont été essayé, aves les conclusions : i) les débituminants plus effectifs ont eu les plus grande % des esters et ii) que les esters chaines courtes (C7-10) d'hautes concentrations ont été trouvé les plus efficace. L'agent régénérant est destiné à régénérer le bitume vieilli issu des agrégats d'enrobés (RAP) en lui redonnant ses propriétés originelles et en assurant leur maintien dans le temps. Le travail sur les agents régénérants se compose de la caractérisation physico-chimique du vieillissement du bitume et du bitume vieilli avec l'agent. Plus précisément, le travail se serve des techniques de spectrométrie IRTF (avec imagerie) et thermogravimétrie. Dans ce contexte, une produit bio-sourcé a été évalué comme une régénérant. Pour la spectroscopie FTIR, une moyenne de polir le mastique a été développé pour rassuré la platitude des échantillons. La régénération du bitume a été observé avec la spectrométrie ITRF, donc quelques peaks (notamment les indices IC=O and IS=O) pendant 0-42 jours de vieillissement dans l'étuve (loin-durée). Il a été trouvé qu'une période de vieillissement de 14 jours à l'étuve était à peu près équivalente au bitume vieilli par un cycle de RTFOT + PAV en termes de rhéologie et de la pénétration. Le mastic (vieilli 14 jours) a ensuite été mélangé avec un agent de bio-source (à 7,5% en poids de mastic). Il a été constaté par imagerie FTIR que l'indicateur de l'oxydation IS=O a été réduit par l'incorporation de l'agent régénérant dans le bitume
The growing health and environmental concerns brought on by the use of petroleum based products in the asphalt construction industry have necessitated the development of alternatives. Infrastructure, especially that involving transportation has many uses for petroleum products including, as fuel, as well as in asphalt pavement construction - where petroleum products have traditionally constituted the binder for the mix as well as the rejuvenating agents (for asphalt recycling) - along with various agents used in the construction process including bitumen removers and asphalt release agents. Thus, there is a need to replace petroleum base agents with bio-sourced and biodegradable substitutes. The present work is part of a project to develop bio-sourced (recycled from agricultural waste) products for the construction industry. This work is dedicated to developing products relating to the asphalt industry. Two types of product applications were envisioned: i) an asphalt release agent (ARA) and ii) an asphalt rejuvenating agent. Additionally, a bitumen remover (BR) developed as part of the work on the ARA. ARAs prevent asphalt from adhering to tools and equipment used in asphalt production, without producing overly negative side effects with regards to the pavement. Three principal tests methods were developed and optimized for the performance and damage to asphalt of the ARAs. The asphalt slide test was developed to quantify the performance of the ARA by sliding hot asphalt mix down a plate with the ARA applied. The testing of the damage to asphalt from ARAs consisted of testing an asphalt cylinder - in contact with an ARA for seven days - in indirect-tensile strength (ITS). The bitumen degradation test consisted of submerging a bitumen sample in an agent over a certain time and weighing the bitumen that did not dissolve in the agent. This was followed by the observation of the bitumen-ARA chemical interaction by FTIR spectrometry. This test served as an assessment of ARA damage to bitumen as well as of the performance of BRs. The testing of the commercial ARAs from both the French and USA markets found that they had two primary modes of functioning: i) by softening the bitumen and ii) by forming an interface between the asphalt and the metal surface. While some agents had elements of both, it was found that interface agents are preferable, due to the ability to use a single ARA application for multiple occasions. With this completed, a water-based bio-sourced substrate ARA - based on glycerol derived from agricultural waste - was developed. The commercially available BRs were tested as well, finding that i) the most effective BRs had the highest ester concentration and ii) that highly concentrated short chained ester (C7-10) were very effective bitumen dissolvers. The goal of rejuvenating agents is to regenerate the old bitumen from recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) by restoring the original properties and ensuring the stability of these properties over time. This part consisted of the development of methods for bitumen and aging, as well as characterization of the chemical rejuvenation of bitumen by FTIR spectrometry (including imaging) and thermogravimetric analysis. A bio-sourced rejuvenating agent was evaluated as well. For the imaging, a mastic polishing method was developed in order to attain as samples as flat as possible for the analysis. The bitumen rejuvenation was observed using FTIR spectroscopy analysis. Several peaks (notably IC=O and IS=O) were observed for bitumen oven aged up to 42 days (long term). It was found that an oven aging period of 14 days was roughly equivalent to bitumen aged by a RTFOT+PAV cycle it terms of rheology and penetration. The mastic (aged for 14 days) was then combined with a bio-sourced agent (at 7.5%w of mastic). It was found by FTIR imaging that the oxidation indicator IS=O, was reduced by the incorporation of the rejuvenating agent

