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1
Nasution, Anwar. The banking system and monetary aggregates following financial sector reforms: Lessons from Indonesia. Helsinki, Finland: UNU World Institute for Development Economics Research, 1996.
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2
Sattar, Danyal. Third-system financial instruments for the cultural sector: A report for Banking on Culture. Manchester: NorthWest Arts Board, 2000.
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3
Task Force on the Future of the Canadian Financial Services Sector., ed. Canada's social payment disbursement system and the financial services sector ; Moving to a mandatory direct deposit scheme : the case of Alberta. Ottawa: The Task Force on the Future of the Canadian Financial Services Sector, 1998.
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4
Poletaeva, Vladislava. Economics of sustainable industrial growth: concept, problems and possible mechanisms of formation. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1086387.
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The monograph examines the issues of transformation of the Russian economy from raw materials export model to a model of sustainable industrial growth. In the first Chapter of the work the author formulates the definition of sustainable economy growth and the expediency of its formation, analyzes the problems that hinder the transformation of national economic system into a model for sustainable industrial growth, and identified possible mechanisms of such transformation. In the second Chapter, in order to determine the sources of the implementation of the financial mechanism of forming of economy of sustainable industrial growth, the author assesses financial potential of economic entities and analyzes the role of the banking sector and the state to invest resources in the Russian economy. In the third Chapter the author provides the rationale (for the decision of task of forming of economy of industrial growth) for the development of cooperation in the banking sector and the state in the financing of manufacturing industry on the basis of realization of interests of all key stakeholders of such projects, identifies the interests of the state, banking sector and manufacturing industries and estimated the fullness of their realization in the framework of the existing mechanisms of the banking and government lending to the economy.
Designed for teachers, students of economic specialties, as well as anyone interested in the problems of development of economy in modern conditions.
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Poletaeva, Vladislava. Financial mechanism for the formation of the economy of sustainable industrial growth. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1347148.
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"The monograph is devoted to the development of a financial mechanism for the transformation of the national economic system from a relatively low growth rate and their significant instability of the export-raw materials model to a model of sustainable industrial growth.
In the first chapter, the rationale is made for the feasibility (to solve the problem of forming an economy of sustainable industrial growth) of developing cooperation between the banking sector and the state in the field of financing the manufacturing industry based on the implementation of the interests of all key stakeholders of such projects, the interests of the state, the banking sector and manufacturing enterprises are identified, and the completeness of their implementation within the existing mechanisms of bank-state investment in the economy is assessed.
The second chapter describes the algorithm of transactions for lending to industrial enterprises as part of the financial mechanism for forming an economy of sustainable industrial growth, and also develops methods for implementing the interests of the bank, the authorized state institution (creditors) and the manufacturing industry (borrower) when providing the latter with financing and in a situation of problem debt. In the third chapter, the author formulates a method for determining the "locomotive" industries, investment in which will stimulate the growth of the national economic system to the greatest extent
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Hasyanova, Svetlana. Banking risks: international approaches to assessment and management. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1225278.
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The textbook is devoted to the study of issues of assessment and management of banking risks based on international approaches. The application of methods and methods for assessing, managing and minimizing risks in commercial banks is considered both from the point of view of implementing international recommendations and standards in the banking sector of the Russian Federation, and in the context of organizing internal systems and procedures in banks. Particular attention is paid to the evolution of regulatory requirements for risk assessment and capital adequacy to cover risks in accordance with international agreements developed by the Basel Committee on banking supervision. Alternative approaches to risk assessment and management, their advantages and disadvantages, prospects for use and impact on banks ' activities are analyzed. It is intended for students of master's programs of economic and financial faculties of higher education institutions, as well as for practitioners in the field of Finance and banking.
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Gavrilov, Leonid. Information technologies in commerce. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1085795.
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The textbook discusses the technologies of the digital economy in commerce: visualization systems, virtual and mixed reality technologies, risk management, budgeting and planning, service-oriented enterprise architecture. The use of intelligent information systems in the work of the enterprise and for forecasting sales, scoring, combating fraud in the banking sector and trade; wireless information networks of 4G and 5G standards, Internet of Things networks, mobile technologies in the work of retail and wholesale enterprises is shown.
