Journal articles: 'Bam Earthquake, Iran, 2003'

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Rathje, Ellen M., Melba Crawford, Kyuseok Woo, and Amy Neuenschwander. "Damage Patterns from Satellite Images of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 295–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101047.

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High-resolution (0.6m) commercial satellite images contain a wealth of information for mapping earthquake damage. Satellite images of the city of Bam, acquired on 30 September 2003 (pre-earthquake) and 03 January 2004 (post-earthquake), were obtained and used to distinguish damage patterns across the city. Comparisons between pre- and post-earthquake images clearly show structural damage and collapse. Using spectral (color) and textural information from the post-earthquake image, regions of damage were identified using a semi-automated computer-based algorithm. This analysis indicates that the damage within the city of Bam was concentrated in the eastern sections of the city. The extent of damage in some sections of the city reached 100%. The results from this study not only provide information regarding damage patterns for the city of Bam, but they also illustrate the potential for using satellite images to understand and document earthquake effects during future earthquakes.

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Langenbach, Randolph. "Performance of the Earthen Arg-e-Bam (Bam Citadel) during the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 345–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2113167.

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The Arg-e-Bam (Bam Citadel; in Farsi, arg means citadel) is a remarkable example of the earthen architecture and construction that was heavily damaged in the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake, which occurred on 26 December 2003. This paper presents the hypothesis that the collapse of the walls was caused largely by a combination of the effects of (1) the additive changes made to the walls, particularly in recent restorations, which resulted in variations in the density and response to vibrations of different layers of unfired earth construction in the walls, and (2) extensive damage from termites and loss of the cohesion of the clay from degradation and excessive drying out, all of which interacted with the earthquake vibrations of unusually high-frequency in such a way that many walls effectively burst from the loss of cohesion and subsidence of their clay internal cores. Concern is raised about the possibility of similar risks to other earthen monumental structures in future earthquakes.

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Eshghi, Sassan, and Kiarash Naserasadi. "Performance of Essential Buildings in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 375–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098790.

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A devastating earthquake hit the city of Bam in the south of Iran at 5:26 a.m. local time, Friday, 26 December 2003. Based on the government of Iran's February estimate, the earthquake caused more than 43,000 deaths, 30,000 injuries, and left 70,000 homeless. It caused extensive damage to residential and commercial buildings and emergency response facilities. Essential buildings usually play a very important role in emergency response, but this was not the case in the Bam earthquake. Damage to the fire station, hospitals, and municipal and communications buildings caused serious problems in emergency response soon after the earthquake. This paper studies the performance of essential buildings during the Bam earthquake.

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Nalbant, Suleyman S., Sandy Steacy, and John McCloskey. "Stress transfer relations among the earthquakes that occurred in Kerman province, southern Iran since 1981." Geophysical Journal International 167, no. 1 (October 1, 2006): 309–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2006.03119.x.

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Summary We explore the possible stress triggering relationship of the M≥ 6.4 earthquakes that occurred in Kerman Province, southern Iran since 1981. We calculated stress changes due to both coseismic sudden movement in the upper crust and the time-dependent viscous relaxation of the lower crust and/or upper mantle following the event. Four events of M≥ 6.4 occurred between 1981 and 2005, on and close to the Gowk fault, show a clear Coulomb stress load to failure relationship. The 2003 M= 6.5 Bam earthquake, however, which occurred approximately 95 km SW of the closest Gowk event, shows a very weak stress relation to preceding earthquakes. The coseismic static stress change at the hypocentre of the Bam earthquake is quite small (∼0.006 bars). The time-dependent post-seismic stress change could be 26 times larger or 7 times lower than that of coseismic static stress alone depending on the choice of viscoelastic crustal model and the effective coefficient of friction. Given the uncertainties in the viscoelastic earth models and the effective coefficient of friction, we cannot confidently conclude that the 2003 Bam event was brought closer to failure through coseismic or post-seismic stress loading. Interestingly, the southern Gowk segment with a similar strike to that of the Bam fault, experienced a stress load of up to 8.3 bars between 1981 and 2003, and is yet to have a damaging earthquake.

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Maheri, Mahmoud R., Farzad Naeim, and Michael Mehrain. "Performance of Adobe Residential Buildings in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 337–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098861.

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Adobe, in the form of sun-dried bricks and clay or lime/clay mortar, has traditionally been the primary construction material in Iran. Presently, this type of construction still constitutes a notable portion of the buildings in the urban areas and a majority of the buildings in the rural areas. Performance of traditional adobe construction during numerous Iranian earthquakes has generally been poor. Low material strength, poor workmanship, lack of proper connections between building elements, and the excessive weight of the building because of thick walls and massive roofs, are but a few of the shortcomings that contributed to the general weakness of these buildings under earthquake loads. This paper examines the performance of adobe residential buildings during the Bam, Iran earthquake. The current rehabilitation trends for this type of construction in Iran are also discussed.

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Ashtari Jafari, Mohammad. "Seismicity anomalies of the 2003 Bam, Iran earthquake." Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (August 2012): 212–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.05.014.

