Relevant bibliographies by topics / Barriers to entry

Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Barriers to entry'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 25 April 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Smith, Gavin. "Barriers to entry." Monash Business Review 4, no. 2 (July 2008): 14–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2104/mbr08023.

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Keppler, Jan-Horst. "Barriers to Entry: Abolishing the Barriers to Understanding." Journal of Public Finance and Public Choice 27, no. 2 (October 1, 2009): 99–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/251569209x15665367046606.

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Abstract The concept of a barrier to entry has been discussed least since Bain [1956] with important contributions by Spence [1977], Dixit [1980] and Milgrom - Roberts [1982]. The more recent discussion is synthesized in the contributions to a dedicated session at the 2004 AEA meeting. Yet, a ‘barrier to entry’ remains a surprisingly elusive concept, which even accomplished theorists fail to define in an unequivocal manner. This article shows that past and current contributions to the subject fail to resolve the issue, because they insist on analyzing barriers to entry in the context of identical firms in homogenous goods industries. This inevitably leads to logical inconsistencies as each theorist provides his own ad hoc definition of a barrier to avoid Bertrand competition. We show that the notion of a barrier to entry has economic pertinence only if interpreted as a fully sunk cost in the form of a unique, indivisible, non tradable factor of production. This, however, implies monopolistic competition with welfare implications of a barrier to entry being positive as well as negative. Regulators thus need to ensure the ability of all competitors to create their own welfare-enhancing ‘barriers to entry’ in a dynamic context rather than to focus on their existence in purely negative and static terms.
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Carias, Ann M., and Thomas J. Hope. "Barriers of Mucosal Entry of HIV/SIV." Current Immunology Reviews 15, no. 1 (April 12, 2019): 4–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573395514666180604084404.

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Most new HIV infections, over 80%, occur through sexual transmission. During sexual transmission, the virus must bypass specific female and male reproductive tract anatomical barriers to encounter viable target cells. Understanding the generally efficient ability of these barriers to exclude HIV and the precise mechanisms of HIV translocation beyond these genital barriers is essential for vaccine and novel therapeutic development. In this review, we explore the mucosal, barriers of cervico-vaginal and penile tissues that comprise the female and male reproductive tracts. The unique cellular assemblies of the squamous and columnar epithelium are illustrated highlighting their structure and function. Each anatomical tissue offers a unique barrier to virus entry in healthy individuals. Unfortunately barrier dysfunction can lead to HIV transmission. How these diverse mucosal barriers have the potential to fail is considered, highlighting those anatomical areas that are postulated to offer a weaker barrier and are; therefore, more susceptible to viral ingress. Risk factors, such as sexually transmitted infections, microbiome dysbiosis, and high progestin environments are also associated with increased acquisition of HIV. How these states may affect the integrity of mucosal barriers leading to HIV acquisition are discussed suggesting mechanisms of transmission and revealing potential targets for intervention.
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Uzunca, Bilgehan, and Bruno Cassiman. "Entry Diversion: Entry Barriers to Divert Submarket Entry." Academy of Management Proceedings 2018, no. 1 (August 2018): 17793. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2018.17793abstract.

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Guler, Kenan. "From Entry Barriers to Survival Barriers: Entry Into the Biotechnology Industry." Academy of Management Proceedings 2016, no. 1 (January 2016): 14825. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2016.14825abstract.

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Shastitko, Andrei E., and Natalia S. Pavlova. "Socially efficient entry barriers?" Baltic Region 8, no. 4 (December 2016): 26–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2016-4-3.

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Eswaran, Mukesh. "Licensees as Entry Barriers." Canadian Journal of Economics 27, no. 3 (August 1994): 673. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/135790.

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De Langen, Peter W., and Athanasios A. Pallis. "Entry barriers in seaports." Maritime Policy & Management 34, no. 5 (October 2007): 427–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03088830701585134.

