Relevant bibliographies by topics / Balance of trade

Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Balance of trade'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 25 July 2025

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Journal articles on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Irma, Baig, and Amin Sajjad. "Effects of Pakistans International Trade Balances on GDP Growth: A Study of Pakistans Foreign Trade." International Journal of Management Sciences and Business Research 11, no. 10 (2022): 80–87. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7393356.

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<em>In recent years, the debate over international trade balances has exploded. The domestic and external environments significantly influence how the nation trades with the rest of the globe., The government will serve as a facilitator for the sector while it addresses the significant structural problems affecting Pakistan&#39;s exports from 2010 to 2021. The economic balance of limiting imports and the economic balance of allowing exports to flourish continue to be two crucial indicators of international trade. The results showed that factors related to the trade balance&#39;s exports and im
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Afontsev, S. "Trade Liberalization and Trade Balance." Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 7 (July 20, 2005): 19–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2005-7-19-36.

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The paper estimates the impact of import tariffs on Russia's trade balance. Empirical model analyzes Russian trade by industries and partner countries, taking into account import tariffs on both industrial output and intermediate goods. It is shown that the aggregate impact of import duties on trade balance is negative in all industries outside the fuel and energy sector. Decrease in import tariffs is likely to improve market positions of Russian non-fuel exports, especially in such industries as machine building and metal works, agriculture and forestry, chemistry and light industry.
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Hapsari, Anggraeni Tri, and Akhmad Syakir Kurnia. "FENOMENA KURVA J PADA NERACA PERDAGANGAN INDONESIA DENGAN ENAM NEGARA MITRA DAGANG UTAMA." JURNAL DINAMIKA EKONOMI PEMBANGUNAN 1, no. 2 (2018): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/jdep.1.2.10-27.

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Whether a J curve phenomenon exists or not on the balance of trade has been an interest for empirical investigation in international economics. The phenomenon is typically associated with the response of the balance of trade to the exchange rate dynamics. Since a country has different trade features with different trading partners, the trade balances adjustment to the exchange rate dynamics should be seen as a head to head phenomenon. This paper investigates the effect of real effective exchange rate (REER) on the bilateral trade balance between Indonesia and its six major trading partners, na
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Jusufi, Gent, Lura Rexhepi Mahmutaj, Gentina Jusufi, and Nora Jusufi. "Kosovo’s International Trade: Balance of Trade." European Journal of Economics and Business Studies 3, no. 1 (2015): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.26417/ejes.v3i1.p58-69.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a review of literature on the composition of exports and imports during 2005-2011 in Kosovo and key findings from secondary research on the reasons for the high trade deficit which affects economic development within this country. Design/Methodology/Approach – This paper presents secondary data related to background of the international trade and its increasing importance throughout the years because globalization. Then it is followed by characteristics of Kosovo’s trade environment, its domination of imports from 2005 to 2011 and its compariso
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Baek, Jeongho, and Hong-Youl Kim. "Analyzing the Effects of Oil Price Shocks on the Trade Balance: New Evidence from Korea-China Trade." Korea International Trade Research Institute 18, no. 4 (2022): 111–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.16980/jitc.18.4.202208.111.

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Purpose - The primary contribution of this paper is to investigate the impacts of oil supply shocks, aggregate demand shocks, and oil-specific demand shocks on three measures of South Korea’s trade balance oil, non-oil, and total trade balance with its top trading partner China.&#x0D; Design/Methodology/Approach - In order to investigate how trade balance is influenced by three types of oil price shocks, we used a Structural Vector Autoregressive (SVAR). Also, Impulse Response Function (IRF) was used to calculate degree of the trade balance response to the oil price shock.&#x0D; Findings - We
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Ongan, Serdar, and Ismet Gocer. "The US-China trade war with increasing trade policy uncertainty." Journal of Chinese Economic and Foreign Trade Studies 13, no. 2 (2020): 87–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jcefts-01-2020-0002.

