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Journal articles on the topic 'Bergmann’s rule'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 April 2022

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1

HATTAB, TAREK, ALI GUCU, ANA VENTERO, et al. "Temperature strongly correlates with regional patterns of body size variation in Mediterranean small pelagic fish species." Mediterranean Marine Science 22, no. 4 (2021): 800. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/mms.26525.

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In this study, we consider the applicability of Bergmann’s rule to the populations of small pelagic fish species in the Mediterranean Sea. Under Bergmann’s rule, body size increases with decreasing temperature and increasing latitude. Although this macroecological pattern in body sizes is well established for many taxa of endotherms and ectotherms, it remains not universal and the proposed mechanisms underlying it are multiple and still lack consensus. We explored here the occurrence of geographical body size clines using measurements of average body sizes of 10 species collected in pelagic tr

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2

Cui, Jifa, Bingxin Wang, Shengnan Ji, Huawei Su, and Youbing Zhou. "Revisiting classic ecogeographical rules, using a widely distributed mouse species (Apodemus draco)." Animal Biology 70, no. 4 (2020): 359–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15707563-bja10012.

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Abstract Ecogeographical rules predict an association between specific adaptive morphological/physiological traits and latitude, elevation or cooler climates. Such ecogeographical effects are often expressed most clearly in widely distributed species due to continuous selective adaptation occurring over their geographic range. Based on 40 population sampling sites of 116 adult individuals (female, ; male, ) across an elevational range of 191–2573 m, we tested whether morphological traits accorded with predictions of Bergmann’s rule, Allen’s rule and Hesse’s rule for the South China field mouse

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3

Ashton, Kyle G., Mark C. Tracy, and Alan de Queiroz. "Is Bergmann’s Rule Valid for Mammals?" American Naturalist 156, no. 4 (2000): 390–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/303400.

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4

Freckleton, Robert P., Paul H. Harvey, and Mark Pagel. "Bergmann’s Rule and Body Size in Mammals." American Naturalist 161, no. 5 (2003): 821–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/374346.

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5

Feldman, Anat, and Shai Meiri. "Australian Snakes Do Not Follow Bergmann’s Rule." Evolutionary Biology 41, no. 2 (2014): 327–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11692-014-9271-x.

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6

Carvalho, Biange Maria Cezário de, Raquel Leite Wainfas, Tayanna Rodrigues, et al. "Black fly (Diptera:Simuliidae) larvae body size variation along an altitude gradient in the Itatiaia National Park, Brazil." Revista Acta Ambiental Catarinense 13, no. 1 (2016): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.24021/raac.v13i1.3314.

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According to Bergmann’s Rule, individuals who inhabit higher altitudes tend to be larger in body mass or size, when compared with individuals of the same taxon who inhabit lower altitude places. Black flies are insects of great medical and veterinary importance due to its blood-sucking habit, becoming subject of studies regarding its bionomics, ecology and taxonomy. Studies approaching the influence of the altitude gradient in the morphology of Diptera: Simuliidae larvae are scarce in the literature, therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence of altitude gradient in the morpholog

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7

Saunders, Ryan A., and Geraint A. Tarling. "Southern Ocean Mesopelagic Fish Comply with Bergmann’s Rule." American Naturalist 191, no. 3 (2018): 343–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/695767.

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8

Fujii, Katsunori, and Jun-Dong Kim. "Applicability of Bergmann’s Rule and Racial Stature difference." Korean Journal of Sports Science 30, no. 4 (2021): 967–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.35159/kjss.2021.8.30.4.967.

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9

Gigliotti, Laura C., Nathan D. Berg, Rudy Boonstra, et al. "Latitudinal variation in snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) body mass: a test of Bergmann’s rule." Canadian Journal of Zoology 98, no. 2 (2020): 88–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2019-0184.

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The relationship between body size and latitude has been the focus of dozens of studies across many species. However, results of testing Bergmann’s rule — that organisms in colder climates or at higher latitudes possess larger body sizes — have been inconsistent across studies. We investigated whether snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus Erxleben, 1777) follow Bergmann’s rule by investigating differences in body mass using data from six published studies and from data of 755 individual hares captured from 10 populations across North America covering 26° of north latitude. We also explored alternat

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10

Ho, Chuan‐Kai, Steven C. Pennings, and Thomas H. Carefoot. "Is Diet Quality an Overlooked Mechanism for Bergmann’s Rule?" American Naturalist 175, no. 2 (2010): 269–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/649583.

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11

Belk, Mark C., and Derek D. Houston. "Bergmann’s Rule in Ectotherms: A Test Using Freshwater Fishes." American Naturalist 160, no. 6 (2002): 803–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/343880.