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Gable, Myron, Martin T. Topol, Stephen Mathis, and Melvyn E. Fisher. "Entry barriers in retailing." Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 2, no. 4 (October 1995): 211–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0969-6989(95)00056-9.

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Büttner, Bettina. "Entry barriers and growth." Economics Letters 93, no. 1 (October 2006): 150–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2006.04.009.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Billore, Gautam, and Borg Jakob Engkvist. "Cultural entry barriers for SMEs : An exploratory study of cultural entry barriers for foreign SMEs entering Japan." Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för marknadsföring (MF), 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-35076.

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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to study the cultural barriers faced by Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in entering Japanese market and to see how the successful companies have overcome the barriers. Design/methodology/approach: An exploratory case study with qualitative research through semi-structured interviews (telephonic and Skype) with foreign SMEs in Japan. 17 interviews could be conducted in 12 companies out of 76 companies contacted.  Theoretical framework: The theoretical framework encompasses barriers studied by Namiki (1998) for classification of the entry barriers and applied the same on SMEs. The cultural aspect has been deployed in accordance to theory of House et al. (2004), Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (2012) and on the cultural dimensional framework of Hofstede et al. (2010). It further includes language in intercultural communication and barriers related to it.  Findings: The study identifies that the business culture perceived by foreign SMEs in Japan is almost similar to the national culture identified by Hofstede et al. (2010), but only three out of five cultural dimensions studied and the language have emerged as barriers for the foreign SMEs to do business in Japan. It was also found that to adapt to the Japanese business culture in general, engage in business relationship and to use senior bi-lingual Japanese staff, was keys to success for the foreign SMEs. Managerial implications: It is recommended that managers should study previous literature on cultural barriers as it most likely also applies to SMEs. It is also recommended to use Japanese bi-lingual staff and to establish relationships with Japanese companies as soon as possible. Limitations: The study was conducted with interviews of only twelve SMEs in Japan. The study was confined to qualitative method and a quantitative study with larger number of companies could have fetched more quantifiable results. Originality/value: This paper is one of the first to analyse the cultural barriers exclusively for the foreign SMEs in Japan with interviewing firms doing business in Japan. Keywords: Entry barriers, cultural barriers, SMEs, Japan market. Classification: Exploratory, qualitative study.
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Johansson, Emma. "Build it green : To create entry barriers with green marketing." Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Ekonomihögskolan, ELNU, 2011. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-12174.

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Master thesis in marketing, 15 credits, School of business and economics, Linnaeus University, Växjö, 4FE02E, spring 2011 Author: Emma Johansson Tutor: Åsa Devine Title: Build it green – To create entry barriers with green marketing Background: In the beginning of the 21st century sustainability have become of higher importance for companies. One tool to manage sustainability is green marketing; an approach through which companies can gain competitive advantage. But is it possible to influence the market structure by using green marketing and is it possible to make it difficult for new actors to enter the market? Purpose: The purpose of this research is to investigate how companies can use green marketing to create entry barriers. Delimitations: This thesis is delimited to investigate the work of creating entry barriers, not to measure the effect of it. Furthermore the empirical research only includes companies on the Swedish market. Method: To investigate how companies use green marketing in relation to entry barriers today a quantitative approach was used and an electronic questionnaire was conducted. Conclusion: For established companies to protect their position on the market it is important to not only concentrate on the barriers most commonly related to green marketing. Rather green companies can establish a wide spectrum of barriers related to green marketing in order to make it more difficult for new entrants to establish themselves. Suggestions for further research: The next step to make within the field of green marketing as a barrier to entry is to investigate the effect of the barriers examined in this research. It is also necessary to do industry specific researches to investigate if some barriers are more important for certain industries. Keywords: Entry barriers, environmental commitment, green entry barriers, green marketing, strategic barriers to entry, structural barriers to entry, sustainability.
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Bunte, Franciscus Hermanus Johannes. "Product innovations and barriers to entry." Maastricht : Maastricht : Universiteit Maastricht ; University Library, Maastricht University [Host], 1997. http://arno.unimaas.nl/show.cgi?fid=6792.