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Purpose This study aims to examine the impacts of changing US trade policy uncertainty (henceforth, TPU Index) on US bilateral trade balance with China from a nonlinear methodology perspective. Design/methodology/approach The nonlinear auto regressive distributed lag (ARDL) model, recently developed by Shin et al. (2014), is applied. This model decomposes the TPU Index series into its increases (TPU+) and decreases (TPU−) and creates two new TPU Index series. Findings Empirical findings indicate that increases in the TPU Index improve the US bilateral trade balance only in the short-run (no lo
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Abegaz, Bazezew Endalew. "Asymmetric impact of exchange rate on trade balance in Ethiopia: Evidence from a non-linear autoregressive distributed lag model (NARDL) approach." PLOS ONE 19, no. 12 (2024): e0311675. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311675.

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Ethiopia has persistently pursued exchange rate devaluations to address its trade deficit and the structure of the economy, a strategy supported by the United Nations and economists. However, the effectiveness of this policy shift has sparked prolonged debate among scholars, exacerbated by divergent findings regarding the effect of exchange rates on trade balances. This study investigates the asymmetric effect of the real exchange rate on Ethiopia’s trade balance from 1992 to 2022. Employing the Non-linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model (NARDL), the research challenges the prevalent assu
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Yin, Jianyi. "Forecasting Exchange Rates and Trade Balances: An ARIMA Analysis of USD/RMB and China's Trade Dynamics." Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences 46, no. 1 (2023): 16–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/46/20230310.

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This paper utilizes an ARIMA model to predict the future exchange rate and trade balance of China. The primary data is the monthly average exchange rate of USD/RMB, while China's monthly trade balance serves as auxiliary data. The findings indicate a projected downward trend in the USD/RMB exchange rate, continuing from 2023 to 2024 and stabilizing around 6.7 from 2024 to 2025. This implies a depreciation of the Chinese currency against the US dollar. Additionally, China's trade balance is expected to experience modest growth over the next two years, albeit at a significantly reduced rate comp
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LUKAU, MATEZO Espoir. "International Import-Export Trade in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Impact in Trade Balance." International Journal of Management Sciences and Business Research 9, no. 1 (2020): 96–104. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3702073.

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<em>this study focuses on analyzing statistics data from import-export the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the participation of international trade. It emerges after the analysis of the data that the DRC trade balance remained negative for the years studied, for reasons of the non-transformation of exported products by modernized and developed tools. DRC exports are not very diversified in sectoral terms and the dependence of the economy on imports of basic necessities. It seems obvious to us, that international trade must be organized according to the techniques chosen for structuring the
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Bahmani-Oskooee, Mohsen, and Tatchawan Kanitpong. "Thailand’s trade balance with each of her 15 largest partners: an asymmetry analysis." Journal of Economic Studies 45, no. 3 (2018): 660–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-10-2017-0307.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess asymmetric effects of exchange rate changes on Thailand’s trade balances. Design/methodology/approach The design methodology is based on the nonlinear ARDL approach of Shin et al. (2014). Findings The authors find strong support for the asymmetric effects of exchange rate changes on the Thailand trade balance with most partners, including the three largest partners, China, Japan and the USA. Research limitations/implications The long-run asymmetric effects revealed that while baht depreciation will hurt Thailand’s trade balance with China, it will
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Keersmaekers, Hendrik. "Institutionalizing the balance : trade objectives and environmental concerns :." Thesis, McGill University, 1996. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=27457.

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The interrelationship between trade objectives and environmental concerns lies at the heart of this research. After describing different trade regimes and environmental protection agreements, and offering the general framework of international law in which the trade-environment-development debate takes place, this thesis elaborates on the structures of international institutional authority that have been created through these trade regimes, environmental protection agreements and development organizations. A review of the existing international organizations will show us their strong points, u
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RIBEIRO, LIVIO SANTOS DE LEITE. "TWO ESSAYS ON BRAZILIAN TRADE BALANCE: 1999/2005." PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2006. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=9089@1.

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COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR<br>De uma posição deficitária antes da desvalorização de 1999, a balança comercial brasileira passou a relativo equilíbrio e, a partir de 2002, a superávits expressivos, relacionados principalmente ao grande crescimento das exportações em um contexto de apreciação cambial. Avaliando o quantum de exportações e importações entre janeiro de 1999 e dezembro de 2005, este trabalho procurou avaliar o desempenho do comércio brasileiro a partir de três proposições gerais: (i) outros fatores podem ter sido tão ou mais importante que o
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Khanum, Farjina. "Trade and environment : striking a balance in international law." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2012. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/14363/.