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12

Fernández-Torres, Felipe, Pablo Ariel Martínez, and Miguel Ángel Olalla-Tárraga. "Shallow water ray-finned marine fishes follow Bergmann’s rule." Basic and Applied Ecology 33 (December 2018): 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2018.09.002.

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13

Orcutt, John D., and Samantha S. B. Hopkins. "Latitudinal body-mass trends in Oligo-Miocene mammals." Paleobiology 42, no. 4 (2016): 643–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pab.2016.13.

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AbstractPaleecological data allow not only the study of trends along deep-time chronological transects but can also be used to reconstruct ecological gradients through time, which can help identify causal factors that may be strongly correlated in modern ecosystems. We have applied such an analysis to Bergmann’s rule, which posits a causal relationship between temperature and body size in mammals. Bergmann’s rule predicts that latitudinal gradients should exist during any interval of time, with larger taxa toward the poles and smaller taxa toward the equator. It also predicts that the strength

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14

Shelomi, Matan. "Where Are We Now? Bergmann’s Rule Sensu Lato in Insects." American Naturalist 180, no. 4 (2012): 511–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/667595.

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15

Suzuki, Taichi A., Felipe M. Martins, Megan Phifer‐Rixey, and Michael W. Nachman. "The gut microbiota and Bergmann’s rule in wild house mice." Molecular Ecology 29, no. 12 (2020): 2300–2311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mec.15476.

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16

Mungee, Mansi, Rohan Pandit, and Ramana Athreya. "Taxonomic scale dependency of Bergmann’s patterns: a cross-scale comparison of hawkmoths and birds along a tropical elevational gradient." Journal of Tropical Ecology 37, no. 6 (2021): 302–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467421000432.

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AbstractBergmann’s rule predicts a larger body size for endothermic organisms in colder environments. The contrasting results from previous studies may be due to the differences in taxonomic (intraspecific, interspecific and community) and spatial (latitudinal vs elevational) scales. We compared Bergmann’s patterns for endotherms (Aves) and ectotherms (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) along the same 2.6 km elevational transect in the eastern Himalayas. Using a large data spanning 3,302 hawkmoths (76 morpho-species) and 15,746 birds (245 species), we compared the patterns at the intraspecific (hawkmoth

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17

Rypel, Andrew L. "The Cold-Water Connection: Bergmann’s Rule in North American Freshwater Fishes." American Naturalist 183, no. 1 (2014): 147–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674094.

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18

Yu, Tong Lei, Dong Li Wang, Michael Busam, and Yao Hui Deng. "Altitudinal variation in body size in Bufo minshanicus supports Bergmann’s rule." Evolutionary Ecology 33, no. 3 (2019): 449–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10682-019-09984-1.

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19

Paterson, J. D. "Coming to America: Acclimation in macaque body structures and Bergmann’s rule." International Journal of Primatology 17, no. 4 (1996): 585–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02735193.

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20

Balčiauskas, Linas, Laima Balčiauskienė, and Uudo Timm. "Bergmann’s rule for Neomys fodiens in the middle of the distribution range." Open Life Sciences 9, no. 12 (2014): 1147–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/s11535-014-0348-4.

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AbstractThe body size of Palearctic Sorex shrews decreases at higher latitudes, and as such the Bergmann’s rule does not work. However, no analysis has ever been done for water shrew (Neomys fodiens) in the middle of distribution range. Analysis of available literature data showed that some body and skull measurements of N. fodiens are negatively correlated to latitude. Measurements of 158 water shrews from Estonia and Lithuania were also analyzed with respect to the short scale latitudinal pattern. We found that populations are separated (Wilk’s lambda = 0.363, p<0.0001). Differences are r

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21

Davis, Simon J. M. "Rabbits and Bergmann’s rule: how cold was Portugal during the last glaciation?" Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 128, no. 3 (2019): 526–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blz098.

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Abstract Osteometric data from > 450 modern wild rabbits, mostly from Portugal, Spain and France, show an inverse correlation between their size and the temperature of the environment, in accordance with Bergmann’s rule. Similar measurements made on some 1660 rabbit bones from 14 Portuguese late Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological sites indicate that rabbits became considerably smaller at the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary. Thus, rabbit size varies or varied with temperature both today and in the past. A direct temperature–size relationship was assumed, and the regression of modern rabbi

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22

Juhász, Orsolya, Zoltán Bátori, Gema Trigos-Peral, et al. "Large- and Small-Scale Environmental Factors Drive Distributions of Ant Mound Size Across a Latitudinal Gradient." Insects 11, no. 6 (2020): 350. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects11060350.