Meets the requirements of the federal state educational standards of higher education of the latest generation.
For students of higher educational institutions studying in the field of training "Trade business".
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Chandra, Saurabh, ed. SOCRATES (Vol 2, No 2 (2014): ISSUE - JUNE). 2nd ed. India: SOCRATES : SCHOLARLY RESEARCH JOURNAL, 2014.
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Bank, World, ed. Colombia, the investment banking system and related issues in the financial sector. Washington, D.C., U.S.A: World Bank, 1985.
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Collier, Richard S. Banking on Failure. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198859673.001.0001.
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This book seeks to explain why and how banks ‘game the system’. More specifically, its objective is to account for why banks are so often involved in cases of misconduct and why those cases often involve the exploitation of tax systems. To do this, a case study is presented in Part I of the book. This case study concerns a highly complex transaction (often referred to as ‘cum-ex’) designed to exploit a flaw at the intersection of the tax system and the financial markets settlements system. It was entered into by a very large number of banks and other financial institutions. A number of factors make the cum-ex transaction remarkable, including the sheer scale of the financial amounts involved, the large number of banks and financial institutions involved, the comprehensive failure of the controls infrastructure in this highly regulated sector, and the fact that authorities across Europe have found it so difficult to deal with the transaction. Part II of the book draws out the wider significance of cum-ex and what it tells us about modern banks and their interactions with tax systems. The account demonstrates why the exploitation of tax systems by banks is practically inevitable due to a variety of systemic features of the financial markets and of tax systems themselves. A number of possible responses to the current position are suggested in the final chapter.
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Roger, Mccormick, and Stears Chris. Part IV Regulatory and Other Developments in the UK 2010‒2016, 14 Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198749271.003.0015.
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This chapter charts the passage of the Financial Services (Banking Reform) Act 2013. The Banking Reform Act was enacted in December 2013 and comprises of 8 parts and 10 schedules. The Act was intended to deliver on the government’s plan to create a more robust, better regulated and managed banking system, that supports the economy, customers and small businesses. The Banking Reform Act implemented the recommendations of the Independent Commission on Banking (on banking-sector structural reform) and the key recommendations of the Parliamentary Commission on Banking Standards (on behaviour, culture, and professional standards within the banking industry). The Act amended the FSMA, the Insolvency Act 1986, and the Banking Act 2009. It also provided the legislative platform for an enhanced accountability regime within financial services.
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Battilossi, Stefano, Alfredo Gigliobianco, Giuseppe Marinelli, and With The Cooperation Of Sandra Natoli and Ivan Triglia. Resource Allocation by the Banking System. Edited by Gianni Toniolo. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199936694.013.0017.
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In Italy's bank-oriented financial system, bank credit is the most important source of external finance for firms. The allocative efficiency of banks is therefore a critical element underlying the overall performance of the economy. This chapter focuses on credit allocation across industrial sectors with different growth opportunities, as revealed by stock market data. We constructed a unique database which includes annual data on bank credit to different sectors and data on listed firms from 1948 to 2009. We assume that average sectoral price/earnings ratios are a proxy for growth opportunities, and that an efficient allocation of credit takes into account the variation of such opportunities. Our results confirm the hypothesis that, after a good start in the Fifties and Sixties, the following two decades, characterized by an excess of regulation (mixed with robust doses of political interference), saw a decline in the performance of the banking system. We also find evidence that after the financial liberalization of the early Nineties the allocative efficiency (across sectors) of the banking system increased. The present structural difficulties of the Italian economy do not depend, therefore, on the ability of the banks to select the industrial sectors to which to lend money.
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Roger, Mccormick, and Stears Chris. Part III The Conduct Crisis, 11 Sustainability, Responsibility, Public Trust, Ethical Drift, and the ‘Social Licence’ Concept. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198749271.003.0012.