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Jafari, Mohammad Kazem, Mohammad Reza Ghayamghamian, Mohammad Davoodi, Mohsen Kamalian, and Abdollah Sohrabi-Bidar. "Site Effects of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098266.

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The site amplification characteristics of the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake were investigated based on geological studies as well as geophysical, microtremor and aftershock measurements conducted by IIEES in the study area. A site effect microzonation map was prepared classifying the ground conditions of the city into five distinct categories, based on their stiffness, thickness, and frequency characteristics. The highest percentage of damage was concentrated in sites with stiff shallow and medium depth soils, which possessed considerable amplification potentials in high frequency ranges.

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Berberian, Manuel. "The 2003 Bam Urban Earthquake: A Predictable Seismotectonic Pattern along the Western Margin of the Rigid Lut Block, Southeast Iran." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 35–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2127909.

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“…King Ardeshir Babakan Sassanid [r. AD 224-241], by conquering Kerman and Bam, killed the ‘Kerm-e-Haftvad’ [the Haftvad Silk Worm] at the Bam Citadel. The gigantic worm burst with a big bang noise, which rocked the area, completely destroyed the Bam Citadel, and killed most of the inhabitants of the Citadel. King Ardeshir put an end to the rule of governor Haftvad, built the new village of Kolalan/Kojaran [Kurzan; the old Deh Shotor quarter in west Bam], and brought the ‘seven sacred fires of Bahram’ to the new village…”[Book of Deeds of Ardashir Pabagan 1878 (English Tr., original version ca. AD 272); Tabari 915; Ferdowsi Tusi 1010; & Mostaufi Qazvini 1340. The entire episode rests on the rationalization of historical events of unknown nature, and perhaps the legendary element could be a possible, mixed metaphoric reference to a ‘destructive earthquake’ or even a ‘conquering battle’ against the ancient city of Bam and its Parthian governor, Haftvad!]The impact of the Bam urban earthquake of 26 December 2003 (Mw6.6) was far more devastating than that which would be expected from a moderate-magnitude earthquake. The event followed a predictable geological/seismological pattern of a specially clustered sequence of medium- to large- magnitude earthquakes on tectonically related active faults in a region with historic slip deficits along the western margin of the rigid Lut block. The earthquake was accompanied by the coseismic rupture of sub-parallel strike-slip faults in a zone revealing a pattern of temporal clustering of seismicity, loading of adjacent faults, and a southwards progressing trend of earthquakes from the Kuh Banan to the Gowk and the Bam fault systems. As with the Agadir, Morocco, earthquake of 1960, and the great Tangshan, China, earthquake of 1976, the Bam urban earthquake painfully demonstrated the growing vulnerability of a city built on or adjacent to a seismic fault, unprepared to be tested by the severe ground motion triggered by a medium magnitude earthquake. The absence of historical seismic records regarding the occurrence of earthquakes in the region or the lengthy time spans between such disasters has been erroneously interpreted as a lack of any potential threat for the last 2,500 years in the city of Bam.

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Hessami, Khaled, Hadi Tabassi, Koji Okumura, Mohammad R. Abbassi, and Takashi Azuma. "Surface Deformation and the Fault Responsible for the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 113–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2103167.

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The Bam fault zone is a major active fault zone in southeastern Iran. Geomorphic evidence indicates that it has been responsible for repeated faulting events since the late Pleistocene. The 26 December 2003 Bam earthquake was associated with a 14 km fresh surface rupture trending north-south along the preexisting Bam fault zone. However, an en echelon rupture pattern trending N 15° E developed in the surface of alluvial deposits 5 km west of the Bam fault, in an area where no fault trace is visible in the geomorphology. The slip along the surface ruptures ranged between 0.5 and 20 cm. Rather than being a direct manifestation of the earthquake fault that does not surface, the fresh surface ruptures associated with the Bam earthquake are secondary structures such as synthetic (Reidel) shears and mole tracks, which indicate right-lateral motion along the Bam fault zone. This is compatible with both the focal mechanism solutions of the earthquake and fault displacements during the late Pleistocene. Fresh surface structures indicate areas of dispersed strain not recognized on SAR interferometry.

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Zaré, Mehdi, and Hossein Hamzehloo. "Strong Ground-Motion Measurements during the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 165–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098307.

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The Bam earthquake of 26 December 2003 ( Mw 6.5) occurred at 01:56:56 (GMT, 05:26:56 local time) near the city of Bam in the southeast of Iran. Two strong phases of energy are seen on the accelerograms. The first comprises a starting subevent with right-lateral strike-slip mechanism located south of Bam. The mechanism of the second subevent was a reverse mechanism.

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SAADAT, MOSTAFA. "DECLINE IN SEX RATIO AT BIRTH AFTER BAM (KERMAN PROVINCE, SOUTHERN IRAN) EARTHQUAKE." Journal of Biosocial Science 40, no. 6 (November 2008): 935–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932008002745.