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Red wood ants are keystone species of forest ecosystems in Europe. Environmental factors and habitat characteristics affect the size of their nest mounds, an important trait being in concordance with a colony’s well-being and impact on its surroundings. In this study, we investigated the effect of large-scale (latitude and altitude) and small-scale environmental factors (e.g., characteristics of the forest) on the size of nest mounds of Formica polyctena in Central Europe. We predicted that the change in nest size is in accordance with Bergmann’s rule that states that the body size of endother

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23

Beck, J., H. C. Liedtke, S. Widler, et al. "Patterns or mechanisms? Bergmann’s and Rapoport’s rule in moths along an elevational gradient." Community Ecology 17, no. 2 (2016): 137–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/168.2016.17.2.2.

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24

Vinarski, M. V. "On the applicability of Bergmann’s rule to ectotherms: The state of the art." Biology Bulletin Reviews 4, no. 3 (2014): 232–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s2079086414030098.

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25

NISHIKAWA, MASAAKI, HIROSHI IKEDA, KOHEI KUBOTA, and TEIJI SOTA. "Taxonomic redefinition and natural history of the endemic silphid beetle Silpha longicornis (Coleoptera: Silphidae) of Japan, with an analysis of its geographic variation." Zootaxa 2648, no. 1 (2010): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2648.1.1.

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A taxonomic redefinition of Silpha longicornis Portevin, 1926 is presented and the lectotype of S. longicornis is designated. Silpha yamatona Kôno, 1929 and Silpha imitator Shibata, 1969 are synonymized with S. longicornis based on examination of their type specimens and the geographic pattern of mtDNA CO1 region collected from representative localities in Japan, including their type localities. A key for the northeast Asian members of the Silpha carinata group is presented, and the geographic distribution, life cycle, microhabitat, and feeding biology of S. longicornis are summarized. Body si

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26

Liu, Qiao, Hao Feng, Long Jin, Zhi Ping Mi, Zhao Min Zhou, and Wen Bo Liao. "Latitudinal variation in body size in Fejervarya limnocharis supports the inverse of Bergmann’s rule." Animal Biology 68, no. 2 (2018): 113–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15707563-17000129.

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AbstractBergmann’s rule states that within a species of endotherms smaller individuals are found in warmer conditions, which is consistent for nearly all endotherms, while in ectotherms body size patterns are less consistent. As ectothermic vertebrates, the morphology of amphibians is likely impacted by climatic conditions. Here, we examined latitudinal variation in body size in the ranid frog,Fejervarya limnocharis, based on literature and our own data on mean body size of 3637 individuals from 50 populations and average age of 2873 individuals from 40 populations in China. The results showed

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27

Dussex, Nic, James Sainsbury, Ron Moorhouse, Ian G. Jamieson, and Bruce C. Robertson. "Evidence for Bergmann’s Rule and Not Allopatric Subspeciation in the Threatened Kaka ( Nestor meridionalis )." Journal of Heredity 106, no. 6 (2015): 679–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esv079.

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28

Diniz-Filho, José Alexandre F. "Bergmann’s rule, natural selection and the end of the Panglossian paradigm in ecogeographical analyses." Journal of Biogeography 35, no. 4 (2008): 577–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01865.x.

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29

Tomlinson, Sean, and Philip C. Withers. "Biogeographical effects on body mass of native Australian and introduced mice, Pseudomys hermannsburgensis and Mus domesticus: an inquiry into Bergmann's Rule." Australian Journal of Zoology 56, no. 6 (2008): 423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo08086.

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We investigated interactions of body mass with geographical location, and five climatic measures for two Australian rodents, the native Australian sandy inland mouse (Pseudomys hermannsburgensis) and the introduced house mouse (Mus domesticus). Correlation and regression analyses identified interactions of body mass with latitude, longitude, average highest maximum and lowest minimum temperatures, average annual rainfall, rainfall variability, and aridity. There was a significant correlation of body mass with latitude and longitude for Mus domesticus and P. hermannsburgensis. House mice were h

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CHEN, YAN-DONG, RICHARD A. B. LESCHEN, MING BAI, and XING-KE YANG. "A new Himalayan species of Alfieriella (Coleoptera: Cryptophagidae)." Zootaxa 4819, no. 3 (2020): 571–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4819.3.8.