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This chapter discusses the concept of sustainable banking and its importance in the aftermath of the recent financial crisis. Sustainability (or ‘sustainability development’) is conventionally understood as the simultaneous pursuit of three policy goals: environmental protection, social equity (and justice) and economic welfare. In the context of banking, sustainability includes aligning the financial system with sustainable development; standardizing sustainability reporting in the financial sector, and increased awareness of ‘green issues’ and a growing agenda insisting that commercial and financial activity — as well as national and local politics — have greater ‘respect for the environment’.
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Markku, Malkamäki, ed. Banking the poor: Informal and semi-formal financial systems serving the microenterprises. Helsinki: University of Helsinki, Institute of Development Studies, 1991.
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Berger, Allen N., Philip Molyneux, and John O. S. Wilson, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Banking. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198824633.001.0001.
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The Oxford Handbook of Banking, 3rd Edition provides an overview and analysis of developments and research in banking written by leading researchers in the field. This Handbook will appeal to graduate students of economics, banking and finance, academics, practitioners, regulators and policy makers. Consequently, the book strikes a balance between abstract theory, empirical analysis, and practitioner and policy-related material. The Handbook is split into five parts. Part I, The Theory of Banking, examines the role of banks in the wider financial system, why banks exist, how they function, the risks to which they are exposed and how these are managed, and their legal, organizational, and governance structures. Part II deals with Bank Activities and Performance. A variety of issues are assessed, including efficiency, technological change, globalization, and the ability to deliver small business, consumer, and mortgage lending services. Aspects relating to securitization, shadow banking, and payment systems are also covered. Part III entitled Regulatory and Policy Perspectives discusses the various roles of central banks, regulatory and supervisory authorities, and other government agencies which impact directly on the banking industry. Part IV of the Handbook entitled Macroeconomic Perspectives in Banking discusses interactions among banks, firms, and the macro-economy. This part of the Handbook covers the determinants of bank failures and crises, and the impact on financial stability, institutional development, and economic growth. The final Part V examines Banking Systems around the World. This section examines banking systems in the US, Japan, China, Africa, Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, Latin America, Australia and New Zealand.
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Huang, Yukon. China’s Debt Dilemma. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190630034.003.0005.
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China’s surging debt levels and an overheated property market have led many to believe that the country is headed for an economic collapse. Yet the argument that China is facing a financial crisis is overstated. China’s debt problem is largely confined to the state sector; its property market is not about to implode; and there is little evidence of widespread insolvency. The risks of shadow banking are also not as serious as many have argued. While the government has the discretionary resources to manage the situation, a set of SOEs does face serious financial problems and the country’s financing modalities are creating risks. Most observers see the banking system as the source of these problems, but the solution begins with reforming China’s fiscal system and restructuring management of SOEs. Addressing these issues would lead to a more financially sustainable growth path over the coming decade.
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Acharya, Viral V., Tim Eisert, Christian Eufinger, and Christian Hirsch. Same Story, Different Place? Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815815.003.0007.
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This chapter compares the recapitalizations of the Japanese banking sector in the 1990s with those in the ongoing European debt crisis. The analysis points to four main policy implications. First, recapitalizing banks by insuring or purchasing troubled assets alone is not likely to solve the problem of banks’ weak capitalization, as this measure is not able to adjust the extent of the recapitalization to the banks’ specific needs. Second, the amount of the recapitalization should be based on actual capital shortages and not risk-weighted assets to avoid banks decreasing their loan supply. Third, banks should face restrictions regarding the amount of dividends they are allowed to pay out. Finally, banks must be induced to clean up their balance sheets and reduce the amount of bad (non-performing) loans to rebuild confidence in the European banking system.
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Epstein, Rachel A. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809968.003.0006.
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The study’s findings from Europe have implications for other major powers, including that: (1) banking sector protectionism became increasingly costly given other liberalizing trends; (2) foreign-owned bank subsidiaries can provide more stable funding in crises than alternative foreign or even domestic bank activity; (3) foreign domination in finance limited catching up in the global economy, but in fact few states showed the capacity to exploit domestic banks for national goals; and (4) centralized bank governance through European Banking Union weakened bank–state ties in Europe, and elevated the role of markets there. This chapter analyzes the relevance of the findings for the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). China is perhaps the clearest case of a country struggling to both liberalize and retain the economic policy autonomy associated with a largely state-controlled financial system. The conclusion specifies the broader transformation in bank–state ties, but also its limits.