La thèse porte sur la « Contribution à la compréhension du mûrissement des mélanges granulaires à l’émulsion de bitume ». Le matériau étudié, la grave-émulsion (GE), est un enrobé bitumineux utilisé pour la construction et l’entretien des chaussées routières. Il est composé d’un squelette granulaire continu et de bitume sous la forme d’une émulsion directe huile dans eau. L’eau contenue dans l’émulsion permet au matériau lors de l’étape de fabrication de répartir le liant dans le squelette granulaire de façon homogène sans chauffer la masse granulaire, contrairement aux enrobés usuels élaborés « à chaud » et une mise en oeuvre aisée en assurant une lubrification des contacts entre les granulats. En effet, les constituants des enrobés à chaud doivent être séchés et chauffés, ce qui demande de l’énergie et génère des fumées pouvant impacter l’environnement et les travailleurs sur chantier. La présence d’eau dans la GE lui confère néanmoins un comportement hautement évolutif avec le temps. Sa rigidité augmente dans une phase appelée « mûrissement ». Ce comportement est en partie lié au séchage du mélange mais n’est pas encore bien compris et reste un verrou scientifique qui limite le recours à cette technique routière à fort potentiel environnemental.Pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes en jeu et les évolutions des propriétés de la GE lors du mûrissement, une méthodologie d’étude a été mise en place. Trois types de matériaux ont été soumis à différents essais : des échantillons fabriqués et mûris en laboratoire, des échantillons de matériaux récupérés sur chantier puis mûris en laboratoire, et des échantillons carottés sur chantier. Tout d’abord, des essais mécaniques de type oedométrique ont permis de suivre la rigidification du matériau avec le temps et en fonction de conditions climatiques maîtrisées. Ensuite, les liants des matériaux en cours de mûrissement ont été extraits et leurs niveaux d’oxydation ainsi que leur comportement rhéologique ont été mesurés. Pour tenter de mieux identifier les mécanismes mis en jeu dans le murissement, l’angle de contact entre une goutte de bitume déposée sur la surface d’une lame de verre a été mesuré afin d’évaluer les temps caractéristiques d’étalement du liant et de les comparer avec la cinétique de rigidification du mélange. Enfin en complément de cette approche expérimentale, une variable de mûrissement a été établie, permettant de modéliser l’évolution du module à partir des données expérimentales issues des campagnes d’essais mécaniques et du modèle de Huet et Sayegh
This study deals with the “Contribution to the understanding of cold mix asphalt curing”. The studied material, cold mix asphalt for base course namely grave-emulsion (GE), is a bituminous mixture for pavement composed of aggregates and emulsified bitumen (oil-in-water type). The water contained in the emulsion allows to disperse the binder in the aggregate backbone during the manufacturing step, and allows an easier mix implementation without heating aggregates, contrary to common hot mix asphalt process. Indeed, hot mix components have to be dried and heated, which requires a large amount of energy and generates fumes leading to stress environment and the workers on site. However the water presence gives a highly evolutive behaviour to the material with time. Its stiffness increases during a phase called “curing”. This behaviour is partly linked to the mix drying but is not completely understood yet, and remains a scientific problem that restricts the use of this high environmental potential road technique.To better understand the mechanisms involved during cold mix asphalt curing, a dedicated methodology has been implemented. Three types of materials were submitted to different tests: samples made and cured in laboratory, samples from loosed mix (from worksite) and then compacted and cured in lab, and samples cored on site. First of all, mechanical oedometric tests allowed the monitoring of the material stiffening with time and depending on controlled climatic conditions. Then, binders were extracted during curing and their oxidation levels and rheological behaviours were measured. In addition, the contact angle between a bitumen droplet and a glass substrate was measured to evaluate the spreading characteristic times of the binder and compare them to the mix stiffness kinetics. Finally, a curing variable was defined, allowing the modelling of the modulus evolution thanks to experimental data from test campaigns and the Huet and Sayegh model

The healing effects of fillers on bitumen have been known for many years. In this study, the effects of fillers, e.g. manganese dioxide, barium sulfate, perlite and vermiculite, and filler concentrations on morphological, mechanical, flow and sound insulation characteristics of bitumen were examined. It was also aimed to improve the mechanical and sound insulation properties of bituminous composites. Bituminous composites were prepared by using Brabender Plasti-Corder. Mixing was made at 130°
C with 60 rpm for 20 minutes. 20/30 and 50/70 penetration grades bitumen, SBS polymer and CaO used in the composites were kept constant. While the amount of CaCO3 was decreased, other fillers (i.e., MnO2, BaSO4, perlite and vermiculite) were added in the same proportion to investigate their effects. According to the test results, all fillers were covered by bitumen as observed in SEM figures. MnO2 composites did not give good results in the tests and they were very brittle. While perlite seemed to have good mechanical properties, it was too viscous to be processed easily. Increase in the amount of vermiculite in the composite caused adverse effects on the rheological properties of composites. However, vermiculite composites provided a remarkable sound insulation in terms of the sound damping ratios. BaSO4 composites gave the best results in the mechanical, flow and sound insulation tests.