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SummaryOn 26th December 2003, a severe earthquake hit the city of Bam in Kerman province, southern Iran. It destroyed around 90% of houses and at least 60% of the public buildings, and claimed the lives of more than 20,000 persons. To investigate whether acute stress caused by the Bam earthquake could alter the sex ratio at birth (SRB) 6–12 months later, the present study was done. The number of live births by sex was obtained from the National Organization for Civil Registration (Kerman province). The SRB was expressed as the male proportion. A prominent decline in the SRB (̃0·467) 11 months after the earthquake was observed (χ2=6·68, df=1, p=0·009). There was no significant difference between Bam and Kerman province (excluding Bam) for SRB (χ2=0·44, df=1, p=0·51) for a period of 33 month before the earthquake (from April 2001 to December 2003). It might be concluded that psychological tensions and stress are associated with a decrease in SRB.

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12

Matsuoka, Masashi, and Fumio Yamazaki. "Building Damage Mapping of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake Using Envisat/ASAR Intensity Imagery." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 285–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101027.

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A strong earthquake occurred beneath the city of Bam, Iran, on 26 December 2003. High-resolution optical satellite images, such as Ikonos and QuickBird, obtained after the earthquake indicate that severely damaged areas were widely distributed in the city. A European radar satellite, Envisat, also captured the hard-hit areas on 07 January 2004. This paper introduces an automated damage detection technique that was developed based on the data set of the 1995 Kobe, Japan, earthquake and applied to Envisat/ASAR images of Bam. A detailed investigation of the characteristics of the areas damaged due to the Bam earthquake in terms of the differences in the backscattering coefficient and the correlation coefficient of the pre- and post-event Envisat/ASAR images was conducted in order to raise the precision of damage detection. Finally, the damage-mapping scheme was revised to present the distribution of damaged areas in Bam.

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13

Tierney, Kathleen, Bijan Khazai, L. Thomas Tobin, and Frederick Krimgold. "Social and Public Policy Issues following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 513–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098928.

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The Bam, Iran, earthquake on 26 December 2003 took the lives of 26,271 people and left more than 20,000 injured. About 85% of the houses, commercial units, health and educational facilities, and administrative buildings were either damaged or completely destroyed, affecting 92,000 people in the city and 48,000 people in the surrounding villages, and leaving 75,000 homeless. A reconnaissance trip to Iran and the earthquake-stricken area was carried out from 8–16 May 2004, and focused on societal impacts five months after the Bam event, early recovery activities, long-term recovery planning, and public policy aspects of earthquake loss reduction in Iran. At the time of the reconnaissance team's trip, the major challenges facing the reconstruction process were public participation, public education and hazard communication, and inter-agency and inter-jurisdictional transition and coordination issues.

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Naeim, Farzad. "Preface to the Special Issue on the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2122647.

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This special issue of Earthquake Spectra on the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake required the collaboration, under adverse conditions, of engineers and scientists from many countries. The authors had to deal with three distinct and contradictory interpretations of U.S. law governing the collaboration of scientists from Iran and United States. As many facts, numbers, and theories regarding this earthquake are still being debated, the technical editors decided to let the authors express their own versions. This special issue, besides covering traditional subjects such as geology, seismology, strong motion measurements, performance of buildings and lifelines, and societal impacts, contains a section devoted to the utilization of remote sensing.

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Eshghi, Sassan, and Masoud N. Ahari. "Performance of Transportation Systems in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 455–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098891.

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An earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.5 hit the city of Bam in southern Iran at 5:26 am local time, Friday, 26 December 2003. According to the Iranian government's estimate, the earthquake caused more than 43,000 deaths, 30,000 injuries, and left 70,000 people homeless. It caused extensive damage to residential and commercial buildings and emergency response facilities. In contrast to the human loss and suffering and extended building damage, lifeline systems, although damaged, performed much better. Transportation systems and facilities (roads, bridges, railways, and the airport), although slightly to moderately damaged, became generally operational shortly after the earthquake to support emergency response and recovery efforts. The main reason for the good seismic performance of the transportation facilities was that most of them were located outside the zone that was heavily damaged. Another reason was that they were newer facilities and in general, seismic engineering aspects considered in their design and construction were more exact than those in residential buildings in Iran.

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Pellet, Frederic, Kambod Amini Hosseini, Mohammad Kazem Jafari, Fatma Zohra Zerfa, Mohammad Reza Mahdavifar, and Mohammad Keshavarz Bakhshayesh. "Geotechnical Performance of Qanats during the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 137–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2123247.

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The Bam, Iran, earthquake caused ground failure in several locations in and around Bam and Baravat, including collapse of existing qanats (traditional underground irrigation tunnels), local soil block falls, and landslides. However, no evidence of liquefaction was observed in the area. Ground failures were located and characterized during the site investigations carried out a few days after the earthquake. In addition, aerial photos taken two days after the event were evaluated and digitized in GIS. Based on these studies, land subsidence due to collapse of qanats, local toppling, and sliding of soil blocks were mapped. Instabilities of qanats were evaluated using 2-D and 3-D models, and the results were compared with existing conditions. Good agreement was observed between the results of the numerical modeling and condition of the qanats.

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Maheri, Mahmoud R. "Performance of Building Roofs in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 411–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098859.