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Economia sostenibile: rischi e opportunità per il sistema bancario italiano. AIFIRM, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.47473/2016ppa0031.
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The transition towards a sustainable economy, i.e. towards business models that are able to reconcile the typical objectives of economic and financial management with environmental, social and governance (ESG) aspects and implications, is gaining increasing attention from all the main stakeholders, be they representatives of the political, scientific and social world, regulatory and supervisory authorities, market investors, workers and consumers. The companies, both industrial and financial, that will best respond to this market trend will be those that address ESG issues not as a pure response to public and regulatory pressure, but those that make it a lasting competitive advantage and longterm growth, taking an active leadership position in sustainability. For the banking sector, in particular, the implications will be considerable, given the fundamental role that banks play in financing the economy and businesses. In fact, being able to accurately identify the sectors, companies and business initiatives most exposed to these trends will be a fundamental factor in being able, on the one hand, to understand, identify, measure and effectively mitigate the new risks associated with them and, on the other, to promptly seize the new opportunities linked to the support and financing of the reconversion towards a more sustainable economy. In the current context, moreover, a great opportunity in this sense is represented by the possibility of channelling towards sustainable economy initiatives a substantial share of the public funds made available by Eurozone governments for the relaunch of the economy following the pandemic emergency. The objective of the position paper is to analyze the strategic priorities in addressing the risks and opportunities associated with the transition to a sustainable economy, to identify the initiatives with greater added value for the market and the respective enabling factors for their concrete implementation. The position paper is divided into four parts: 1. Market context and state of the art of Italian banks; 2. ESG in the banking sector; 3. ESG for non-financial institutions; 4. Key success factors and the role of risk management. Chapter 5 also includes the results of a questionnaire prepared by the Commission to which 31 banks responded, representing around 95% of the total assets of the Italian banking system.
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Henning, C. Randall. Greece 2012 and Cyprus 2013. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801801.003.0010.
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Greece posed the greatest challenge among the program countries, while Cyprus, linked to Greece through the banking system and debt restructuring, was the smallest of the country programs. The second Greek program was accompanied by substantial debt relief, but the process of granting it exposed sharp disagreements within the regime complex for crisis finance. The IMF and some euro-area member states advocated private-sector involvement, but split on the sustainability of the remaining official claims on Greece, with the Fund using its debt sustainability analysis as leverage. The case of Cyprus demonstrates that the IMF can be influential even if it contributes a relatively small share of the financing, when it is backed by key creditor states. In both cases, despite substantive conflict, key European creditors adhered faithfully to including the IMF and mediated among the institutions when they became deadlocked.
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Charles, Proctor. The Law and Practice of International Banking. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199685585.001.0001.
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This book provides authoritative analysis of current practice in international banking and the law that applies to it. Topics covered include: syndicated loans, security structures, derivative products, and mis-selling claims. The book tackles areas which have particular relevance to current practice. Amongst these are cross-border matters such as worldwide freezing injunctions, foreign disclosure orders, the bankers' duty of confidentiality, and the impact of sanctions on banking transactions. In particular, the book provides examination of various matters arising out of the Lehman collapse and the failure of the Icelandic banking system. This second edition reviews a significant accumulation of case law in these areas. Reflecting the continued growth of the Islamic finance market, there is also a section on this highly specialized but increasingly important area. The new edition provides consideration of the new UK and EU regulatory regimes, analysing the respective responsibilities of the UK Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) and the UK Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), and the establishment of new banking authorities in the EU. A separate chapter examines the new capital adequacy and liquidity regimes that will apply to banks in the wake of Basel 3. It also reflects on the impact of the crisis following on from the initial assessments made in the first edition. The book examines the new regimes for ‘ring-fencing’ of retail banking business and for the resolution of failing banks, introduced at both the UK and EU levels. The text also includes a new chapter examining the challenges that the banking system would face in the event that a Member State elected to withdraw from the Eurozone — a fate which appeared to hang over Greece during the crisis and which could recur if the single currency zone faces renewed strains.