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Almgren, Teresia. "Barriers to market entry and EC Competition law." Thesis, Linköping University, Department of Management and Economics, 2004. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-2468.

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Hinder för marknadstillträde är viktigt i många avseenden. För ett företag som slår sig in på en ny marknad är det viktigt att veta vilka hinder det möter. För konkurrensrättsliga myndigheter är det nödvändigt att veta vilka hinder som existerar för att exempelvis kunna avgöra om ett företag har en dominerande ställning. Det är också nödvändigt att känna till hindren för att säkerställa en fri tillgång till marknaden.

Det saknas dock en generellt accepterad definition av hinder för marknadstillträde. Detta gör det svårare för de olika parterna på marknaden att veta om de handlat på ett otillåtet vis. Saknaden av en generellt accepterad definition och en klar åsikt om vad anses vara otillåtet enligt konkurrensrättsliga regler leder också till komplicerade och tidskrävande rättsliga processer.

Jag presenterar en rad olika definitioner samt en översikt av olika hinder för att klargöra ämnet. Jag diskuterar vilka hinder som är av intresse från ett konkurrensrättsligt perspektiv samt varför de är av intresse.

Jag kommer till slutsatsen att från ett konkurrensrättsligt perspektiv så är det inte definitionen i sig som är viktigast, utan man måste avgöra om ett hinder är otillåtet på individuell basis. Vid avgörande måste hänsyn tas till en rad olika faktorer, expempelvis den relevanta marknaden, vilken sorts hinder det gäller, hindrets effekt på marknaden, om hindret genererar några positiva effekter mm.


Barriers to entry are important from many aspects. For a firm entering a market it is important to know which barriers it is facing. From a competition authority’s perspective it is necessary to know the extent of entry barriers to determine for example if a firm enjoys a dominant position. It is also necessary to know the entry barriers in order to create provisions to ensure free market entry.

However, there is not one generally accepted definition of entry barriers. This makes it difficult for players in the market to assess when they are conducting a prohibited action. The lack of a standard definition and a clear opinion of what constitutes a prohibited barrier according to competition law also result in a more complicated and time-consuming judicial process.

I provide the reader with different definitions in order to clarify the matter. I also present an overview of barriers to entry. I also discuss which barriers are interesting from a competition law perspective and why they are of interest.

I conclude that, from a competition law perspective, it is not the definition of entry barriers that is of most interest. The most important question is without doubt whether the individual barrier constitutes an infringement to EC competition policy. That assessment must be done on an individual basis and it is an assessment that is dependant on many factors, such as the relevant market, the type of barrier, the affect the barrier have on the market, any pro-competitive effects etc.

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Pistol, Andreas. "On the entry barriers in the independent school market." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Nationalekonomiska institutionen, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-202877.

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This paper examines and evaluates one of the entry barriers in the Swedish upper secondary school market,the governmental imposed restriction which states that the establishment of an independent school can notresult in substantial negative eects for municipal schools. Identication of what variables are consideredwhen ruling the establishment of an independent school inappropriate due to the risk of causing substantialnegative eects is carried out through quantitative analysis by gathering data from a stratied sample ofapplications sent in to the Swedish School Inspectorate 2011 and 2012 to start or expand independentschools. The probability of getting an application to start or expand independent school is regressed on thepredicted number of remaining students at municipal schools, on the predicted student population changeand on the municipality recommendation. The models developed show that the predicted number ofstudents left in municipal schools has a big impact on the probability of getting an application approvedwith distinct kinks in the explanatory power. The result also show that the predicted student populationschange is taken into account but that the municipal recommendation is not.
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Constantatos, Christos. "Barriers to entry and market coverage in vertically-differentiated markets." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/7803.