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The pavement construction industry aims to reduce its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions by investigating various energy efficient practices. The industry has focused on reducing energy consumption by producing Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) surfacing materials that are workable at lower temperatures in relation to Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), as a means to reduce carbon emissions. Half-Warm Foamed Bitumen Mixtures (HWF) is a relatively new material and is produced at temperatures below 100°C. This translates to large energy savings to overcome the latent heat of steam when exceeding 100°C. The characteristics of HWF mixes are a compromise between those of Foamed Bitumen Stabilised material (BSM-foam) and HMA characteristics. These include to a limited extent the improved tensile strength, particle coating and durability of HMA; and the shear strength of BSM-foam. The use of microwave technology as an efficient heating method to produce improved engineering properties of BSM-foam is proposed in this study. The benefits include energy saving due to its volumetric heating capability as well as rapid heating which improve productivity when using suitable materials. The aspect of recycling material brings forth further energy saving and emissions reduction when reusing materials. The portability of the in-plant recycling machines is an ideal candidate with logistical advantages to implement microwave generators to produce HWF mixes. This study is subdivided into four parts as it progressively investigates the potential to heat aggregates and produce HWF material. Firstly it investigates the heating potential of four aggregates, namely Hornfels, Quartzite, Eucrite, Granite and Reclaimed Asphalt (RA) at various moisture contents using a microwave apparatus. The second part discusses the thermodynamics of the preliminary investigation to provide insight into the third part, the Primary Investigation. The primary investigation evaluates the tensile strength and shear properties of two material blends by respectively implementing Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and monotonic triaxial tests on specimens. The two blends were a combination of RA and crushed hornfels. The fourth and final part evaluates the HWF properties in relation to those of the equivalent BSM-foam product by means of a pavement analysis. The highest laboratory production temperature achieved was depicted by the material properties, microwave power capability and production rates. This temperature was consistently recorded at 50°C which theoretically simulates an in-field production rate of approximately 25 tons per hour. ITS test results indicate 100% increase in tensile strengths and an increase in compaction density for the HWF mixes. Large reduction in moisture contents is also observed after curing in relation to BSM-foam. The benefits in improving a layer within a pavement structure have an effect on the pavement’s overall performance. This could assist in reducing the requirement for premium layers e.g. thickness of HMA within the structure, thereby further assisting energy conservation. The evaluation of the microwave heated HWF mixes can be considered economical if designed with a purpose to meet the thermal dynamic requirements of a material considering the microwaves volumetric potential.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die plaveisel konstruksie-industrie poog om hul kweekhuisgas (KHG) uitskeiding te verlaag deur verskeie energie doeltreffende metodes te ondersoek. Die industrie fokus op die vermindering van energie-verbruik deur middel van die produksie van Warm Mengsel Asfalt (WMA) oppervlak materiale wat werkbaar is in laer temperature in verhouding tot “Hete Mengsel Asfalt (HMA)” as `n metode om koolstof uitskeiding te verlaag. Half-Warm Skuim-Bitumen Mengsels (HWS) is `n relatief nuwe materiaal en word vervaardig onder 100 °C. Dit lei tot groot energie besparings en oorkom sodoende die latente hitte van stoom wanneer temperature van 100 °C oorskry word. Die karakter-eienskappe van HWS mengsels is `n kompromie tussen Skuim-Bitumen Gestabiliseerde materiaal (BSM-S) en HMA eienskappe. Dit sluit tot `n beperkte mate in die verbeterde spankrag, partikel bestryking; en die skeer krag van BSM-S. Die gebruik van mikrogolf-tegnologie as effektiewe verwarmingsmetode vir verbeterde ingenieurseienskappe van BSM-S word voorgestel in hierdie studie. Die voordele sluit in energie besparing as gevolg van die volumetriese verwarmingsvermoë sowel as snel verhitting wat produktiwiteit verbeter tydens die gebruik van gepaste materiale. Die gebruik van herwinde materiaal bring verdere energiebesparing en uitskeiding-vermindering mee. Die draagbaarheid van binne-aanleg herwinningsmasjinerie is ‘n ideale kandidate met logistieke voordele vir die installering van mikrogolf-opwekkers vir die produsering van HWS mengsels. Dié studie word onderverdeel in vier dele terwyl dit toenemend ondersoek instel na die potensiaal van hitte versameling asook die produksie van HWS stowwe. Eerstens ondersoek dit die verwarmingspotensiaal van vier versamelings naamlik horingsteen, kwartsiet, eukrite, graniet en Herwinde Asfalt (HA) teenoor verskeie vogskattings-mikrogolf aperate. Die tweede deel bespreek die termodinamika van die voorlopige ondersoek om insig te bied vir die derde deel, die primêre ondersoek. Die primêre ondersoek evalueer die rekbaarheid en skeereienskappe van twee materiaal-mengsels van ITS en monotoniese drieassige toetse onderskeidelik op verskillende monsters. Die twee mengsels was `n kombinasie van HA en gemaalde horingsteen. Die vierde en finale deel evalueer die HWS eienskappe in verhouding tot die van die ekwivalente BSM-S produk deurmiddel van `n sypad-analise. Die hoogste laboratoriumproduksie temperature wat bereik was, was uitgebeeld deur die materiaal-eienskappe, mikrogolf krag kapasiteit en produksiekoers. Hierdie temperature was deurlopend aangeteken teen 50 °C wat `n teoretiese voorstelling is van `n binneveld produksie tempo van ongeveer 25 ton per uur. ITS toets resultate wys `n 100 % verhoging in spankrag asook `n toename in kompakte vir die HWS mengsels. Groot afname in voginhoud is ook waargeneem na bewerking in verhouding tot BSM-S. Die voordeel verbonde aan die verbetering van `n lag binne `n plaveisel-struktuur, het `n impak op die plaveisel se algemene uithoubaarheid. Dit kan bydra tot `n verlaging in die vereiste binne die struktuur en verdere bydra tot energie besparing. Die evaluering van mikrogolf verhitte HWS stowwe kan as ekonomies beskou word wanneer dit doelgerig vervaardig word om te voldoen aan die termodinamika vereistes van `n materiaal, wanneer die mikrogolf volumetriese potensiaal in ag geneem word.

