Journal articles on the topic 'Bananes plantains – Cameroun'

Cet article aborde sous un angle anthropologique le sujet des changements alimentaires au Cameroun. Il explore la consommation de la banane plantain, l’un des symboles de la culture des populations autochtones des régions au sud et du centre du Cameroun, à partir du village de Koumou situé à l’arrière-pays de Yaoundé jusqu’à cette même ville. En utilisant des données recueillies en 2004, l’article jette un regard sur les changements dans la consommation de la banane plantain qui sont dus à l’urbanisation. Utilisant une analyse de classe, il présente la question de la différentiation alimentaire qui accompagne le développement des classes sociales urbaines et propose des points théoriques sur le sujet des changements alimentaires en particulier et la consommation en général.

La présente étude vise à caractériser, sur 32 ans entre 1986 et 2018, les mutations spatio-temporelles qu’a connu la zone du Moungo dans la Région du Littoral au Cameroun en raison de l’expansion des plantations bananières et des diverses pressions dans l’utilisation des ressources. Les images satellitaires Landsat de 1986, 2001 et 2018 ont été exploitées à l’aide de la télédétection et des SIG. La classification non supervisée a permis d’obtenir huit classes d’occupation du sol (forêt dense, forêt claire, plantation et champs de cultures, sols nus, zone habitée, savane herbeuse et surface d’eau). La tendance évolutive des formations végétales est essentiellement régressive pour les forêts dense et claire avec une diminution de 336 924,51 ha à 272 887,04 ha entre 1986 et 2018, soit un taux de régression de 16,54% de la superficie totale. Par contre, elle est progressive pour les plantations/champs de cultures, savanes herbeuses, et zones habitées dont les superficies sont passées de 50 231,24 ha en 1986 à 111 325,41 ha en 2018 soit un taux de progression de 15,77%. Les facteurs de cette dégradation sont principalement d’ordres humains (agriculture, surpâturage et démographie galopante) et se traduit par la fragmentation des formations végétales naturelles au profit des surfaces cultivées et des zones d’habitations. Mots clés : Classes d’occupation du sol, facteurs de dégradation, Systèmes d’Information Géographique, Moungo-Cameroun. English Title: Spatio-temporal dynamic of land use change in the Moungo division, Littoral Region, Cameroon : influence on the expansion of banana-based agroforestry systems This study aims to characterize, over a 32-year period between 1986 and 2018, the spatial and temporal changes that occurs in the Moungo division located in the Littoral Region of Cameroon has undergone due to expansion bananas plantation and various pressures in the natural resources use. Landsat satellite images from 1986, 2001 and 2018 were exploited using remote sensing and GIS. The unsupervised classification yielded eight land use classes (dense forest, open forest, plantation and croplands, bare soil, inhabited area, herbaceous savannah and water plans). The evolutionary trend of vegetation formations is essentially regressive for dense and open forest with a decrease from 336 924.51 ha to 272 887.04 ha between 1986 and 2018, indicating a regression rate of 16.54% of the total area. On the other hand, it is progressive for plantations/croplands, herbaceous savannas, and inhabited areas, whose areas increased from 50 231.24 ha in 1986 to 111 325.41 ha in 2018, thus an increment rate of 15.77%. The degradation factors are mainly anthropogenic and include agriculture, overgrazing and increasing human population. As a result, the natural vegetation is being fragmented and transformed into cultivated areas and human inhabitations.Keywords : Land use classes, degradation factors, Geographical Information Systems, Moungo-Cameroon.