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Roofs covering buildings in the city of Bam, Iran prior to the earthquake of 26 December 2003 can be categorized into three main groups: traditional masonry dome or vault, steel I-beam jack-arch system, and concrete beam-hollow block system. The collapse of nonengineered masonry roofs and floor slabs during the earthquake was the single largest contributor to the large number of fatalities. This paper discusses the seismic performance of each type of roofing and their strengths and weaknesses. The poor seismic performance of traditional domes and vault roofs and unanchored jack-arch slabs are noted and the seismic merits of the anchored jack-arch slabs and concrete beam-hollow block slabs are discussed.

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Moghadam, A. S. "Ground-Based Damage Statistics of Buildings that Survived the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 425–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098880.

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Damage statistics of more than 650 masonry, steel, and reinforced concrete buildings that survived the Bam earthquake are provided. Distribution and statistics of the buildings characteristics are also presented. The damage distributions are divided based on whether the survived buildings found to be safe, need retrofitting or demolition. The information helps providing some clarification about the reasons that some building survived the Bam earthquake but others did not.

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Hosseini, Mahmood. "Behavior of Nonstructural Elements in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 439–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098829.

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Regarding the importance of nonstructural elements in the vulnerability of buildings and their seismic safety level, on one hand, and the extensive damage to some of these elements in the 26 December 2003 Bam earthquake, on the other, this paper reviews the particular features of nonstructural elements in Iranian buildings and then presents the results of a thorough survey of their behavior and the damage they sustained in the city of Bam. Finally, based on the results of this survey, some recommendations are made that will be useful for modification of the “Guidelines for the Seismic Retrofit of Existing Buildings,” which is the only official reference on this topic used currently in Iran.

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Akbari, M. E., M. Asadi Lari, A. Montazeri, M. R. Aflatunian, and A. A. Farshad. "Evaluation of Health System Responsiveness to the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 469–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2091090.

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The Bam earthquake on 26 December 2003 was one of the worst natural disasters in Iran in the last century. The Iranian health system responded immediately to the devastating earthquake in various ways including diagnosis and treatment management, providing environmental health services, setting up health facilities and field hospitals with international aid, providing health professionals and medical assistants, and establishing mental and family health services. Ten months after the disaster, temporary housing for survivors was almost completed; mental health, reproductive health, environmental and oral health services were established; offering services of quality comparable or better than what was provided prior to the earthquake. A disease notification system was established within the Primary Health Care network (PHC) to prevent contagious and non-communicable diseases. This paper evaluates the responsiveness of the health sector to the disaster and reviews the strategies employed by national disasters and health managers following the earthquake.

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Shoja-Taheri, Jafar, Saeid Naserieh, and Amir H. Ghafoorian-Nasab. "The 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake: An Interpretation of the Strong Motion Records." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 181–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101887.

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On 26 December 2003, a destructive earthquake occurred in southeastern Iran, demolishing the city of Bam and vicinity. The highest intensity of shaking (VIII–IX) was observed in the city of Bam. The source of this shock was reported to have had a right-lateral strike-slip mechanism initiated in a blind fault in the north-south direction. A regional network consisting of 23 strong motion stations (SSA-2 Accelerograph), located within 1–290 km from the epicenter, registered the earthquake. The compact and pulse-shape arrivals of strong signals recorded at the Bam station strongly suggest that the rupture was initiated south of the city and propagated toward Bam. Based on the relative arrival times of the rupture front and the arrivals of P and S waves at this station, the velocity of rupture was estimated as 2.5±0.2 km/sec. Comparisons made between the attenuation curves constructed for this earthquake and those of the regional curves show that the effects of directivity caused significant deviations at near distances from the fault. This strong motion data yields estimates of source parameter values of 8.3×025(dyne-cm), 7.5 km, and 90 bars, respectively, for seismic moment, source radius, and stress drop.

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Yamazaki, Fumio, Yoshihisa Yano, and Masashi Matsuoka. "Visual Damage Interpretation of Buildings in Bam City using QuickBird Images following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 329–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101807.

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A strong earthquake struck the city of Bam in southeast Iran on 26 December 2003. The earthquake brought massive destruction to the city and its surrounding rural areas. QuickBird, a high-resolution satellite, captured a clear image of Bam on 03 January 2004, eight days after the event. The city was also observed by QuickBird on 30 September 2003, about three months before the event. In this paper, using the pre-event image, the location of individual buildings was registered on GIS and the city blocks surrounded by major roads were assigned. Then, the visual damage interpretation based on the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) was carried out building by building, comparing the pre-event and post-event images. The result of the damage inspection was compared with field survey data, and the accuracy and usefulness of the high-resolution satellite images in damage detection was demonstrated.

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Eshghi, Sassan, and Mehran S. Razzaghi. "Performance of Industrial Facilities in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 395–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098810.

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Several industries suffered minor to heavy damage during the 26 December 2003 Bam earthquake. The damage sustained by electrical and mechanical equipment, special structures (e.g. ongrade steel tanks), industrial buildings, and nonstructural and secondary components caused several industrial complexes to be put out of commission. Damage to industrial facilities not only caused direct losses, but several indirect economic and social impacts also occurred due to the work stoppage at industries.