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A new species of Alfieriella Wittmer, 1935 (Coleoptera, Cryptophagidae), Alfieriella senguptai sp. n. from China and India, is described. This is the first formal record of the genus Alfieriella and the tribe Hypocoprini from the Himalayan region. Alfieriella senguptai is the largest member of Alfieriella, and its presence in a cold, high-altitude environment conforms to Bergmann’s rule. The distribution of the genus Alfieriella may be associated with the breakup of the Tethys Ocean and the origin of A. senguptai influenced by the Himalayan orogeny. A distribution map and a key to species of A

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31

Stobo-Wilson, Alyson M., Teigan Cremona, Brett P. Murphy, and Susan M. Carthew. "Geographic variation in body size of five Australian marsupials supports Bergmann’s thermoregulation hypothesis." Journal of Mammalogy 101, no. 4 (2020): 1010–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyaa046.

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Abstract Despite a large body of research, little agreement has been reached on the ultimate driver(s) of geographic variation in body size (mass and/or length). Here we use skull length measurements (as a surrogate for body mass) from five Australian marsupial species to test the primary hypotheses of geographic variation in body size (relating to ambient temperature, productivity, and seasonality). We used a revised articulation of Bergmann’s rule, wherein evidence for thermoregulation (heat dissipation or heat conservation) is considered supportive of Bergmann’s rule. We modeled the skull l

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32

Hendges, Carla Deonisia, Bruce D. Patterson, and Nilton C. Cáceres. "Big in the tropics: Ecogeographical clines in peccary size reveal the converse of Bergmann’s rule." Journal of Biogeography 48, no. 5 (2021): 1228–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14073.

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33

Jankowiak, Łukasz, and Michał Polakowski. "Biometrics of Non-Breeding Immature Mallards (Anas Platyrhynchos) in North-Eastern Poland." Ring 33, no. 1-2 (2013): 47–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10050-011-0004-6.

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ABSTRACT Jankowiak Ł., Polakowski M. 2011. Biometrics of non-breeding immature Mallards (Anasplatyrhynchos) in north-eastern Poland. Ring 33, 1-2: 47-53. Non-breeding immature Mallards from north-eastern Poland (Północnopodlaska Lowland) were captured and measured (altogether 182 individuals in their 1st year of life). Immature males were significantly larger than females according to all analysed parameters. The length of bill and wing were the most sexually dimorphic traits and the least dimorphic were the total length of bill with head and tarsus length. The results of the present analysis

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34

Blanchet, Simon, Gael Grenouillet, Olivier Beauchard, et al. "Non-native species disrupt the worldwide patterns of freshwater fish body size: implications for Bergmann’s rule." Ecology Letters 13, no. 4 (2010): 421–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01432.x.

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35

Sepúlveda, Maritza, Doris Oliva, L. René Duran, et al. "Testing Bergmann’s rule and the Rosenzweig hypothesis with craniometric studies of the South American sea lion." Oecologia 171, no. 4 (2012): 809–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2462-1.

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36

Penniket, Sophie, and Alison Cree. "Adherence to Bergmann’s rule by lizards may depend on thermoregulatory mode: support from a nocturnal gecko." Oecologia 178, no. 2 (2015): 427–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-015-3239-0.

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37

Salewski, Volker, Wesley M. Hochachka, and Wolfgang Fiedler. "Global warming and Bergmann’s rule: do central European passerines adjust their body size to rising temperatures?" Oecologia 162, no. 1 (2009): 247–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1446-2.

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38

Manyak-Davis, Anna, Tina M. Bell, and Erik E. Sotka. "The Relative Importance of Predation Risk and Water Temperature in Maintaining Bergmann’s Rule in a Marine Ectotherm." American Naturalist 182, no. 3 (2013): 347–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/671170.

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39

Jin, Yuanting, and Pinghu Liao. "An elevational trend of body size variation in a cold-climate agamid lizard, Phrynocephalus theobaldi." Current Zoology 61, no. 3 (2015): 444–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/61.3.444.

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Abstract The pattern that many ectotherms have smaller body sizes in cold environments follows the converse to Bergmann’s rule and is most frequently found in lizards. Allen’s rule predicts animals from warm climates usually have longer tails and limbs, while these traits tend to be shorter in individuals from cold climates. We examined body size variation in an endemic Chinese lizard Phrynocephalus theobaldi along a broad elevational gradient (3,600–5,000 m on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau). Female body size showed a U-shaped cline, decreasing with increased elevation within the range 3,600–4,2

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40

Volynchik, Stanislav. "Climate-Related Variation in Body Dimensions within Four Lacertid Species." International Journal of Zoology 2014 (2014): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/795387.