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This thesis seeks to balance trade and environmental concerns in international law. It studies a number of multilateral environmental and trade agreements to observe the extent to which environmental and trade treaty regimes have made allowances for each other's interests, and whether allowed such interests to be disregarded or overridden in practice. Serious questions remain, however, about the compatibility between overlapping environmental and trade rules in the absence of a clear authority relationship or means of securing unity in the international legal order as a whole. The internationa
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Choi, Hyun-ji. "Renminbi Undervaluation and the U.S.-China Bilateral Trade Balance." Thesis, Boston College, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2345/519.

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Thesis advisor: Robert G. Murphy<br>This paper examines the impact of the fixed exchange rate policy and the undervaluation of the Chinese currency (Renminbi) on the U.S.-China bilateral trade balance. Due to China's fixed exchange rate policy during the last decade, many have suspected that the Renminbi has been undervalued, and that this undervaluation has contributed to the expansion of the U.S. trade deficit. Based on previous studies, the first part of this paper explores Chinese economic policy and the possible consequences of the fixed exchange rate and the undervaluation of the Renminb
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Cronin, Blaise, and Lokman I. Meho. "The shifting balance of intellectual trade in information studies." Wiley, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/105512.

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The authors describe a large-scale, longitudinal citation analysis of intellectual trading between information studies and cognate disciplines. The results of their investigation reveal the extent to which information studies draws on and, in turn, contributes to the ideational substrates of other academic domains. Their data show that the field has become a more successful exporter of ideas as well as less introverted than was previously the case. In the last decade, information studies has begun to contribute significantly to the literatures of such disciplines as computer science and engine
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Muhammad, Naeem. "A re-examination of the trade balance-exchange rate relationship." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1997. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp04/nq24337.pdf.

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Kuntashula, Justine. "Effects of exchange rate changes on the Zambi's trade balance." Thesis, Högskolan Väst, Avd för juridik, ekonomi, statistik och politik, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hv:diva-15555.

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In this paper, we examined the effects of real effective exchange rate (REER) changes on the Zambia´s trade balance, and whether the Marshal-Lerner condition (M-Lerner condition) and the Jcurve effect are satisfied in Zambia following the depreciation of the Zambian Kwacha (ZMK) against the U.S. dollar. Using annual time series data from 1990 through to 2019, the Johansen cointegration test results show that there is a long run relationship between the trade balance, the real effective exchange rate, the Zambia's GDP growth, the world´s GDP growth, and the Zambia´s terms of trade. A standard t
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Tatum, Robert C. "The impact of trade liberalization on the balance of payments." [Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2005. http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3162982.

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Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Economics, 2005.<br>Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Dec. 2, 2008). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 66-02, Section: A, page: 0692. Chair: Edward F. Buffie.
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Yokoi, Noriko. "Searching for a balance : Britain's trade policy towards Japan, 1950-54." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1998. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2567/.

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The purpose of this thesis is to examine Britain's trade policy towards Japan between 1950 and 1954. This period was chosen as these were the years when the foundations of Britain's post-war trade and diplomatic relations with Japan were established. Moreover, the study was undertaken to redress the imbalance in scholarly research which is dominated by U.S.-Japan relations. Although the study does not refute the dominant political and economic influence of the United States in Japan, it elucidates the role played by other countries during Japan's early post-war period. The study contends that
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Ferng, Li-Kung. "Dynamic strategic monetary policies, the trade balance, and international capital flows." The Ohio State University, 1989. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1272297267.

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Books on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Mitra, Devashish. Inequality and trade. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003.

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Rashid, Salim. The political balance of trade ... ? ? College of Commerce and Business Administration, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 1989.

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China. Guo wu yuan. Xin wen ban gong shi., ed. On Sino-US trade balance. Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, 1997.

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China. Guo wu yuan. Xin wen ban gong shi., ed. On Sino-US trade balance. Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, 1997.

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Casper, Dale E. Balance of trade--financing international trade: Recent trends in public policy, 1980-1985. Vance Bibliographies, 1986.

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Davies, Rob. Trade, trade management, and development in Zimbabwe. Dept. of Economics, University of Zimbabwe, 1989.

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Morris, Robert J. Can free trade restore the U.S. balance of trade? U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Editorial Division, 1985.

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Dekle, Robert. Unbalanced trade. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2007.