Thesis(PhD (Civil Engineering))-- University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Bitumen based road surfacing seals and asphalt wearing courses have been used by society's Engineers "to counter the damage to the existing unsurfaced roadways by the newly developed automobile with its rubber driving wheels" since the early 1900's. Early experiments were conducted with both tar and bitumen to find a suitable material to alleviate the situation, and ongoing research has been carried out through the past century and into the new millennium, throughout the world, examining improvements, from materials used, to design and construction methods. However, there is still much to be understood, improved and refined, when considering road surfacing seal design. Pavement designers have the choice of utilizing either an asphalt (graded aggregate remanufactured with a bitumen binder and applied as a complete product) or a surfacing seal (including variations of bitumen binder sprayed onto the road surface, with the addition of single size stones, either in one or two layers of binder and aggregate, i.e. single or double seals) as a pavement wearing course. Current road surfacing seal design practice depends on empirical analysis and experience, being primarily a volumetric based assessment of bitumen application. This research project assesses South African seal design philosophy, investigates design areas where review or updating is required to accommodate changing bitumen sources and types, and traffic loading. Seal performance criteria are examined, with the development of a matrix of influences on seal performance. Using this, the need for a seal design method based on mechanistic material properties is proposed, and the prototype example of such a numerical model using finite element method is presented. To contribute further towards a performance related seal design method, the feasibility of modelling of road surfacing seals using mechanistic principles was examined. The potential of developing failure and fatigue criteria or relationships to enable assessment of the expected seal performance, with inclusion of different component material characteristics and variations, varying traffic and environmental conditions, was also examined. From assessment of literature, and understanding of the components of the seal, pavement, and influencing factors, a choice of numerical model of seal performance was made. The Finite Element Method (FEM) Analysis was selected for the purpose of modelling seal performance. The model was developed to enable examination of the interaction of individual seal components (i.e. stone and bitumen), at micro-mechanic scale. The prototype 3-dimensional numerical seal model was undertaken in 2002 and 2003 at Technical University Delft, using the CAPA research program. On the basis of the linear calculations the developed numerical prototype model is able to provide insight into seal behaviour and distinction between mechanical (seal geometry) and chemical (components) seal aspects, and insight into stress and strain development in the different seal types. Simulations of different seal, environmental and traffic scenarios are provided to demonstrate the potential of the model (excluding seal aggregate interlock and embedment effects at prototype stage). In order to provide data for the verification of the prototype numerical model, and to further contribute to the development of a performance related seal design method, performance tests were developed, with a new tool for assessment of comparative seal performance using the Model Mobile Load Simulator Accelerated Pavement Testing apparatus. The performance of each different seal binder type - Penetration grade Mumen, SBS, SBR, EVA and Bitumen Rubber - was undertaken. A methodology for the assessment of in-service seal performance was developed, and the performance of the respective seals reported. The results of this examination showed that each binder type has its unique contribution to seal performance. These new performance tests will be able to assist designers in the added determination of the fundamental binder properties on seal performance, and the seals' ability to contribute to the overall performance of the pavement. An additional comparative performance test method was developed to enable assessment of the effect of ageing and moisture, to complement the MMLS results. In summary, the performance testing has assisted in identifying the critical parameters a seal designer should consider during the design process. From this research, it is evident that the current seal design method requires further development to able designers to predict the effect of: Varying axle loads, tyre pressures and design speed; Varying characteristics of the different binders, (i.e. temperature - viscosity relationships, adhesion and visco-elastic behaviour); on the performance of seals. The major areas for suggested improvement in current seal design methods towards a performance based design method are: inclusion of variable traffic load and environmental characteristics, including temperature and moisture influences, and inclusion of mechanistic material characteristics into the design methodology.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Bitumengebaseerde padoppervlakseellae en asfaltslytlae is sedert die 1900's deur ingenieurs gebruik as teenwig teen die skade wat die pas ontwikkelde voertuig met sy rubberwiele aan bestaande ryvlakke sonder oppervlakbehandeling aangerig het. In vroeëre eksperimente wat daarop gemik was om 'n geskikte materiaal te vind om die probleem teen te werk, is 'n kombinasie van teer en bitumen gebruik. Sedertdien word voortgesette navorsing steeds wêreldwyd gedoen om verbeterings te ondersoek, nie net ten opsigte van materiale nie maar ook ontwerp- en konstruksiemetodes. Wat die ontwerp van padoppervlakseëling betref is daar egter heelwat wat reg begryp, verbeter en verfyn moet word. Plaveiselontwerpers het die keuse om of 'n asfalt te gebruik (gegradeerde aggregaat voorafvervaardig met 'n bitumen bindmiddel en aangewend as 'n klaarproduk), of 'n oppervlakseël (een laag of twee lae [m.a.w. enkel- of dubbelseël] bitumen bindmiddel met aggregaat [enkelgrootte klippies] bygevoeg, gespuit op die padoppervlak). In die praktyk berus die ontwerp van padoppervlakseëling tans op empiriese analise en ervaring (wat hoofsaaklik 'n volumetriesgebaseerde assessering van die aanwending van bitumen is). Hierdie navorsingsprojek doen 'n waardebepaling van die Suid-Afrikaanse filosofie van seëlontwerp, en ondersoek ontwerpterreine wat hersiening of bywerking benodig om vir veranderende bitumenbronne en -tipes, asook verkeerslading, voorsiening te maak. Met die ontwikkeling van 'n matriks van die invloede op seëlprestasie is die kriteria vir seëlprestasie ondersoek. Op grond daarvan word aangevoer dat daar 'n behoefte is aan 'n seëlontwerpmetode gebaseer op die meganistiese eienskappe van materiaal, en word 'n voorbeeld van 'n numeriese modelprototipe wat die eindige-element-metode gebruik, voorgelê. Ten einde 'n verdere bydrae te lewer tot die ontwikkeling van 'n prestasiegerigte seëlontwerpmetode, is die uitvoerbaarheid van die modellering van padoppervlakseëllae gebaseer op meganistiese beginsels, ondersoek. Daar is ook ondersoek ingestel na die potensiaal vir die ontwikkeling van kriteria vir die vasstel van mislukking en vermoeidheid of verhoudinge wat die assessering van die verwagte seëlprestasie (ingesluit die verskillende kenmerke en variasies van seëlkomponentmateriaal en wisselende verkeers- en omgewingsomstandighede) moontlik kan maak. Met oorweging van die bestudeerde literatuur en 'n begrip van die komponente van seël, plaveisel en inwerkende faktore, is 'n keuse van 'n numeriese model vir seëlprestasie gemaak. Die eindige-element-metode (Finite Element Method [FEM]) is gekies as die analitiese metode vir die modellering van seëlprestasie. Die model is ontwikkel om die ondersoek van die interaksie tussen individuele seëlkomponente (klip en bitumen) op mikromeganiese skaal moontlik te maak. Die ontwikkeling van die driedimensionele, numeriese, model-seëlprototipe is tussen 2002 en 2003 by die Delft Tegniese Universiteit gedoen, met gebruikmaking van die CAPA-navorsingsprogram. Wat lineêre berekenings betref, kan die ontwikkelde numeriese modelprototipe 'n insig gee in seëlgedrag en in die onderskeid tussen aspekte van seëlgeometrie (meganies) en seëlkomponente (chemies), asook in die spanning- en vervormingsontwikkeling van die verskillende tipes seël. Simulasies van verskillende seël-, omgewings- en verkeerscenario's word voorgestel om die potensiaal van die modelprototipe te demonstreer. Met die oog daarop om data vir die verifikasie van die numeriese modelprototipe te voorsien, en om verder tot die ontwikkeling van 'n prestasiegerigte seëlontwerpmetode by te dra, is prestasietoetse, met 'n nuwe instrument vir die assessering van vergelykende seëlprestasie met behulp van die Model Mobile Load Simulator Accelerated Pavement Testing apparaat, ontwikkel. Die prestasie van elke verskillende tipe seëlbindmiddel- penetrasiegraad bitumen, SBS, SBR, EVA en bitumenrubber - is getoets. 'n Metodologie vir die assessering van die ingebruiksprestasie van seëllae is ontwikkel, en daar is verslag gedoen oor die prestasie van die verskillende seëllae. Die resultate van die ondersoek het getoon dat elke tipe bindmiddel 'n eie unieke bydrae tot die prestasie van die seël lewer. Die nuwe prestasietoets sal ontwerpers help met die bepaling van die grondliggende bindmiddeleienskappe wat by seëlprestasie ter sprake is, asook van die seël se vermoë om tot die algehele prestasie van die plaveisel by te dra. 'n Bykomende prestasievergelykingstoetsmetode vir die assessering van die effek van veroudering en vogtigheid is ontwikkel om die MMLS-resultate aan te vul. Ter opsomming, die prestasietoetsing het bygedra tot die identifisering van die kritiese parameters wat die seëlontwerper tydens die ontwerpproses in gedagte behoort te hou. Die navorsing wat gedoen is, dui daarop dat die huidige seëlontwerpmetode verder ontwikkel moet word om ontwerpers in staat te stel om die effek van die volgende te kan voorspel: Wisselende aslas, banddruk en ontwerpspoed; Verskillende kenmerke van die verskillende bindmiddels (bv. temperatuur viskositeitsverhoudinge, vashegting en viskoëlastiese gedrag). Wat huidige seëlontwerpmetodes betref, is die hoofterreine waarop 'n verbetering voorgestel word, die insluiting van veranderlike verkeerslas- en omgewingskenmerke, ingesluit die invloed van temperatuur en vogtigheid, en insluiting van meganistiese kenmerke van materiaal in die ontwerpmetodologie.