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Tatar, M., D. Hatzfeld, A. S. Moradi, and A. Paul. "The 2003 December 26 Bam earthquake (Iran),Mw6.6, aftershock sequence." Geophysical Journal International 163, no. 1 (October 2005): 90–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2005.02639.x.

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Khazai, Bijan, and Elizabeth Hausler. "Intermediate Shelters in Bam and Permanent Shelter Reconstruction in Villages following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 487–511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098907.

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The earthquake of 26 December 2003 destroyed about 85% of the housing stock and left up to 75,600 people in the city of Bam homeless. With the convergence of migrants from nearby villages, it is estimated that 155,000 people were in need of shelter in Bam and surrounding villages. A municipal governmental Master Plan for the reconstruction of Bam was completed in September 2004. Permanent housing construction in the city of Bam began in October 2004, and is scheduled to take three to five years. In the interim, intermediate shelter construction in Bam and reconstruction of permanent shelter in the surrounding villages is ongoing and work is being done to integrate relief operations into long-term recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction programs. At the time of the reconnaissance trip in late May 2004, 16,200 intermediate shelters were assembled in Bam, either on the sites of original dwellings or on campgrounds on the outskirts of the city, and over 2,500 permanent shelters were constructed in the surrounding villages.

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Mansouri, Babak, Masanobu Shinozuka, Charles Huyck, and Bijan Houshmand. "Earthquake-Induced Change Detection in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake by Complex Analysis Using Envisat ASAR Data." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 275–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098987.

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The recently deployed Envisat satellite collected before- and after-event imagery on the Bam, Iran, earthquake that occurred on 26 December 2003. The majority of buildings in Bam were traditional one-story unreinforced adobe structures constructed of the indigenous land material of the region. As a result, the corresponding SAR imagery for Bam reflects less material dependence on object detection. For this study, two sets of before and after SAR data are used from the ASAR sensor onboard of the Envisat platform. The backscattering, complex coherence, self-power and cross-power values are computed for each respective co-registered data pairs. The change detection scheme evaluates these results using orbital information to assess the levels of change in different city zones. Such damage maps can potentially serve in disaster response/management and also in estimating economic losses (Eguchi et. al. 2000). Damage maps from field observations are used to validate these findings.

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Gusella, Luca, Beverley J. Adams, Gabriele Bitelli, Charles K. Huyck, and Alessandro Mognol. "Object-Oriented Image Understanding and Post-Earthquake Damage Assessment for the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 225–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098629.

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This paper presents a methodology for quantifying the number of buildings that collapsed following the Bam earthquake. The approach is object rather than pixel-oriented, commencing with the inventory of buildings as objects in high-resolution QuickBird satellite imagery captured before the event. The number of collapsed structures is computed based on the unique statistical characteristics of these objects/buildings within the “after” scene. A total of 18,872 structures were identified within Bam, of which the results suggest that 34% collapsed—a total of 6,473. Preliminary assessments indicate an overall accuracy for the damage classification of 70.5%.

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Parsizadeh, Farokh, and Yasamin O. Izadkhah. "Impact of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake on the Personnel and Functioning of Local Government Organizations." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101867.

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This paper provides a general overview of the impact of the 26 December 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake on the functioning of the local government and its services. Almost all Bam's municipal offices, hospitals, and schools were seriously damaged or destroyed during the earthquake, and the impact on the personnel and the functioning of local government agencies in the city of Bam and the surrounding area was very serious.

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Miller, Andrew C., and Bonnie Arquilla. "Disasters, Women's Health, and Conservative Society: Working in Pakistan with the Turkish Red Crescent following the South Asian Earthquake." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 22, no. 4 (August 2007): 269–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x00004842.

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AbstractIn recent years, numerous catastrophic disasters caused by natural hazards directed worldwide attention to medical relief efforts. These events included the: (1) 2003 earthquake in Bam, Iran; (2) 2004 earthquake and tsunami in Southeast Asia; (3) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in the southern United States in 2005;(4) 2005 south Asian earthquake; and (5) 2006 Indonesian volcanic eruption and earthquakes. Health disparities experienced by women during relief operations were a component of each of these events. This article focuses on the response of the Turkish Red Crescent Society's field hospital in northern Pakistan following the South Asian Earthquake of October 2005, and discusses how the international community has struggled to address women's health issues during international relief efforts. Furthermore, since many recent disasters occurred in culturally conservative South Asia and the local geologic activity indicates similar disaster-producing events are likely to continue, special emphasis is placed on response efforts. Lessons learned in Pakistan demonstrate how simple adjustments in community outreach, camp geography, staff distribution, and supplies can enhance the quality, delivery, and effectiveness of the care provided to women during international relief efforts.

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Allamehzadeh, M., M. Dezvareh, A. M. Farahbod, D. Hatzfeld, M. Mokhtari, A. S. Moradi, M. Mostafazadeh, A. Paul, and M. Tatar. "Seismological Aspects of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake and Its Aftershock Analysis." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 101–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098167.