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We first derive the optimal price-quality choice of a protected multi-product monopolist operating in a market that could otherwise sustain two or more firms. The main results of this analysis is that in many instances the monopolist will choose not to serve the entire market even when the fixed entry cost is very low and the corresponding number of qualities marketed by the monopolist is very large. Next, we turn our attention to natural duopolies with single-product firms and we examine the implications of entry threats when entry is sequential. Neither is maximal differentiation a general outcome of such competition in the absence of entry threats, nor is minimal differentiation the necessary outcome when entry is contested. When the incumbent firms are facing entry threats, we show that the nature of the fixed cost can confer first mover advantages to the incumbent firms. Next we combine our previous results to examine whether an entry threat will induce a multiproduct monopolist to cover any parts of the market he/she would choose to leave unserved in the absence of such threat. We find that there are many cases where the uncovered market result is robust to the threat of entry. Our next concern is whether a strategic quality choice can protect the monopolist from entry without an increase in the number of qualities as well as whether such a choice can be superior, in terms of profits, to product proliferation. The answer to both questions is positive and the last issue of this thesis is how market coverage is affected by such a strategy. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)
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Kruse, Jamie Lynette Brown. "Market accessibility and the entry decision: A theoretical and experimental examination." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/184619.

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The role of market accessibility and entry is the central theme of this dissertation. Two theoretical models of oligopoly theory are examined in a controlled laboratory market setting. Experimental testing of Contestability Theory is extended beyond the natural monopoly case and a "safe haven" provides subjects with a viable alternative to the "contestable" market. Evidence reported supports the conclusion that the contestable market is robust to the introduction of the alternate market. The theory of Bertrand-Edgeworth duopoly is explored from a game theoretic perspective with special attention to buyer queuing rule assumptions. Experimental evidence underscores sensitivity of market outcomes to the queuing rule adopted. The presence of excess capacity relative to market demand tends to push theoretical Bertrand-Edgeworth equilibria toward competitive levels. This result is substantiated by experimental evidence and is independent of the queuing rule assumed. The similarity between the Bertrand-Edgeworth excess capacity case and a contestable natural monopoly market is investigated. The presence of excess capacity/potential entrants is shown to exert more downward pressure on observed laboratory market prices than the presence of additional competitors alone. This result is at odds with the traditional Structure-Conduct-Performance Paradigm. A herfindahl index calculated from experimental results has almost no power to predict market outcome.
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Hölzl, Werner. "Tangible and intangible sunk costs and the entry and exit of firms in Austrian manufacturing." Inst. für Volkswirtschaftstheorie und -politik, WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, 2003. http://epub.wu.ac.at/780/1/document.pdf.

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The present paper provides further evidence on the importance of sunk costs as determinant of the turnover, entry, and exit of firms by studying the Austrian manufacturing industry using a 14-year panel. This study explicitly considers sunk costs related to investment in dedicated intangible assets such as investment relating to organizational and goodwill capital. The empirical results confirm the relevance of sunk costs as mobility barriers, their symmetry in respect to entry and exit and suggest that the influence of sunk costs is robust to aggregation. Sunk costs relating to capital expenditure and to organizational capital are found to be symmetric. Sunk costs relating to advertising expenditures seem to be only barriers to entry but not mobility barriers. Industry growth and profitability growth are found to be asymmetric, having a positive influence on entry and a negative on exit. Export growth is found to reduce the turnover of firms and to have a negative effect on exit suggesting that the decision to export may be associated with substantial sunk costs. (author's abstract)
Series: Working Papers Series "Growth and Employment in Europe: Sustainability and Competitiveness"
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Kaluwa, Ben Meshack. "Barriers to entry, price controls, and monopoly power in Malawian manufacturing." Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1986. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/19886.

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Kar, Buğra, and Kilian Nyssen. "Motivations, Barriers and Collaborative Strategies at Entry on the Swedish Alternative Protein Market : A Resource Based Perspective." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Industriell teknik, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-447376.