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Dekle, Robert. Unbalanced trade. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2007.

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Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, ed. United States merchandise trade and trade balances, 1945-1987. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1988.

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Book chapters on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Luard, Evan. "Trade." In The Balance of Power. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21927-8_8.

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Masters, Marick F., and Raymond F. Gibney. "The Unions' Balance Sheets." In Trade Union Finance. Routledge, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003335474-6.

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Bundey, John. "Trade in goods." In United Kingdom Balance of Payments. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-99584-4_3.

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Bundey, John. "Trade in services." In United Kingdom Balance of Payments. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-99584-4_4.

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Pandit, Y. S. "India's Commodity Balance of Trade." In India's Balance of Indebtedness. Routledge, 2025. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003643210-4.

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El-Agraa, Ali M. "Japan’s Trade Balance in the Context of the Balance-of-Payments Stages Theorem." In Japan’s Trade Frictions. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-10059-0_3.

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Hill, Berkeley. "International trade." In An introduction to economics: concepts for students of agriculture and the rural sector, 5th ed. CABI, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781800620063.0009.

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Abstract This chapter discusses the theory of comparative advantage, specialization, and trade in surpluses. A two-country and two-commodity model of the gains from specialization and trade is presented, which is then extended to include many countries and many commodities. Also discussed are: transactions involving currencies; arguments put in support of trade restrictions; balance of payments; monetary matters; and government manipulation of the trade balance and exchange rates.
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Chipman, John S. "Trade Balance and Exchange Rates." In Global Disequilibrium in the World Economy. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-22269-8_8.

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Hojman, David E. "Inflation and the Trade Balance." In Chile. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230376656_11.

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Mäntysaari, Petri. "Balancing Contracts and Balance Group Contracts." In EU Electricity Trade Law. Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16513-4_9.

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Conference papers on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Wen, Li. "The Determinants of China's Trade Balance." In 2011 International Conference on Business Computing and Global Informatization (BCGIn). IEEE, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/bcgin.2011.65.

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LĂDARU, Georgiana-Raluca, Bogdan CHIRIPUCI, and Vlad-Constantin TURCEA. "AGRI-FOOD TRADE BALANCE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION." In Competitiveness of Agro-Food and Environmental Economy. Editura ASE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.24818/cafee/2021/10/08.

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Current paper focuses on the agri-food trade balance representing an up-to-date piece of research due to both its current applicability and broadness. The EU-28 Member States have been overseen in terms of food trade values and, in most of the identified food categories, trade surplus has been recorded. The paper’s preamble points towards the importance of trade in achieving food security, then the specialized literature is quantitatively reviewed highlighting the increasing interest over this topic and, as the last part of the paper, all the 24 food categories are analyzed. The Netherlands, S
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Al-Assaf, Dr Ghazi. "Understanding the Nexus Between Oil Price Volatility and Trade Balance in GCC Countries: A Comparative Investigation of Linear and Nonlinear ARDL Models." In 5th World Conference on Business, Management, Finance, Economics, and Marketing. Eurasia Conferences, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.62422/978-81-968539-6-9-019.

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The GCC countries, being rich in oil deposits, have always experienced volatility in the price of oil, and the consequences are predominantly in the form of the trade balance proportions. This research work attempts to unravel the complex interplay of oil price volatility and trade balance in GCC countries through the use of comparative analysis of Linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) and Nonlinear ARDL models. This research uses annual time-series data covering the period 1989-2021, which includes the major GCC economies of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrai
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Eridon, James. "MULTIPLICATIVE TRADE STUDIES." In 2024 NDIA Michigan Chapter Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium. National Defense Industrial Association, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3918.

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&lt;title&gt;ABSTRACT&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Combat vehicle design necessarily involves trade studies that attempt to balance varying performance criteria against associated burdens, such as weight, cost, and risk. Typically, trade studies quantify the value of different options by evaluating each on the individual criteria and then generating a weighted sum score. In the method described here the score is generated multiplicatively rather than additively. In addition, the importance of each evaluation criterion is used to generate the utility scores for that criterion. This improves the trade
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Mehmetaj, Nevila. "Relationship between Exchange Rate and Trade Balance Pre and after COVID-19 – Albania Case Study." In ERAZ: KNOWLEDGE BASED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. Association of Economists and Managers of the Balkans – Belgrade, Serbia, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31410/eraz.2022.23.