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The source mechanism derived from the inversion of long-period body waves revealed that the earthquake occurred on a north-south trending strike-slip fault with a thrust component. According to the source model estimated in this study, the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake was a multiple event formed by two subevents. The rupture following subevent one started at a depth of about 8 km. However, the depth of subevent two is about 10 km. The total seismic moment estimated from inversion processes is 8.34×1018Nm. The pulse duration of subevent one and subevent two was determined from source time function as 1.7 s and 0.8 s, respectively. Corner frequency and source radius have been calculated by using major pulse duration. The corner frequency and source radius are 0.187 Hz and 5.47 km, respectively. The aftershock events distributed along a 30 km north-south striking fault. The focal depths of aftershocks distribution show a nearly vertical alignment of aftershocks located between 6 and 20 km depth. The focal mechanism solutions of aftershocks indicate right-lateral strike-slip faulting on a north-south trending fault, parallel to the previously known Bam fault trace in the east of Bam.

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Rathje, Ellen M., and Beverley J. Adams. "The Role of Remote Sensing in Earthquake Science and Engineering: Opportunities and Challenges." Earthquake Spectra 24, no. 2 (May 2008): 471–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2923922.

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Earthquake science and engineering are experience-driven fields in which lessons are learned after each significant earthquake. Remote sensing represents a suite of technologies that can play a significant role in documenting the effects of earthquakes and lead to important developments in our understanding of earthquakes. This paper describes current remote sensing technologies and the experience to date in using them in earthquake studies. The most promising activities that may benefit from remote sensing data products are identified, as well as the challenges that may impede the widespread use of remote sensing in earthquake studies. A comprehensive review of the use of remote sensing to document the effects of the 2003 Bam, Iran earthquake is presented, and recommendations for future developments in remote sensing in the context of earthquake science and engineering are provided.

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Sanadgol, H., I. Najafi, M. Rajabi Vahid, M. Hosseini, and A. Ghafari. "Fluid Therapy in Pediatric Victims of the 2003 Bam, Iran Earthquake." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 24, no. 5 (October 2009): 448–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x00007305.

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AbstractIntroduction:On 26 December 2003, at 05:26 hours, an earthquake of magnitude 6.6 (Richter scale) caused a disaster in the Bam region of Southeastern Iran, which had a population of approximately 102,000. In this study, the clinical and laboratory features and therapeutic interventions in pediatric (three months to 14 years) crush victims were analyzed. Determination of the type and amount of fluid therapy for prevention of acute renal failure (ARF) was the main aim of this study.Methods:The clinical and laboratory data and therapeutic interventions provided to 31 pediatric crush victims were collected. Early and vigorous fluid resuscitation was immediately performed. Resuscitation of the children from hypovolemic shock was initiated by interavenous (IV) administration of normal saline until the signs and symptoms of shock disappeared. For victims with crush injuries, an alkaline intravenous solution, up to 3 to 5 times more than maintenance doses was provided. In this study, there were two groups with decreasing severity of injury: (1) crush injury (CI), with or without ARF; and (2) non-crush injury (Non-CI). According to the above mentioned classification, there were 15 and 16 patients in group I and II, respectively.Results:The mean time spent under the rubble was 2.2 ±2.5 hours and 0.5 ±0.5 hours in Groups I and II, respectively. Seventy-five percent of ARF patients (n = 8), were admitted to the hospital the day of the earthquake (Day 0) and the day after earthquake (Day 1). In non-ARF patients (n = 7), 85.7% of the victims were admitted on Day 0 and Day 1. In Group II (ARF and non-ARF), all patients were admitted within three days after the earthquake. Although ARF did not develop in any of the children without CI, it was observed in eight of 15 patients with CI. There was no significant difference between CI with ARF (n = 8) and CI without ARF (n = 7) patients, in terms of the admission date, time of admission, hospitalization duration, and time under the rubble (TUR). Admission SGOTs were significantly different between these two groups. The ratio of the amount of delivered IV fluid (DL) to expected (EX) was based on weight of children was the only fluid therapy parameter in which there was a statistically significant difference between ARF and non-ARF groups. It was 3.6 ±0.99 in ARF and 4.8 ±0.74 in Nnon-ARF group (p = 0.01).Conclusions:Early intravenous volume replacement may prevent both ARF and dialysis need that may develop on the basis of rhabdomyolysis. In adults, six liters or 12–14 liters of fluids for prophylaxis of ARF in crush syndrome, were suggest-ed. In children, it seems that DL/EX ratio (delivered to expected ratio) is the best marker for evolution of IV fluid therapy in pediatric patients. In children with crush injuries, DL/EX ratio of >4.8 was sufficient for the prevention of ARF.

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Chiroiu, Lucian. "Damage Assessment of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake Using Ikonos Imagery." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 219–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2119227.

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Photo-interpretation analysis could be a reliable technique for earthquake damage assessment, depending on the objectives and the image resolution. The very high-resolution data, such as 1 m imagery supplied by the Ikonos satellite, enable interpretation of the damage and could offer a first estimation of the event consequences. In this research, damaged zones in Bam, Iran, were detected and mapped using visual analysis of multispectral 1 m Ikonos imagery. In a second step, a simple procedure to obtain a preliminary estimation of casualties based on GIS mapping and casualty ratio, was applied to the image. The loss estimation was next compared with the official statistics.