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The necessity of sustainable transitions has become more and more acknowledged in recent years. From these changes, specific markets have recently been emerging which are closely tied to sustainable development. An industry which is particularly critical for enabling such transitions is the food industry where the current eating patterns have been linked to an array of issues with the considerable reliance on animal-based products often pointed out as a major concern. From a raising awareness and technological changes, a market has arisen which aims at supplying proteins from alternative sources to animal exploitation. By inquiring this specific market referred to as the Alternative Proteins (AP) market, the core objective of this thesis is to extend the knowledge regarding markets associated with sustainability. More specifically, recognizing the rapid-evolution of such markets, the inquiries are directed towards the entry mechanisms as it is seen as key dynamics influencing the evolution of such markets. An in-depth understanding of market entry regarding diverse dimensions including motivations, barriers and entry strategies could thus be achieved. Recognizing a shortcoming in the scientific understanding of stakeholder collaboration as an entry strategy, an emphasis on these collaborative entry strategies prevailed in our investigations. Eight firms having recently or longer ago entered the AP market have been interviewed to provide the empirical material for the thematic analysis. The theoretical framework was built around the resource-based view (RBV), supplemented by other theories including Creating Shared Value (CSV) and Porter’s classification of barriers which granted an enhanced theoretical lens to arrive at significant insights resulting from our inquiries. New entrants were thus found to have both financial and social/ environmental dimensions embedded in their entry motivations. It was also concluded that the adoption of collaboration as an entry strategy predominated across our sample which was explained by the assumption that markets linked to sustainable development have intrinsic circumstances forcing companies to collaborate to a larger degree. Moreover, the findings provided evidence of firms striving for a fit between the entry barriers and their entry strategies by devising the latter in accordance with their perception of barriers. Lastly, an essential contribution resided in the application of RBV in the context of market entry as this enabled the approach of market entry through a distinct angle broadening both the knowledge on market entry and RBV.
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Books on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Ross, Paul. Barriers to Entry. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7.

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Carlton, Dennis W. Why barriers to entry are barriers to understanding. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004.

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Verdin, Paul J. From barriers to entry to barriers to survival. Fontainebleau: INSEAD, 1992.

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1948-, Rafiquzzaman Mohammed, and Statistics Canada. Analytical Studies Branch., eds. Testing the robustness of entry barriers. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1993.

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USAID/Philippines. Barriers to entry study: Final report. Manila, Philippines]: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1992.

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1945-, Gilbert Richard J., and Jacquemin Alex, eds. Barriers to entry and strategic competition. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1990.

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Scheffman, David T. Buyers' strategies, entry barriers, and competition. [Urbana, Ill.]: College of Commerce and Business Administration, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1990.

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Geroski, P. A. Barriers to entry and strategic competition. Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1990.

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1945-, Gilbert Richard J., and Jacquemin Alexis, eds. Barriers to entry and strategic competition. London: Routledge, 2001.

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J, Stahl Michael, ed. Entry barriers and market entry decisions: A guide for marketing executives. New York: Quorum Books, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Ross, Paul. "Introduction." In Barriers to Entry, 1–22. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_1.

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Ross, Paul. "A View to the Future." In Barriers to Entry, 269–93. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_10.

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Ross, Paul. "History Lessons." In Barriers to Entry, 23–65. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_2.

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Ross, Paul. "On the Runway." In Barriers to Entry, 67–93. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_3.

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Ross, Paul. "Roles and Responsibilities." In Barriers to Entry, 95–127. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_4.

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Ross, Paul. "Living to Work." In Barriers to Entry, 129–56. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_5.

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Ross, Paul. "Bamboo Ceiling." In Barriers to Entry, 157–86. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_6.

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Ross, Paul. "All Work and Play." In Barriers to Entry, 187–212. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_7.

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Ross, Paul. "Metaphorically Speaking." In Barriers to Entry, 213–42. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_8.

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Ross, Paul. "Reverse Angle." In Barriers to Entry, 243–68. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9566-7_9.

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Conference papers on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Harris, Rich. "Dismantling the Barriers to Entry." In Applicative 2015. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2742580.2742813.