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Haq, Khadija, ed. Pakistan’s 22 Families. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199474684.003.0014.
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In this chapter, Haq goes back to his 1968 presentation alleging 22 industrial family groups that had come to control a majority of industrial, banking and insurance sectors in the country. In this article, Haq explains that the study and the findings need to be viewed in the proper perspective, highlighting that the concentration of wealth was a by-product of the government policies and the primitive capitalist system in Pakistan. Haq clarifies that the slogan of the 22 families was rather taken too literally. For him, the 22 families were not the cause, but a mere symptom of the system that created them.
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Davies, Aled. The City of London and Social Democracy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804116.001.0001.
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The City of London and Social Democracy: The Political Economy of Finance in Post-War Britain evaluates the changing relationship between the United Kingdom financial sector (colloquially referred to as ‘the City of London’) and the post-war social democratic state. The key argument made in the book is that changes to the British financial system during the 1960s and 1970s undermined a number of the key components of social democratic economic policy practised by the post-war British state. The institutionalization of investment in pension and insurance funds; the fragmentation of an oligopolistic domestic banking system; the emergence of an unregulated international capital market centred on London; the breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system; and the popularization of a City-centric, anti-industrial conception of Britain’s economic identity, all served to disrupt and undermine the social democratic economic strategy that had attempted to develop and maintain Britain’s international competitiveness as an industrial economy since the Second World War. These findings assert the need to place the Thatcher governments’ subsequent economic policy revolution, in which a liberal market approach accelerated deindustrialization and saw the rapid expansion of the nation’s international financial service industry, within a broader material and institutional context previously underappreciated by historians.
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Davies, Aled. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804116.003.0006.
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The aim of this book has been to evaluate the relationship between Britain’s financial sector, based in the City of London, and the social democratic economic strategy of post-war Britain. The central argument presented in the book was that changes to the City during the 1960s and 1970s undermined a number of the key post-war social democratic techniques designed to sustain and develop a modern industrial economy. Financial institutionalization weakened the state’s ability to influence investment, and the labour movement was unable successfully to integrate the institutionalized funds within a renewed social democratic economic agenda. The post-war settlement in banking came under strain in the 1960s as new banking and credit institutions developed that the state struggled to manage. This was exacerbated by the decision to introduce competition among the clearing banks in 1971, which further weakened the state’s capacity to control the provision and allocation of credit to the real economy. The resurrection of an unregulated global capital market, centred on London, overwhelmed the capacity of the state to pursue domestic-focused macroeconomic policies—a problem worsened by the concurrent collapse of the Bretton Woods international monetary system. Against this background, the fundamental social democratic assumption that national prosperity could be achieved only through industry-led growth and modernization was undermined by an effective campaign to reconceptualize Britain as a fundamentally financial and commercial nation with the City of London at its heart....
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Macartney, Huw. The Bank Culture Debate. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198843764.001.0001.
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Following the global financial crisis and repeated scandals, US and UK state managers made substantial efforts to reform the culture of their banking sectors. This book argues though that they focused on an extremely narrow definition of bank culture. They did so for two reasons: firstly, because the structural pressures of financialization—which are a far more important driver of the problematic features of bank culture in Anglo-America—are harder to remedy; but secondly, state managers also used their bank culture response to tackle a legitimacy crisis facing their institutions of government. In so doing they abdicated responsibility for the real problems—of inequality and instability—associated with their respective financial systems. Drawing on interviews with over 150 bankers this book explains the strategies employed by state managers before then examining what has and has not changed in the culture of banking in the US and UK.
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Vogel, Steven K. The Elements of Marketcraft. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699857.003.0002.