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Motazedian, Dariush, and Aliakbar Moinfar. "Hybrid stochastic finite fault modeling of 2003, M6.5, Bam earthquake (Iran)." Journal of Seismology 10, no. 1 (January 2006): 91–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10950-005-9003-x.

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Ahmadizadeh, M., and H. Shakib. "On the December 26, 2003, southeastern Iran earthquake in Bam region." Engineering Structures 26, no. 8 (July 2004): 1055–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2004.03.006.

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Saito, Keiko, Robin Spence, and Terence A. de C Foley. "Visual Damage Assessment using High-Resolution Satellite Images following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 309–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2101107.

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Visual interpretation of the building damage distribution in Bam, Iran, caused by the earthquake on 26 December 2003 has been carried out using pre- and post-earthquake QuickBird panchromatic high-resolution satellite images to produce a damage map. Two experienced interpreters carried out the assessments, and their results were compared to analyze the reasons for discrepancies likely to occur from interpretations by different interpreters. The first damage interpretation was carried out on the post-earthquake image, whereas the second interpretation compared the pre- and post-earthquake images. The analysis revealed that when using only the post-earthquake image, interpreters tend to underestimate the levels of damage, since both interpreters assigned higher damage levels when the pre- and post-earthquake image were compared than when only using the post-earthquake image. The absolute difference in the damage levels the two interpreters assigned in the post-only assessment and pre-and post-event comparison assessment remained the same.

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Aghabakhshi, Habib, and Claire Gregor. "Learning the lessons of Bam." International Social Work 50, no. 3 (May 2007): 347–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0020872807076048.

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English A massive earthquake devastated the city of Bam in Iran in 2003. The survivors became rapidly disenfranchised from the relief efforts and social capital diminished significantly. This article details the breakdown in social capital and links are made between the sustainment of social capital and the social work role. French En 2003, un tremblement de terre de grande magnitude a dé vasté la ville de Bam en Iran. Les survivants ont vite é té mis à l'é cart des efforts de relè ve et le capital social a diminué de façon significative. Cet article rend compte de l'effritement du capital social et é tablit des liens entre le maintien du capital social et le rôle du travail social. Spanish En 2003 un fuerte terremoto devastó la ciudad de Bam, Irán. A los supervivientes se les cortó muy rápidamente la ayuda de emergencia y como consecuencia el capital social disminuyó significativamente. Se describe el deterioro del capital social y se conexiona el trabajo social con el sostenimiento del capital social.

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Kohiyama, Masayuki, and Fumio Yamazaki. "Damage Detection for 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake Using Terra-ASTER Satellite Imagery." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 267–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098947.

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The damaged areas of the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake were detected using 15-meter-resolution satellite imagery acquired by Terra-ASTER. First, fluctuation of digital numbers was modeled as a normal random variable based on 17 pre-event images on a pixel-by-pixel basis. Then, the deviation value of each digital number in the post-event image was evaluated and converted into the confidence level, which indicates the possibility of an abnormal ground surface change. The detected damaged areas were verified with a high-resolution satellite image and it was observed that the areas with earthquake influence were mostly identified. However, the pixels with significant change were induced not only from heavily damaged buildings but also dusty roads, possibly due to demolition work. It was suggested that prior knowledge like a high-resolution pre-event image would assist the interpretation of the detected result.

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Adams, Beverley J., Babak Mansouri, and Charles K. Huyck. "Streamlining Post-Earthquake Data Collection and Damage Assessment for the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake using VIEWS™ (Visualizing Impacts of Earthquakes with Satellites)." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 213–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2098588.

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Advanced technologies, such as remote sensing, have considerable potential for increasing the effectiveness of post-disaster reconnaissance. In the aftermath of the Bam earthquake, the EERI field team deployed the VIEWS™ (Visualizing Impacts of Earthquakes With Satellites) reconnaissance system to support urban damage assessment activities. This paper introduces the VIEWS™ system and describes its inaugural implementation for earthquake response. For the Bam deployment, VIEWS™ integrated city-wide base layers of 60 cm color QuickBird satellite imagery collected “before” and “after” the event, with a real-time GPS (Global Positioning System) feed. The satellite imagery helped direct team members to the hardest hit areas, and real-time tracking supported efficient route planning, progress monitoring, and the capture of geo-referenced digital photographs. Through the VIEWS™ visualization mode, researchers are able to replay and analyze the datasets that were collected. The VIEWS™ system was developed by ImageCat, Inc. in collaboration with the Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER).

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TOBITA, Tetsuo, Masakatsu MIYAJIMA, Kenji KOSA, Yukio ARAI, Kenji TASAKI, Hironori UNO, Reza Salamy Mohammad, and Reza Alaghebandian. "Surface ground condition and damage distribution after the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Jiban Kogaku Janaru (Japanese Geotechnical Journal) 2, no. 2 (2007): 51–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3208/jgs.2.51.

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Fielding, Eric J., Paul R. Lundgren, Roland Bürgmann, and Gareth J. Funning. "Shallow fault-zone dilatancy recovery after the 2003 Bam earthquake in Iran." Nature 458, no. 7234 (March 2009): 64–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature07817.