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Mendez, Christopher, Hema Susmita Padala, Zoe Steine-Hanson, Claudia Hilderbrand, Amber Horvath, Charles Hill, Logan Simpson, Nupoor Patil, Anita Sarma, and Margaret Burnett. "Open source barriers to entry, revisited." In ICSE '18: 40th International Conference on Software Engineering. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3180155.3180241.

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Zhu, Yining, and Randall A. Berry. "Contracts as entry barriers for unlicensed spectrum." In 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications: Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS). IEEE, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/infcomw.2017.8116484.

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Grunt, Elena, and Natalya Antonova. "HIGHER EDUCATION ENTRY BARRIERS IN MODERN RUSSIA." In 12th International Technology, Education and Development Conference. IATED, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.21125/inted.2018.1130.

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Colbry, Dirk. "getexample: Reducing Barriers to Entry on Shared HPC Resources." In 2016 Third International Workshop on HPC User Support Tools (HUST). IEEE, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/hust.2016.005.

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Gutowitz, Howard. "Barriers to adoption of dictionary-based text-entry methods." In the 2003 EACL Workshop. Morristown, NJ, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1628195.1628200.

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Tuffin, Bruno. "Side payments as barriers to entry in non-neutral networks." In 2015 Conference of Telecommunication, Media and Internet Techno-Economics (CTTE). IEEE, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ctte.2015.7347222.

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Steinmacher, Igor, Tayana Uchoa Conte, Christoph Treude, and Marco Aurélio Gerosa. "Overcoming open source project entry barriers with a portal for newcomers." In ICSE '16: 38th International Conference on Software Engineering. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2884781.2884806.

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Knight, Darren, Christopher Mattson, and Brent Adams. "Maximizing Return on Investment by Constructing Optimal Barriers Against Competitors' Market Entry." In 50th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2009-2224.

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Mount, Timothy D., and Surin Maneevitjit. "Testing the Performance of a Forward Capacity Market with Barriers to Entry." In 2008 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. IEEE, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/hicss.2008.427.

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Reports on the topic "Barriers to entry"

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Carlton, Dennis. Barriers To Entry. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, October 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w11645.

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Carlton, Dennis. Why Barriers to Entry are Barriers to Understanding. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w10577.

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Pindyck, Robert. Sunk Costs and Risk-Based Barriers to Entry. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w14755.

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Stuart, Shannon. Size Matters: Barriers to Entry in the Microelectronic Industry. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, January 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada422057.

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5

Grossman, Gene, and Henrik Horn. Infant-Industry Protection Reconsidered: The Case of Informational Barriers to Entry. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, February 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w2159.

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6

Finkelstein-Shapiro, Alan, Federico S. Mandelman, and Victoria Nuguer. Fintech Entry, Firm Financial Inclusion, and Macroeconomic Dynamics in Emerging Economies. Inter-American Development Bank, January 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0003918.

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Financial inclusion is strikingly low in emerging economies. In only a few years, financial technologies (fintech) have led to a dramatic expansion in the number of non-traditional credit intermediaries, but the macroeconomic and credit-market implications of this rapid growth of fintech are not known. We build a model with a traditional banking system and endogenous fintech intermediary creation and find that greater fintech entry delivers positive long-term effects on aggregate output and consumption. However, greater entry bolsters aggregate firm financial inclusion only if it stems from lower barriers to accessing fintech credit by smaller, unbanked firms. Decreasing entry costs for fintech intermediaries alone has only marginal effects in the aggregate. While firms that adopt fintech credit are less sensitive to domestic financial shocks and contribute to a reduction in output volatility, greater fintech entry also leads to greater volatility in bank credit, thereby introducing a tradeoff between output volatility and credit-market volatility.
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7

Klapper, Leora, Luc Laeven, and Raghuram Rajan. Entry Regulation as a Barrier to Entrepreneurship. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w10380.

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8

Blair, Peter, and Bobby Chung. How Much of Barrier to Entry is Occupational Licensing? Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, November 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w25262.