Oggigiorno, la produzione di conglomerati con elevate percentuali di fresato (RAP) rappresenta una delle maggiori sfide da affrontare. L’inclusione di RAP garantisce vantaggi in termini ambientali ed economici, soprattutto tramite riciclaggio a caldo, tecnica che permette il simultaneo sfruttamento della fase bituminosa e lapidea di una miscela. Attualmente i quantitativi di RAP comunemente utilizzati sono limitati data la mancanza di esperienza e di prove scientifiche che dimostrino la possibilità di includere fresato senza penalizzare le prestazioni della pavimentazione. L’attività di dottorato si è posta l’obiettivo di investigare in modo rigoroso vantaggi e svantaggi di miscele riciclate a caldo con elevate percentuali di RAP. A tal fine, è stato realizzato un vasto programma sperimentale comprendente avanzate analisi chimiche, reologiche e meccaniche su un’ampia gamma di materiali (bitumi, miscele di laboratorio e miscele realizzate in impianto). Oltre alle comuni indagini di laboratorio, sono stati elaborati innovativi protocolli di prova e metodi di elaborazione per l’analisi di problematiche non ancora propriamente affrontate in ambito scientifico (i.e. auto-riparazione, adesione, ri-attivazione del bitume nel RAP, proprietà di rilassamento). L’ottima correlazione riscontrata fra i risultati dei diversi step di laboratorio dimostra la validità scientifica delle indagine effettuate e dei nuovi protocolli e metodi di analisi proposti. Sulla base dell’intero studio sperimentale, non emergono elementi che scoraggino l’uso di alte percentuali di RAP. Al contrario, i risultati dimostrano che tramite un accurato mix design e l’adozione di specifici accorgimenti (e.g. vagliatura del RAP in più frazioni, standardizzazione del processo produttivo) l’aggiunta di fresato può significativamente migliorare le prestazioni della pavimentazione, garantendo ottime proprietà reologiche e meccaniche.
Recycling is a major challenge to address in road materials design. The inclusion in new asphalt mixtures of high amounts of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), coming from the milling of old pavements, provides economic and environmental benefits, particularly when referred to hot recycling since this technique allows the concurrent exploitation of bituminous and aggregate components of asphalt mixtures. Currently, the maximum amount of RAP commonly used is limited due to lack of experience and scientific proofs of the possibility to include RAP without penalizing pavement performance. The PhD research aimed at scientifically verifying advantages and disadvantages of hot recycled mixtures containing high RAP content. To this aim, a wide experimental program was carried out involving advanced chemical, rheological and mechanical analysis on a wide set of bitumens, laboratory and in plant asphalt mixtures. The latter were used to realize three full scale experimental sections along an in-service Italian highway. Besides the traditional laboratory investigations, innovative test protocols and data analysis were elaborated to address those issues not properly investigated yet, such as self-healing, adhesion, RAP bitumen re-activation degree, relaxation properties. Optimum correlation was found between the results collected in each laboratory step, hence demonstrating the scientific validity of the laboratory investigations performed and the reliability of the new test and analysis methods proposed. Based on the overall findings, no elements which discourage the use of high amount of RAP were identified. On the contrary, the study demonstrated that with proper mix design and specific precautions (e.g. RAP fractioning, gradation optimization, standardized production process) the adding of RAP guarantees optimum rheological and mechanical properties, and enhances mixture performance in terms of rutting, fatigue and thermal cracking, main distresses of a flexible pavement.