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Talebian, Morteza, Eric J. Fielding, Gareth J. Funning, Manoucher Ghorashi, James Jackson, Hamid Nazari, Barry Parsons, et al. "The 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake: Rupture of a blind strike-slip fault." Geophysical Research Letters 31, no. 11 (June 2004): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004gl020058.

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Yazdi, Leila, Omran Garazhian, and Maryam Dezhamkhooy. "Exchange System Patterns in Bam, Southeastern Iran, after the Earthquake (December 2003)." Ethnoarchaeology 3, no. 1 (April 2011): 29–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/eth.2011.3.1.29.

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Hassanzadeh, Reza. "Earthquake population loss estimation using spatial modelling and survey data: The Bam earthquake, 2003, Iran." Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 116 (January 2019): 421–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.09.023.

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Jackson, J., M. Bouchon, E. Fielding, G. Funning, M. Ghorashi, D. Hatzfeld, H. Nazari, et al. "Seismotectonic, rupture process, and earthquake-hazard aspects of the 2003 December 26 Bam, Iran, earthquake." Geophysical Journal International 166, no. 3 (September 2006): 1270–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2006.03056.x.

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Eguchi, Ronald T., and Babak Mansouri. "Use of Remote Sensing Technologies for Building Damage Assessment after the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake—Preface to Remote Sensing Papers." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 207–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2107967.

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This preface introduces a series of papers that describe the use of remote sensing technologies in quantifying the extent of building damage after the 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake. These papers represent a significant milestone in post-earthquake loss estimation. For the first time, independent evaluations of regional damage are documented, which will ultimately allow an assessment of the efficacy of these technologies as tools for post-earthquake damage detection and quantification. Not only were different sensors used, but radically different approaches were implemented in quantifying damage. The conclusions and recommendations of the different papers are generally consistent and strongly suggest that regional damage assessment using remotely sensed data is highly feasible. The papers, however, acknowledge that more research is needed before these technologies can be used to make critical emergency response decisions. Finally, the role of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute through its Learning From Earthquakes Program is acknowledged, largely for helping to promote the use of remote sensing technologies in earthquake studies and for recognizing the value of collaboration through its newly formed Subcommittee on Remote Sensing.

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Mehrabian, Ali, and Achintya Haldar. "Some lessons learned from post‐earthquake damage survey of structures in Bam, Iran earthquake of 2003." Structural Survey 23, no. 3 (July 2005): 180–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02630800510610116.

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Moosazadeh, Mahmood, Farzaneh Zolala, Khodadad Sheikhzadeh, Saeid Safiri, and Mohammadreza Amiresmaili. "Response to the Bam Earthquake: A Qualitative Study on the Experiences of the Top and Middle Level Health Managers in Kerman, Iran." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 29, no. 4 (July 22, 2014): 388–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x14000727.

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AbstractIntroductionThe 2003 Bam, Iran earthquake resulted in high casualties and required international and national assistance. This study explored local top and middle level managers’ disaster relief experiences in the aftermath of the Bam earthquake.MethodsUsing qualitative interview methodology, top and middle level health managers employed during the Bam earthquake were identified. Data were collected via in-depth interviews with participants. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.ResultsResults showed that the managers interviewed experienced two main problems. First, inadequacy of preparation of local health organisations, which was due to lack of familiarity of the needs, unavailability of essential needs, and also increasing demands, which were above the participants’ expectations. Second, inappropriateness of delivered donations was perceived as a problem; for example, foods and sanitary materials were either poor quality or expired by date recommended for use. Participants also found international teams to be more well-equipped and organised.ConclusionsDuring the disaster relief period of the response to the Bam earthquake, local health organizations were ill prepared for the event. In addition, donations delivered for relief were often poor quality or expired beyond a usable date.MoosazadehM,ZolalaF,SheikhzadehK,SafiriS,AmiresmailiM.Response to the Bam earthquake: a qualitative study on the experiences of the top and middle level health managers in Kerman, Iran.Prehosp Disaster Med.2014;29(4):1-4.

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Stramondo, S., M. Moro, F. Doumaz, and F. R. Cinti. "The 26 December 2003, Bam, Iran earthquake: surface displacement from Envisat ASAR interferometry." International Journal of Remote Sensing 26, no. 5 (March 2005): 1027–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0143116042000295651.

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Movahedi, Hassan. "Search, Rescue, and Care of the Injured following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 21, no. 1_suppl (December 2005): 475–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2090469.

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Relief efforts started soon after the earthquake, but organized search and rescue missions were absent during the first 24 hours after the disaster. Once on their way, these missions were paralyzed by the chaos that ruled the first few days of the event, the harsh terrain, and the cold weather. Rubble removal and rescue of the trapped became secondary to transfer of the injured to hospitals. Most of the injured people were originally taken to Kerman city for stabilization before they were flown to other cities in Iran for further medical care. The hospitals in Kerman city were greatly burdened by this task. However, they performed heroically given scarce resources and staff, especially during the initial days of the disaster. By the second week of the disaster, field hospitals were operational in Bam and were able to provide care for people, relieving the pressure on Kerman city.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Bam Earthquake, Iran, 2003'

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