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9

Cetorelli, Nicola, and Philip Strahan. Finance as a Barrier to Entry: Bank Competition and Industry Structure in Local U.S. Markets. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, October 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w10832.

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10

Lazonick, William, Philip Moss, and Joshua Weitz. Equality Denied: Tech and African Americans. Institute for New Economic Thinking, February 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp177.

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Thus far in reporting the findings of our project “Fifty Years After: Black Employment in the United States Under the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,” our analysis of what has happened to African American employment over the past half century has documented the importance of manufacturing employment to the upward socioeconomic mobility of Blacks in the 1960s and 1970s and the devastating impact of rationalization—the permanent elimination of blue-collar employment—on their socioeconomic mobility in the 1980s and beyond. The upward mobility of Blacks in the earlier decades was based on the Old Economy business model (OEBM) with its characteristic “career-with-one-company” (CWOC) employment relations. At its launching in 1965, the policy approach of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission assumed the existence of CWOC, providing corporate employees, Blacks included, with a potential path for upward socioeconomic mobility over the course of their working lives by gaining access to productive opportunities and higher pay through stable employment within companies. It was through these internal employment structures that Blacks could potentially overcome barriers to the long legacy of job and pay discrimination. In the 1960s and 1970s, the generally growing availability of unionized semiskilled jobs gave working people, including Blacks, the large measure of employment stability as well as rising wages and benefits characteristic of the lower levels of the middle class. The next stage in this process of upward socioeconomic mobility should have been—and in a nation as prosperous as the United States could have been—the entry of the offspring of the new Black blue-collar middle class into white-collar occupations requiring higher educations. Despite progress in the attainment of college degrees, however, Blacks have had very limited access to the best employment opportunities as professional, technical, and administrative personnel at U.S. technology companies. Since the 1980s, the barriers to African American upward socioeconomic mobility have occurred within the context of the marketization (the end of CWOC) and globalization (accessibility to transnational labor supplies) of high-tech employment relations in the United States. These new employment relations, which stress interfirm labor mobility instead of intrafirm employment structures in the building of careers, are characteristic of the rise of the New Economy business model (NEBM), as scrutinized in William Lazonick’s 2009 book, Sustainable Prosperity in the New Economy? Business Organization and High-Tech Employment in the United States (Upjohn Institute). In this paper, we analyze the exclusion of Blacks from STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) occupations, using EEO-1 employment data made public, voluntarily and exceptionally, for various years between 2014 and 2020 by major tech companies, including Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Cisco, Facebook (now Meta), Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc., Intel, Microsoft, PayPal, Salesforce, and Uber. These data document the vast over-representation of Asian Americans and vast under-representation of African Americans at these tech companies in recent years. The data also shine a light on the racial, ethnic, and gender composition of large masses of lower-paid labor in the United States at leading U.S. tech companies, including tens of thousands of sales workers at Apple and hundreds of thousands of laborers & helpers at Amazon. In the cases of Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Intel, we have access to EEO-1 data from earlier decades that permit in-depth accounts of the employment transitions that characterized the demise of OEBM and the rise of NEBM. Given our findings from the EEO-1 data analysis, our paper then seeks to explain the enormous presence of Asian Americans and the glaring absence of African Americans in well-paid employment under NEBM. A cogent answer to this question requires an understanding of the institutional conditions that have determined the availability of qualified Asians and Blacks to fill these employment opportunities as well as the access of qualified people by race, ethnicity, and gender to the employment opportunities that are available. Our analysis of the racial/ethnic determinants of STEM employment focuses on a) stark differences among racial and ethnic groups in educational attainment and performance relevant to accessing STEM occupations, b) the decline in the implementation of affirmative-action legislation from the early 1980s, c) changes in U.S. immigration policy that favored the entry of well-educated Asians, especially with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1990, and d) consequent social barriers that qualified Blacks have faced relative to Asians and whites in accessing tech employment as a result of a combination of statistical discrimination against African Americans and their exclusion from effective social networks.
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