The aim of diploma thesis is to design mixture SMA LA 8 with crumb rubber modified bitumen (9,9 %) and a modifier additive TecRoad (22 %) and the test of water sensitivity, the resistance to permanent deformation and to frost cracking, the determination of the stiffness and fatigue characteristics. Test methods are described and evaluated.

Les enrobés bitumineux ont été utilisés habituellement dans des constructions routières et récemment sous les ballasts des ferroviaires. Sa grande rigidité aux températures relativement basses de l’ambiance et à haute fréquence explique son application répandue en Europe du nord. Ce matériau a été étudié au niveau global par à la fois des essais empiriques, expérimentaux et des approches analytiques. Pourtant, l’enrobé bitumineux possède un structure interne hétérogène et complexe qui peut-être engendrer des comportements complexe. Les analyses au niveau local permettent alors de compléter les connaissances de ses comportements.De nos jours, la méthode des éléments discrets est connue comme un outil numérique répandu dans le domaine granulaire. Elle peut modéliser son comportement à travers des modèles locaux et fournir des informations de sa structure interne. Une part, cette méthode considère que les particules sont quasi-solides. Son déplacement est régi par les lois de mouvement. L’autre part, le chevauchement au niveau de contact entre particules est admis. L’interpénétration des particules est calculée par les lois de contact locaux associées. Cette thèse constitue une maquette numérique des enrobés bitumineux dont les particules isolées s’interagissent à travers des lois d’interaction à distance. Cette maquette prend en compte la granulométrie des granulats (>1mm) et son rapport volumique vis-à-vis du mastic constitué par des grains (<1mm), le liant et des vides. Les granulats (>1mm) seuls sont modélisés par des particules numériques, tandis que du mastic est pris en compte par des lois d’interaction. Au premier lieu, une simulation élastique est réalisée afin de reproduire des comportements asymptotiques élastiques d’un enrobé bitumineux de référence de type GB3 qui apparaissent lors des conditions extrêmes (fréquence ou température). Des lois d’interaction élastiques ont appliqué à la maquette numérique créée. Sur deux directions normale et tangentielles, les raideurs du ressort et leur rapport sont constantes.Ensuite, les simulations viscoélastiques sont réalisées pour reproduire le comportement viscoélastique du même matériau de référence. Au premier temps, une loi d’interaction de type Kelvin-Voigt est utilisée pour mettre en évidence qualitativement l’application d’une loi viscoélastique. Ensuite, le comportement viscoélastique globale est modélisé à niveau des particules par quelques lois d’interaction de type 1KV1R (un Kelvin-Voigt et un ressort en série) repartant au réseau d’interaction de la maquette numérique. Les raideurs des ressorts prenant en compte la géométrie de l’interface de particules sont constantes pour toutes les modèle de 1KV1R. Cependant, des viscosités des amortisseurs sont différentes. Certaines hypothèses sont examinées pour distribuer ses viscosités dans le réseau d’interaction. A la fin des études, les analyses des efforts internes sont réalisées
Bituminous mixtures have traditionally been used in road constructions and recently under railway ballast. Its high rigidity at relatively low ambient temperatures and high frequency explains its widespread application in northern Europe. This material has been studied at the global level by both empirical, experimental and analytical approaches. However, the asphalt has a heterogeneous internal structure and complex which may cause complex behavior. The analysis at the local level then make it possible to supplement the knowledge of its behaviors.Nowadays, the method of discrete elements is known as a numerical tool spread in the granular field. It can model its behavior through local models and provide information about its internal structure. On the one hand, this method considers that the particles are quasi-solid. Its displacement is governed by the laws of motion. On the other hand, the overlap at the particle contact level is allowed. The interpenetration of the particles is calculated by the associated local contact laws. This thesis constitutes a numerical model of bituminous mixes whose isolated particles interact through laws of interaction at a distance. This model takes into account the granulometry of the aggregates (> 1 mm) and its volume ratio with respect to the mastic constituted by grains (<1 mm), the binder and voids. The aggregates (> 1 mm) alone are modeled by numerical particles, while mastic is taken into account by laws of interaction.First, an elastic simulation is performed in order to reproduce the elastic asymptotic behaviors of a reference bituminous mix of GB3 type that appear during extreme conditions (frequency or temperature). Elastic interaction laws have applied to the created numerical model. In both normal and tangential directions, the stiffness of the spring and its ratio are constant.Then, the viscoelastic simulations are performed to reproduce the viscoelastic behavior of the same reference material. At first, a Kelvin-Voigt interaction law is used to qualitatively highlight the application of a viscoelastic law. Then, the global viscoelastic behavior is modeled at the level of the particles by some laws of interaction of type 1KV1R (a Kelvin-Voigt and a spring in series) leaving again to the network of interaction of the numerical model. The stiffness of the springs taking into account the geometry of the particle interface is constant for all models of 1KV1R. However, the viscosities of the dashpots are different. Some hypotheses are examined to distribute its viscosities in the interaction network. At the end of the studies, the analysis of the internal efforts are carried out

There are many variables that affect the viscoelastic properties of asphalt mixtures with time, among which age hardening may be considered one of the important ones. Age hardening of asphalt mixtures is an irreversible process, which contributes to a reduction of the durability of pavements and eventually increases the maintenance cost. Beside the environmental effects, ageing in asphalt mixture depends on the physicochemical properties of bitumen and mixture morphology which is a combined effect of aggregate packing, porosity, air void distribution and their interconnectivity. Thus, a clear understanding on the physicochemical properties of bitumen and mixture morphology may help to predict the performance of asphalt mixtures, which will contribute to longer-lasting and better performing pavements. When looking at the bitumen at micro-scale, one can see microstructures appearing under certain conditions which can be partially explained by the interaction of the individual phases. Since the thermo-rheological behavior of bitumen depends largely on its chemical structure and intermolecular microstructures, studying these can lead to understanding of the mechanism, speed and conditions under which this phase behavior occurs. Linking this to the changes in properties of bitumen can thus lead to better understanding of the causes of ageing, its dominant parameters and the resulting diminished mechanical response. To investigate ageing in asphalt pavements, along with physicochemical properties of bitumen one needs to also focus on the influence of mixture morphology.  It is known that asphalt mixtures with similar percentages of air-voids can have different morphologies and thus can age differently. Prediction of ageing behavior without considering the influence of mixture morphology may thus lead to erroneous conclusions and non-optimal mix design. Hence, it is important to understand the interplay between the mixture morphology and ageing susceptibility and relate this to the long term mixture performance. The aim of this Thesis was to develop fundamental understanding on ageing in asphalt mixtures that can contribute to the asphalt community moving away from the currently used accelerated ageing laboratory tests and empirical models that can lead to erroneous conclusions. To reach this aim, experimental and numerical micro-scale analyses on bitumen and meso-scale investigations on mixture morphology have been performed which, collectively, allowed for the development of a method for the prediction of asphalt field ageing, incorporating both mixture morphology and micro-scale bitumen mechanisms. For this, first, the mechanisms of surface ageing and diffusion controlled oxidative ageing were identified. Secondly, the influence of mixture morphology on asphalt ageing susceptibility was investigated. Procedures to determine the controlling parameter were then developed and an empirical framework to quantify the long-term field ageing of asphalt mixtures was set-up. For this, a combination of experimental and numerical methods was employed. An extensive experimental study was carried out to understand the fundamental mechanisms behind the micro-structural phase appearance and the speed or mobility at which they change. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) was utilized at different temperatures to investigate the phase separation behavior for four different types of bitumen and co-relate it with the Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements. Based on the experimental findings, it was concluded that the observed phase separation is mainly due to the wax/paraffin fraction presence in bitumen (Paper I). A hypothesis was developed of the appearance of a thin film at the specimen surface due to ageing which is creating a barrier, restricting thus the microstructures to float towards the surface. Furthermore, investigation showed that depending on the bitumen and exposure types this surface thin film is water soluble and thus the moisture damage becomes more severe with the ageing of asphalt pavement (Paper II and IV). A new empirical relation to obtain the primary structure coating thickness was established utilizing mixture volumetric properties and gradation using a large set of data from different literature sources. It was found that the enhanced morphological framework can be used to optimize the long term performance of asphalt mixtures (Paper III).  Thereafter, the effect of diffusion controlled oxidative ageing on different mixture morphologies based on oxidative ageing mechanism of bitumen and diffusion-reaction process was investigated using the Finite Element Method (FEM). From the FE analyses, the effect of air-void distribution and their interconnectivity combined with the aggregate packing was shown to have a significant effect on age hardening (Paper IV). It was shown that focusing only on the percentage of air-void as the main predictive ageing parameter may lead to an erroneous conclusion and non-optimal predictions of long-term behavior.  To replace such approaches, a new way to predict the long-term ageing was proposed in this Thesis, utilizing the found influences of mixture morphology and fundamental mechanism. Though additional mechanisms and non-linear coupling between them may be still needed to reach the ‘ultimate’ ageing prediction model, the current model was found to be a significant improvement to the currently used methods and may lead the way towards further enhancing the fundamental knowledge towards asphalt mixture ageing (Paper V).