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV; genus Babuvirus, family Nanoviridae) is a serious pathogen of banana (AAA genome) and plantain (AAB genome) (Musa sp.). It is transmitted by the banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) in a persistent manner (1). In recent years, BBTV has emerged as a major constraint to banana and plantain production in several countries of Africa and had been previously confirmed in viz., Burundi, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Malawi, and Rwanda (1) and more recently in Mozambique and Zambia (2) and Angola (3). To assess the potential threat of BBTV in West-Central Africa, we conducted surveys in August and September 2008 in 36 major banana- and plantain-producing regions of Littoral, South, Southwest, and Western Provinces of Cameroon. DNA was extracted from 520 plants and tested by PCR with primers specific for a conserved domain of BBTV DNA-R segment (4). A 240-bp DNA fragment specific to the virus was amplified in 31 samples from 18 plantain and 13 banana plants from Southwest, Western, and Southern Cameroon. Among virus-positive samples, symptoms (upright leaf growth, small leaves with pale chlorotic margins that choked the throat of the plant creating the bunchy appearance at the top) typical of bunchy top disease were observed only in banana (cv. Cavendish Williams) from Muea in the Southwest Province. PCR products obtained from the symptomatic and asymptomatic banana (Cavendish Williams) from Muea and Abang, respectively, were cloned into pCR2.1 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and two independent clones from each isolate were sequenced in both directions. Pairwise comparison of these sequences showed 100% sequence homology. A comparison of these sequences (Accession No. F580970) with corresponding sequences in GenBank showed 99% nt sequence identity with a BBTV isolate from Angola (Accession No. EU851977) and 96 to 98% identity with BBTV isolates belonging to the South Pacific group (Australia, Africa, South Asia, and South Pacific). However, the BBTV isolate from Cameroon showed 85 to 90% sequence identity with isolates belonging to the Asian group (China, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, and Vietnam). To further confirm the virus identity, complete nucleotide sequence of the DNA-SCP segment that encodes for the virus coat protein was determined using PCR amplification of viral DNA (1), cloning of products into pCR2.1 vector, and sequencing. The derived sequence (1,075 nt; Accession No. GQ249344) in BLAST search at NCBI database revealed 98% nt sequence identity with coat protein gene of BBTV isolate from Burundi (Accession No. AF148943). These results, together with phylogenetic analysis, indicate that BBTV isolates from Cameroon have greater affinity to the South Pacific group. To our knowledge, this is the first report of BBTV in West-Central Africa. The occurrence of BBTV in the Western and Southern provinces of Cameroon, neighboring north of Gabon, suggests a possible spread of the virus from Gabon. This report also underscores the need to monitor other countries of West Africa for BBTV and enforce quarantine measures to prevent further spread through infected suckers from endemic areas of West and Central Africa. References: (1) I. Amin et al. Virus Genes 36:191, 2008. (2) W. T. Gondwe et al. InfoMusa 16:38, 2007. (3) P. L. Kumar et al. Plant Pathol. 58:402, 2009. (4) S. Mansoor et al. Mol. Biotechnol. 30:167, 2005.

The main aim of this study is to evaluate the working conditions of some women who supply plantain bananas to markets in Douala. Surveys were conducted among 60 women along National Road 5. This study revealed that the supply chain is dominated by older women (47 years old). Nearly half were married contrary to what one might have thought. Furthermore majority of these women were from the Western Region (76%) and were more experience; to carry out this activity Nevertheless they were faced with difficulties such as Long working hours from 4 am to midnight (than 15 hours) s, braving the risk of aggression and accidents. Their goods were best transported by bus or trucks to the rural markets. In order to purchase this product they are subjected to a lot of challenges and in addition to this, their physical condition must be in order. Another challenge faced by these women is the long waiting hours for trucks or buses to come by. This can take 2–6 hours before the buses arrive. In addition, the activity is mostly appreciated by the actors who do contribute to the economic empowerment of women, because it is profitable. However, they are faced with several constraints such as: theft, insecurity; high cost of transportation; lack of information; poor road infrastructure; police harassment; difficulties to have a warehouse to facilitate the storage and conservation conditions, etc. Due to these constraints, the commercial potential of women is hindered and much lower than it could be.

This article analyses the banana economy, particularly its social and environmental consequences. The discussion is largely based on the case study of Cameroon, but there are good reasons to believe that many research findings are relevant for the whole banana industry as the global banana production and trade is heavily based on giant agro-industrial plantations. There is, indeed, information from different important banana producing countries indicating that working conditions in the industry all too often include forced labour, child labour, lack of job security, low wages, and health and safety problems. The banana industry, as well documented in this article, is also linked to a range of harmful environmental impacts, including loss of animal habitats and biodiversity and pollution of land and water. Land conflict is one of the biggest problems associated with the production of banana and, therefore, banana industry is strongly connected with the political and economic basis of those societies where banana industry has become a major actor.