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A close relationship between habitat and external morphology is widespread among many animals, including reptiles. Here, I studied the relationship between abiotic environmental conditions and body size of four lacertid species (Phoenicolacerta laevis, Ophisops elegans, Acanthodactylus boskianus,andMesalina guttulata) occurring in Israel. I examined the effect of average annual temperature and average annual precipitation on body and limb dimensions, using linear statistical models. Temperature- and precipitation-related geographic clines in body size showed the same trend among all species. F

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41

Nwaogu, Chima J., B. Irene Tieleman, Kwanye Bitrus, and Will Cresswell. "Temperature and aridity determine body size conformity to Bergmann’s rule independent of latitudinal differences in a tropical environment." Journal of Ornithology 159, no. 4 (2018): 1053–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-018-1574-8.

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42

Bhusal, Daya Ram, Priya Patel, Kishor Chandra Ghimire, Mahadev Bista, and Bhupendra Kumar. "Size-based intraspecific variations along altitudinal gradient and follow of Bergmann’s rule in Parthenium beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister." Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 22, no. 4 (2019): 1173–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2019.10.008.

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43

Husby, Arild, Sabine M. Hille, and Marcel E. Visser. "Testing Mechanisms of Bergmann’s Rule: Phenotypic Decline but No Genetic Change in Body Size in Three Passerine Bird Populations." American Naturalist 178, no. 2 (2011): 202–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660834.

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44

Major, Richard E. "Latitudinal and insular variation in morphology of a small Australian passerine: consequences for dispersal distance and conservation." Australian Journal of Zoology 60, no. 3 (2012): 210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo12078.

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Dispersal ability is a fundamental attribute of threatened species that influences their prognosis for survival in fragmented habitats. More vagile species are considered to be under lower threat from habitat fragmentation than more sedentary species. This study investigates morphological variation amongst island and mainland populations of a threatened Australian passerine, the white-fronted chat (Epthianura albifrons), to review previous conclusions about levels of population differentiation and consequent conclusions about dispersal ability. Standard body measurements were taken from wild-c

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45

Baranov, Viktor, Jonas Jourdan, Blue Hunter-Moffatt, Sajad Noori, Simon Schölderle, and Joachim T. Haug. "Global Size Pattern in a Group of Important Ecological Indicators (Diptera, Chironomidae) Is Driven by Latitudinal Temperature Gradients." Insects 13, no. 1 (2021): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13010034.

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Size is one of the most outwardly obvious characteristics of animals, determined by multiple phylogenetic and environmental variables. Numerous hypotheses have been suggested to explain the relationship between the body size of animals and their geographic latitude. Bergmann’s Rule, describing a positive relationship between the body size of endothermic animals and their geographic latitude, is especially well known. Whether or not insects exhibit a similar pattern has long been a subject for debate. We hypothesize that latitudinal size gradients are coupled to temperature variation affecting

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46

Cvetković, D., N. Tomašević, G. F. Ficetola, J. Crnobrnja-Isailović, and C. Miaud. "Bergmann’s rule in amphibians: combining demographic and ecological parameters to explain body size variation among populations in the common toadBufo bufo." Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 47, no. 2 (2009): 171–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0469.2008.00504.x.

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47

Guillaumet, Alban, Jean-Baptiste Ferdy, Eric Desmarais, Bernard Godelle, and Pierre-André Crochet. "Testing Bergmann’s rule in the presence of potentially confounding factors: a case study with three species of Galerida larks in Morocco." Journal of Biogeography 35, no. 4 (2008): 579–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01826.x.

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48

Pincheira-Donoso, Daniel. "The balance between predictions and evidence and the search for universal macroecological patterns: taking Bergmann’s rule back to its endothermic origin." Theory in Biosciences 129, no. 4 (2010): 247–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12064-010-0101-0.

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49

Hagen, Joel B. "Bergmann’s Rule, Adaptation, and Thermoregulation in Arctic Animals: Conflicting Perspectives from Physiology, Evolutionary Biology, and Physical Anthropology After World War II." Journal of the History of Biology 50, no. 2 (2016): 235–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10739-016-9446-7.

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50

Lim, Changseob, Ji Hyoun Kang, Sung Hwan Park, Sangwoo Seok, Badamdorj Bayartogtokh, and Yeon Jae Bae. "Morphometric analysis of dung beetle (Gymnopleurus mopsus: Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera) populations from two different biomes in Mongolia." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 131, no. 2 (2020): 369–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa110.

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Abstract Studying the phenotypic variation of organisms along environmental gradients can provide insight into the influences of specific environmental factors. Mongolia, which is distributed across three different biomes, is an ideal location for studying the mechanisms that underlie such phenotypic variation over a large range of climate. The present study examined the variation in shape and size of the body in a ball-rolling dung beetle, Gymnopleurus mopsus (Pallas), in Mongolia and investigated the effects of climate on the species’ morphology. A total of 290 individuals were collected fro

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