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How do you craft a market? This chapter reviews some of the key institutions necessary to make markets function and flourish. A modern market economy requires much more than the rule of law and the protection of private property: corporate law, accounting systems, banking regulation, capital market regulation, corporate governance, labor regulation, antitrust policy, sector-specific regulation, intellectual property protection, and the deliberate fabrication of certain markets. These mechanisms structure markets by defining market actors, such as corporations; constructing goods, such as intellectual property rights; establishing market arenas, such as stock exchanges; setting the rules of exchange, such as trading practices; and promoting competition via regulation. In all of the substantive issue cases reviewed in this chapter, government regulation and private-sector coordination are not impediments to markets, but rather preconditions to their creation, expansion, and dynamism.
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Kroeber, Arthur R. China's Economy. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wentk/9780190946470.001.0001.
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China’s economic growth has been revolutionary, and is the foundation of its increasingly prominent role in world affairs. It is the world’s second biggest economy, the largest manufacturing and trading nation, the consumer of half the world’s steel and coal, the biggest source of international tourists, and one of the most influential investors in developing countries from southeast Asia to Africa to Latin America. Multinational companies make billions of dollars in profits in China each year, while traders around the world shudder at every gyration of the country’s unruly stock markets. Perhaps paradoxically, its capitalist economy is governed by an authoritarian Communist Party that shows no sign of loosening its grip. China is frequently in the news, whether because of trade disputes, the challenges of its Belt and Road initiative for global infrastructure, or its increasing military strength. China’s political and technological challenges, created by a country whose political system and values differ dramatically from most of the other major world economies, creates uncertainty and even fear. China’s Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know is a concise introduction to the most astonishing economic and political story of the last three decades. Arthur Kroeber enhances our understanding of China’s changes and their implications. Among the essential questions he answers are: How did China grow so fast for so long? Can it keep growing and still solve its problems of environmental damage, fast-rising debt and rampant corruption? How long can its vibrant economy co-exist with the repressive one-party state? How do China’s changes affect the rest of the world? This thoroughly revised and updated second edition includes a comprehensive discussion of the origins and development of the US-China strategic rivalry, including Trump’s trade war and the race for technological supremacy. It also explores the recent changes in China’s political system, reflecting Xi Jinping’s emergence as the most powerful leader since Mao Zedong. It includes insights on changes in China’s financial sector, covering the rise and fall of the shadow banking sector, and China’s increasing integration with global financial markets. And it covers China’s rapid technological development and the rise of its global Internet champions such as Alibaba and Tencent.
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Wilmarth Jr., Arthur E. Taming the Megabanks. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190260705.001.0001.
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This book demonstrates that universal banks—which accept deposits, make loans, and engage in securities activities—played central roles in precipitating the Great Depression of the early 1930s and the Great Recession of 2007–09. Universal banks promoted a dangerous credit boom and a hazardous stock market bubble in the U.S. during the 1920s, which led to the Great Depression. Congress responded by passing the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933, which separated banks from the securities markets and prohibited nonbanks from accepting deposits. Glass-Steagall’s structural separation of the banking, securities, and insurance sectors prevented financial panics from spreading across the U.S. financial system for more than four decades. Despite Glass-Steagall’s success, large U.S. banks pursued a twenty-year campaign to remove the statute’s prudential buffers. Regulators opened loopholes in Glass-Steagall during the 1980s and 1990s, and Congress repealed Glass-Steagall in 1999. The United Kingdom and the European Union adopted similar deregulatory measures, thereby allowing universal banks to dominate financial markets on both sides of the Atlantic. In addition, large U.S. securities firms became “shadow banks” as regulators allowed them to issue short-term deposit substitutes to finance long-term loans and investments. Universal banks and shadow banks fueled a toxic subprime credit boom in the U.S., U.K., and Europe during the 2000s, which led to the Great Recession. Limited reforms after the Great Recession have not broken up universal banks and shadow banks, thereby leaving in place a financial system that is prone to excessive risk-taking and vulnerable to contagious panics. A new Glass-Steagall Act is urgently needed to restore a financial system that is less risky, more stable and resilient, and better able to serve the needs of our economy and society.