Banana streak badnavirus (BSV) has been reported from Musa spp. in many parts of West Africa, including Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria (1). Symptoms of BSV infection in Musa spp. are sometimes similar to and confused with those caused by cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). BSV is prevalent in areas of southern Nigeria bordering Cameroon, and the disease may also be present in other Central African countries. In June 1996, six leaf samples with viruslike yellow/chlorotic streak symptoms were collected from plantain in the four villages, Awae, M'Balmayo, Nkolfep, and Nkolfoulou, within a 60-km radius of Yaoundé, Cameroon's capital. The samples were indexed for BSV and CMV by both triple antibody sandwich indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (TAS-ELISA) and immunosorbent electron microscopy (ISEM) to ascertain the presence of these two viruses. The TAS-ELISA was performed with rabbit polyclonal antiserum (obtained from B. E. L. Lockhart, University of Minnesota) for trapping and mouse polyclonal antiserum (obtained from G. Thottappilly, IITA) for detection. Out of the six samples, one tested strongly positive (>×2 A405 of the healthy control) and four were weakly positive (<×2 but >×1.5 A405 of the healthy control) for BSV by TAS-ELISA. However, all six samples contained BSV particles when examined by ISEM with rabbit polyclonal antiserum (from B. E. L. Lockhart) for trapping. None of the samples tested positive for CMV. These results confirm that BSV is present in Cameroon and that BSV is likely to be the causal agent of the symptoms. Reference: (1) C. Pasberg-Gauhl et al. Plant Dis. 80:224, 1996.

There is an apparent nexus between the development of plantations and changes in landcover. The Meme-Mungo Corridor is an example par excellence of a tropical plantation corridor in Cameroon which has witnessed significant expansion in tropical plantations of cocoa, banana, rubber and oil palm, among others. This paper analyzes the connection between land cover changes and plantation development over a 42-year period (1960 and 2012). A total of 100 households were sampled using the systematic sampling technique. Furthermore, multispectral data, obtained from the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF, 2005) were used in the classification of the study area. These images were processed using Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) software and further compiled into a GIS database using ESRI ArcGIS software. The results showed that between 1960 and 2012, a more than 50% increase in the surface area of plantation crops was registered, leadingto a corresponding change in the land cover situation. Based on this, the study probed into the implications of further plantation development on land cover; further land cover changes could be attributed to the extension of plantations. This paperrecommends among others, the need for intensive agriculture to be encouraged so as to ensure an increase in agricultural output against the backdrop of a decline in agricultural space. Furthermore, augmenting agro-product value chains will stem the loss of agro-produce due to perishability. This will contribute to regulate extensive plantation development in the area.

The article is devoted to investigating a number of issues within the forest landscape of the Fako-Meme, south west region of Cameroon. An assessment of the history of economic development and use of forest in the studied territory was carried out. It was observed that the rate at which these forests are been hewn down for various purposes under the pretext of development leaves much to be desired. The deforestation of the forest with the attendant problems of resource degradation, environmental mutation is a cause for alarm. In order to understand the mutations taking place in the forest landscape, the history of forest use in 4 different periods: 1) the pre-colonial era (before the arrival of European explorers), (2) German colonial rule (1884-1916), (3) British colonial rule (1916-1961) and (4) Independence and post Independence Cameroon (1961-present day). It was observed that during the pre-colonial era the forest landscapes were very stable. Forest degradation in the territory started with the introduction of extensive mechanized agriculture introduced by the colonial masters through the opening of large agro-industrial plantations of rubber, palms and bananas. This forest ecological region suffers from a number of challenges. These problems were investigated in detail with proposals made for the sustainable management of forest resources in this forest ecosystem situated in the heart of the humid tropical region of the South West of Cameroon. These forests provide for a wide range of human needs ; medicine, timber , fuel wood, non- timber forest products (NTFPs), food crop production and cash crop cultivation. The pattern of land-use change in the Fako-Meme region was studied in three distinctive periods (1978, 2000 and 2015). The results revealed that anthropogenic activities have been systematically raping the forest landscapes so that the environments are only a skeleton or shadow of their former selves. This is an ecological region in which forest gives way to farmlands and plantations. In this respect, we see that what was a forest landscape in the past is now consisting of a succession of cocoa farms, palm, rubber as well as other economic cash crop plantations, with cocoa being the most important cash crop in the region. Evidence from our analysis reveals that this region has lost 42% of its forest cover within the period 1978-2015. This dynamic can be considered catastrophic. If this trend continues uninterruptedly in the region, then in 60-70 years, the Fako-Meme and the slopes of Mount Cameroon will remain without forest. It is easy to imagine the consequences of this. The study calls for urgent adaptive environmental strategies for the sustainable management of forest and its resources in the region.

The release of nutrients, including phosphorus from agricultural residues, is an important potential source of nutrients for subsequent crops. To fully understand the contribution of this residue P as a source of plant P for agricultural production, its chemical nature needs to be understood. In this study P species were identified and quantified in leaf litters and crops residues from cocoa farms, oil palm, rubber, and banana plantations by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Phosphorus in the crop residues was predominantly in the form of inorganic P mainly as orthophosphate and ranged from 45.9 to 89.2%. The highest relative percentage of P as orthophosphate was found in cocoa pod husk (89.2%) and the lowest percentage was found in decaying banana pseudostem (45.9%). Pyrophosphate was detected in trace amounts in all samples (less than 6%) except in fresh palm fronds. However, orthophosphate diester was detected only in fresh palm fronds (11.4%) and phytate was detected only in palm male inflorescence (6.7%). The result implied that cocoa pod husk, palm empty fruit bunch, and palm male inflorescence could be used as organic amendment, based on their high P content and release potential.