QC 20140509

This study is focused to the modification of a mexican asphalt (AC-20 Salamanca) with styrene-butadiene copolymers which have different molecular characteristics by using a hot-mix process, and the obtained polymer-modified asphalts (PMA) were characterized by both rheological tests and fluorescence microscopy. The results show that for any concentration of polymer, the PMA may exhibit either emulsion-like or macronetwork morphology. It was found that the composition and block size of the SBS have strong effect on the ordering of the polystyrene and polybutadiene microdomains, and therefore they have strong effect on the morphology and rheological behavior of the PMA. It was established that the microstructure has strong effect on the swelling of polymer with maltenes but it has weak effect on the rheological behavior of the PMA because their rheological properties have similar behavior up to 40 % of vinyl units. Therefore, the molecular characteristics of polymer is critical as for the morphology as for the rheological behavior of the PMA. The rheological data at low temperature of the PMA had weIl fitting to the Maxwell-Voigt's model to predict the creep response of the material and to determine their activation energy. The rheological data at high temperature followed adequately the Palierne's model which regards as the PMA as an emuision-like material and uses the interfacial tension as the only adjustable parameter
Cette étude est consacrée à la modification d'un asphalte mexicain (AC-20 Salamanca) par des polymères à blocs à base de styrène et butadiène, présentant des caractéristiques moléculaires variables. On a utilisé un procédé de mélange à chaud pour produire les asphaltes modifiés (PMA) qui ont été caractérisés grâce à des essais rhéologiques et par microscopie de fluorescence. Les données permettent d'établir que pour chaque teneur en polymère, les PMA présentent une morphologie soit de type émulsion soit une de type macro réseau. On a trouvé que la composition et la taille des blocs du polymère SBS ont une influence sur l'agencement des microdomaines de polystyrène et de polybutadiène. Parallèlement, ils ont un fort effet sur la morphologie et les performances du PMA. On a aussi établi que la microstructure a une forte influence sur le gonflement du polymère avec les maltènes mais qu'elle a un faible effet sur les performances rhéologiques du PMA, parce que leurs propriétés rhéologiques sont identiques jusqu'à une teneur de 40% des groupements vinyles. Ceci montre que la nature moléculaire du polymère est très importante tant pour la génération de la morphologie que pour les comportements rhéologiques du PMA. Les données rhéologiques à basses températures du PMA sont en agrément avec le modèle de Maxwell-Voigt pour prédire le comportement au fluage du PMA " creep" et pour mesurer son énergie d'activation. Les données rhéologiques des PMA à haute température suivent bien le modèle de Palierne pour lequel le PMA se comporte comme une émulsion dont la tension interfaciale est le seul paramètre ajustable

The diploma thesis deals with the production of warm mix asphalts, using the foam bitumen technology. The thesis is divided into theoretical and practical part. The theoretical part is focused on the basic division of roadway constructions, particularly on warm mix asphalts. The aim of the practical part was to find out whether the produced asphalt mixture retains its functional properties when the operating temperature is reduced. For this purpose, two asphalt mixtures of the ACO 11+ type at operating temperature of 150 °C and reduced operating temperature of 130 °C were made. Functional tests and empirical and functional tests were carried out on the produced asphalt mixtures and the extracted bitumen binders respectively. In the conclusion of the thesis, the results of the tests are mutually compared.

Det här arbetet handlar om asfaltbetongblandningar och hur variationen av dessa vid projektering påverkar vägarnas dimensionering i överbyggnaden mer specifikt bärlagret. Arbetet är baserat på litteraturstudier av den senaste teorin kring dimensionering av asfaltbetongblandningar i väglager samt tillhörande kravskrifter både från svenska och amerikanska myndigheter. Den inledande delen i examensarbetet omfattar bakgrunden till vägdimensionering. Inledningsvis behandlas materialet asfaltbetong och derss egenskaper för att sedan gå vidare till allmänt om vägar, hur de utformas, vägens funktionella egenskaper och skador som kan uppstå. Detta ska ge läsaren tillräckligt med bakgrund för att följa med i resten av arbetet där man kan läsa mer ingående om deformationsskador och vilka parametrar som är till stor vikt när man studerar skador som uppstår i asfaltbetongen samt relationen till dem egenskaper bitumen har. Rapporten avslutas med att resonera kring eventuella problem kring dimensioneringsmetoder samt betydelsen av blandningens hållfasthetsegenskaper och hur de påverkar vägarnas tjocklek. Slutsatsen i rapporten är att asfaltbetongblandningen har en betydelse för dimensionering av bärlager och att det kan vara någonting att beakta oftare vid vägdimensionering speciellt vid blandningar som skiljer sig mycket från standardvarianterna.
This essay is about bitumen concrete pavement mixtures and how the variation of these affects the design of the superstructure of the road during the design-stadium, more specifically the pavement. The essay is based upon studies of literature written about the latest theory of asphalt concrete design for roads as well as the texts with regulations from Swedish and American government agencies. The introductory parts of the essay consist of the background to road design. Initially bitumen concrete and its characteristics are discussed and move on to general information about roads, how they are designed, the roads serviceable characteristics and finally the damage that can develop. This is meant to give the reader enough background to follow the rest of the essay where you can read more about deformation and which parameters that are of importance when you study deformation in bitumen concrete as well as the relation between the characteristics of bitumen concrete and bitumen. The essay is then finished with a argumentation about eventual problems with design methods and the significance of the bitumen concrete mixture’s strength parameters and how they affect the thickness of the road superstructure. The conclusion is that the asphalt concrete mixture has an impact on the design of the pavement of the road and that it should be something to take into account more often in road design, especially when you are using a mixture that differs much from the standard mixtures.