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This study attempts to identify the relationship between the real exchange rate and trade balance in Albania with its major trading partner Italy. Due to the severe lockdown and restrictions policies in response to Covid-19 measures, there were important effects on the evolution of trade. Quarterly data from 2008 to 2022 are used in several econometric methods such as unit root tests, cointegration techniques, Granger test, and vector error correction model (VECM). The main findings of this study are that domestic income and exchange rate show a long-run positive relationship to the trade bala
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Özbey, Fela. "REAL EXCHANGE RATE EFFECTS ON THE TURKISH TRADE BALANCE." In IISES Annual Conference, Sevilla, Spain. International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.20472/iac.2018.035.035.

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Guohui Gao and Jingduo Chang. "Research on China's foreign trade balance since joining the WTO." In 2011 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Management Science and Electronic Commerce (AIMSEC). IEEE, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/aimsec.2011.6010525.

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Wang, Mingrong, Mingxi Wang, Liqiang Shi, and Bin Hu. "A Gravity Model of China's Agricultural Trade Balance: Empirical Tests." In 2013 Sixth International Conference on Business Intelligence and Financial Engineering (BIFE). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/bife.2013.23.

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Safitri, Maria, and Vicky Oktavia. "Implications of the Trade Balance on the Indonesia Composite Index." In 2nd International Conference on Industry 4.0 and Artificial Intelligence (ICIAI 2021). Atlantis Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/aisr.k.220201.015.

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Bernasconi, Martino, Matteo Castiglioni, Andrea Celli, and Federico Fusco. "No-Regret Learning in Bilateral Trade via Global Budget Balance." In STOC '24: 56th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing. ACM, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3618260.3649653.

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Reports on the topic "Balance of trade"

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Backus, David, Patrick Kehoe, and Finn Kydland. Dynamics of the Trade Balance and the Terms of Trade: The S-Curve. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w4242.

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Backus, David. The Japanese Trade Balance: Recent History and Future Prospects. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w4553.

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Lipsey, Robert. U.S. Foreign Trade and the Balance of Payments, 1800-1913. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w4710.

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Feenstra, Robert, Wen Hai, Wing Woo, and Shunli Yao. The US-China Bilateral Trade Balance: Its Size and Determinants. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w6598.

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Goldberg, Linda, and Cédric Tille. The International Role of the Dollar and Trade Balance Adjustment. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w12495.

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Alessandria, George, and Horag Choi. The Dynamics of the U.S. Trade Balance and Real Exchange Rate: The J Curve and Trade Costs? National Bureau of Economic Research, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w25563.

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Koddenbrock, Kai. German trade and investment in Africa: Geoeconomics, regional complementarities and domestic resource mobilisation. APRI - Africa Policy Research Private Institute gUG (haftungsbeschränkt)., 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.59184/sa.037.

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Rossi, José Luiz, and João Paulo Madureira Horta da Costa. Exchange Rate Movements and Economic Activity: The Role of Trade and Financial Channels. Inter-American Development Bank, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0005128.

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The paper analyzes the impact of exchange rate movements on economic activity for a panel of countries from 2002 to 2021. By introducing a novel approach of considering the asset side of banks balance sheets in addition to their liabilities, the paper analyzes the importance of considering banks net financial position to determine the significance of the financial channel through which exchange rate fluctuations impact output. The results confirm the importance of both - trade and financial channels - in driving the impact of exchange rate movements in the economic activity, yet the direction
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Zhang, Zhaoyong. The Exchange Value of the Renminbi and China's Balance of Trade: An Emp irical Study. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w5771.

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McDougall, Robert, and Nico van Leeuwen. International MariBunkers: An Attempt to Assign its Usage to the Right Countries. GTAP Research Memoranda, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.21642/gtap.rm20.

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Abstract:
In recent GTAP data releases, in transforming energy volumes data from the IEA extended energy balances to an input-output format, we record inflows into the energy balances flow "international marine bunkers" as exports, but record no corresponding imports. Here, we revise the energy module to balance the trade flows by recording international marine bunker usage as imports into the country of residence of the ship operator, and as usage by that country’s transport industry. We allocate usage across countries in proportion to the money value of their water transport services exports.
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