Avec une population estimée à dix milliards d’habitants dans quelques décennies, l’avenir du monde intertropical sera obligatoirement entre les mains des êtres humains. Ceux-ci protégeront une petite partie des forêts dites naturelles afin d’essayer d’y conserver la biodiversité qu’elles abritent ; ils géreront de façon plus productive une autre partie, ce qui passera très probablement par une simplification de leur diversité, dans la mesure où l’on favorisera les espèces les plus productives, les plus faciles à régénérer et dont les produits seront faciles à industrialiser et à vendre.Et entre la forêt protégée et la forêt aménagée, que restera-t-il ? Des plantations monospécifiques de bananiers, de riz, de cacaoyers, de coton ? Mais alors, comment les espaces forestiers pourront-ils évoluer en échangeant du matériel génétique, s’adapter aux changements climatiques, résister aux maladies nouvelles, etc. ?Les écologues estiment que la forêt ne pourra survivre que s’il existe des liens de continuité entre les massifs forestiers. La connectivité écologique ne pourra que très rarement être assurée par des corridors forestiers continus. L’existence d’îlots forestiers discontinus mais proches et à distance régulière permet le passage en « pas japonais » de nombreuses espèces végétales et animales, mais pas de toutes. Les micro-organismes et la macrofaune des sols forestiers ne peuvent se déplacer qu’à la condition d’une certaine continuité dans la trame arborée. Celle-ci n’est possible que par la présence d’arbres dans les zones cultivées, voire urbanisées. L’agroforesterie est la voie la plus prometteuse pour assurer cette continuité écologique.L’agroforesterie consiste à associer des arbres avec l’agriculture et/ou l’élevage, au niveau des parcelles, des exploitations ou des paysages. Les systèmes traditionnels, à faibles niveaux d’intrants, étaient et sont encore agroforestiers ; mais l’agriculture industrielle à hauts niveaux d’intrants (cf. mécanisation du travail, apport d’engrais, d’herbicides, de semences très améliorées, voire génétiquement modifiées) a, en général, exclu l’arbre des parcelles.Aujourd’hui, de nombreux agronomes, pastoralistes et forestiers travaillent ensemble pour appuyer techniquement et politiquement le retour des arbres dans l’espace agricole et pastoral.La diffusion à grande échelle de méthodes standardisées, mises au point en station de recherche, a rarement marché en milieu tropical. Par exemple, la culture en couloirs, mise au point par l’Icraf1 dans ses stations du Kenya au cours des années 1980, n’a pas été adoptée par les agriculteurs. Elle nécessitait trop de travail pour rabattre régulièrement les rejets d’arbres et limiter le développement de leurs racines, sans résoudre le problème de l’acidification des sols.Croire que l’agroforesterie permettra de stopper les défrichements forestiers par les agriculteurs essarteurs (sur abattis-brûlis) est également une erreur d’analyse. Il est certes vrai que l’agroforesterie permet aux agriculteurs qui la pratiquent de récolter chez eux de nombreux produits qu’ils récoltaient autrefois en forêt ; elle facilite également la culture continue sur le même sol, sans avoir à défricher de nouvelles forêts. Cependant, tant que les gouvernements laisseront les agriculteurs s’approprier des terres en défrichant la forêt publique, puis en la brûlant et en la mettant en culture, ceux-ci continueront à utiliser cette pratique qui permet d’étendre son capital foncier et de cultiver, avec peu de travail et une bonne production, pendant au moins une trentaine d’années.Les systèmes agroforestiers, qui permettent de répondre à presque tous les besoins d’une famille sur une surface limitée, nécessitent une bonne technicité pour limiter les concurrences entre espèces végétales et animales, récolter les différents produits – il est par exemple difficile d’abattre un arbre, pour en récolter son bois, sans écraser les cultures associées – et demandent un travail soutenu. C’est pourquoi les systèmes agroforestiers les plus performants se rencontrent dans les pays où la densité de la population rurale est la plus forte et où les forêts ont disparu (lakous d’Haïti, jardins agroforestiers de Java, bocage Bamilèkè et parcs arborés sur terrasses Kapsiki au Cameroun). Les résultats les plus probants, en matière de diffusion des systèmes agroforestiers au cours des trois dernières décennies, résultent du respect de modalités présentées ci-après :- L’accès aux forêts est limité, soit de fait lorsqu’il n’en existe plus, soit par décision du gouvernement qui met des forêts « sous cloche », en créant des forêts protégées définitivement (parcs et réserves) ou temporairement (capital foncier pour l’avenir), ce gouvernement ayant les moyens de faire appliquer cette politique, ce qui est très rarement le cas (ex. : Costa Rica, certains États de l’Inde).- On apporte une subvention durable aux agriculteurs qui conservent de jeunes arbres pour restaurer ou étendre leurs systèmes agroforestiers. C’est le cas de l’extension des parcs à Faidherbia albida au Nord-Cameroun, la subvention étant financée par un prélèvement sur la vente du coton. Également, les agroforestiers sont subventionnés pour les services écosystémiques qu’ils rendent à une communauté solvable ; tel est le cas des têtes de bassins versants approvisionnant une ville en eau en Inde ou au Costa Rica. En dehors des zones tropicales, ailleurs dans le monde, la plantation de haies bocagères est financée, notamment par la PAC2 en Europe.- On valorise les produits issus des systèmes agroforestiers en leur donnant des labels, qui permettent de les vendre plus cher à des consommateurs engagés (cas du café bio et équitable et du bois d’œuvre au Nicaragua).- On sécurise le foncier, ce qui garantit à l’agriculteur que les arbres qu’il plante pourront être récoltés par lui ou ses héritiers (exemple de la loi Gestion locale sécurisée, à Madagascar).- On encourage chaque agroforestier à adapter le système à ses possibilités (conditions écologiques, sociales, économiques) et à son accès aux marchés. Par exemple, dans l’Ouest-Cameroun, les agriculteurs éliminent de leurs haies des arbres devenus sans valeur (exemple : ficus producteurs de fibres végétales) pour les remplacer par des fruitiers ou des arbres producteurs de bois de sculpture et de menuiserie, de plus en plus recherchés en ville.Sans être une panacée qui permettra de bloquer le défrichement des forêts, l’agroforesterie est une nécessité absolue pour assurer aux populations du monde tropical une partie des biens et des services qui étaient autrefois rendus par les forêts. Par ailleurs, elle permettra aux forêts conservées d’être moins sollicitées par les populations, et elle contribuera à assurer leur survie à long terme, en facilitant le flux et l’évolution des ressources génétiques forestières.