SMHI:s data tyder på att temperaturen i Sverige kommer att öka. Dessutom kommer det framtida temperaturintervallet att vara mindre. Dessa två beräknade förändringar kommer att påverka den dimensioneringsprocess som idag används för vägar. Idag tar trafikverket hänsyn till temperaturen i ett bitumenbundet lager samt klimatperiodernas längder och båda dessa variabler kommer att förändras med tiden. Detta kommer att påverka val av material, materialåtgång vid nybyggnation, underhållsåtgärder samt vägens beräknade livslängd och kraven på de bitumen som skall används i framtiden. Förutom detta kan trafikverket behöva se över ett antal tabellvärden samt den klimatzonsindelning organisationen för närvarande använder sig utav.
The data from Sweden’s meteorological and hydrological institute suggests the temperatures in Sweden will rise in the future. It also suggests that the future temperature intervals will be smaller than they are today. This will affect the methods that are used for designing roads. Currently Trafikverket takes into account the temperature of the asphalt and the number of days of a specific climate period when considering climate temperature. Both these variables will have to be checked and possibly redone. This change will affect several areas that are important for the design, among these are the choice of materials, the amount of materials used, the cost of building and maintaining a road, a roads expected lifetime and the requirements for future asphalt layers. Add to that Trafikverket will probably need to recheck several table values and the climate zones that the organization uses today.

The diploma thesis is divided into theoretical and practical part. The theoretical part is mainly focused on methods for reducing the working temperature in the production of hot mix asphalt and the main reasons for this. Most attention is paid to the warm mix asphalt, mainly foam asphalt technology. In practical part are describes working procedures of individual tests on asphalt mixtures and recovered bitumen binders. The tests were performed on 3 types of ACO 11+, one was made with working temperature 160°C without foamed bitumen and the other two with foamed bitumen,one with working temperature 160°C and the second 140°C. Then were the results compared.

The diploma thesis is focused on the design and production of two innovative asphalt mixtures of the VMT 22 type into the base asphalt course. The newly produced blends contain modified binders, such as polymer modified bitumen (PMB) and Crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB). The theoretical part of the thesis describes the current state of the use of Reclaimed asphalt pavement in the base asphalt course. Furthermore, there are described types of asphalt mixtures for the base asphalt course are used in the Czech Republic and other countries. The conclusion of the theoretical part is devoted to the description of Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), its storage and processing in a hot mix center. In the practical part of this thesis, there is described design and test of two High modulus asphalt mixture VMT 22, into which 25% RAP is dosed cold without rejuvenators. These asphalt mixtures are then subjected to functional tests (Stiffness of asphalt mixture test, Resistance to fatigue test, Low temperature properties of asphalt mixture test). The results of the functional tests are compared with the functional requirements in the Czech regulation TP 151. In the end of this thesis it is verified by means of the LayEps software that a suitable design of the asphalt mixture can significantly extend the road life.

Le problematiche ambientali e socio – economiche legate alla costruzione di nuove infrastrutture viarie, impongono la progettazione e costruzione di strade che combinino ad elevati standard prestazionali, la riduzione dell’impatto ambientale in fase realizzativa e manutentiva. Quanto detto avvalora il crescente utilizzo di materiali bituminosi modificati con polimeri ed additivati con cere. I primi conferiscono alla miscela maggiore elastoplasticità, incrementandone la durabilità e la resistenza a fatica. Nei secondi la presenza del materiale paraffinico contribuisce a ridurre la viscosità del bitume, il che consente il notevole abbassamento della temperatura di produzione e stesa della miscela. Numerosi studi inoltre hanno dimostrato che le caratteristiche meccaniche della pavimentazione sono fortemente influenzate dal grado di ossidazione delle componenti organiche del bitume, ovvero dal fenomeno dell’invecchiamento o aging. Risulta pertanto fondamentale affiancare allo studio reologico del bitume, prove di simulazione dell’ invecchiamento nel breve e lungo termine. Nel corso della seguente ricerca si provvederà pertanto ad analizzare leganti modificati ed additivati secondo la teoria della viscoelasticità, simulando le reali condizioni di carico ed invecchiamento alle quali il bitume è sottoposto. Tutte le prove di caratterizzazione reologica avanzata prevederanno l’utilizzo del DSR (Dynamic Shear Rheometer) in varie configurazioni di prova e si simulerà l’invecchiamento a breve termine mediante RTFOT (Rolling thin film oven test). Si proporrà inoltre una nuova procedura di aging invecchiando il bitume alla temperatura di equiviscosità o Twork , ovvero a quel valore della temperatura tale per cui, in fase di messa in opera, si avrà una distribuzione molecolare omogenea del modificante all’interno del bitume. Verranno quindi effettuate ulteriori prove reologiche sui leganti invecchiati a tale temperatura. Si darà infine supporto ai risultati della ricerca effettuando prove chimiche con la tecnica analitica FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), analizzando i cambiamenti molecolari avvenuti nel bitume a seguito dell’aggiunta del modificante e dell’invecchiamento.

The asphalt mixture BBTM 5 A with crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRmB) is designed and produced in the diploma thesis. The influence of CRmB content on low temperature properties, stiffness and fatigue of asphalt mixture BBTM 5 A is determined. The influence of asphalt mixture ageing simulation on change of low temperature properties is also evaluated.