Abstract A new distribution map is provided for Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb) Golden Nematoda: Hoplolaimidae Hosts: Banana (Musa spp.), plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and a range of other crops. Information is given on the geographical distribution in EUROPE, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Moldova, Portugal, Madeira, Central Russia Russian Far East, Slovakia, Spain, Canary Islands, UK, ASIA, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Guangdong, Sichuan, Cocos, Islands, India, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil, Nadu Tripura, West Bengal, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, AFRICA, Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Congo Democratic Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Reunion, Sao Tome & Principe, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, NORTH AMERICA, Mexico, USA, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, CENTRAL AMERICA & CARIBBEAN, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, St, Lucia, St Vincent and Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, SOUTH AMERICA, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Acre, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Espirito, Santo, Minas Gerais, Para, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Colombia, French, Guiana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, OCEANIA, American, Samoa, Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, Western, Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu.

Abstract A new distribution map is provided for Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar). Coleoptera: Curculionidae. Attacks banana, Manlia hemp, plantain, sugarcane, yam, also recorded from cocoa stems. Information is given on the geographical distribution in Africa, Angola, Annobon, Benin, Bioko, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Comores, Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Madeira, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Niger, Nigeria, Principe, Reunion, Rodrigues, Rwanda, St Helena, Sao Tome, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Asia, Andaman Islands, Bangladesh, Bonin Islands, Burma, Cambodia, China, Guizhou, Christmas Island, Hong Kong, India, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Java, Kalimantan, Lombok, Moluccas, Sulawesi, Sumatra, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, West Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Ogasawara-shoto, Okinawa, Philippines, Sikkim, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Australasia and Pacific Islands, Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, Caroline Islands, Cook Islands, Easter Island, Fiji, Mariana Islands, Marquesas Islands, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, American Samoa, Western Samoa, Society Islands, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, Wallis Islands, North America, USA, Florida, Central America and Caribbean, Bermuda, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, St Lucia, St Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad, South America, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Acre, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Maranhao, Minas Gerais, Parana, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela.