Academic literature on the topic 'Biafra'

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Journal articles on the topic "Biafra"

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Omaka, Arua Oko. "Conquering the Home Front: Radio Biafra in the Nigeria–Biafra War, 1967–1970." War in History 25, no. 4 (2017): 555–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0968344516682056.

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Radio, as a modern communication technology, has played a revolutionary role in propaganda wars. Governments and revolutionaries find it indispensable because of its advantage in disseminating messages quickly across national borders. The Biafran government saw the enormous propaganda potential of radio and tactically exploited it. Despite this strategic role, scholars have failed to represent Radio Biafra as an important arm of the Biafran struggle for self-determination. Using archival documents, newspaper articles, and oral interviews, this article explores the role of Radio Biafra in the N
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Bello, Taiwo. "“Aggravated Starvation”: Biafran Diaspora, American Statesmen, Organizations, and Community Responses to Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War." Journal of History 60, no. 1 (2025): 35–63. https://doi.org/10.3138/jh-2023-0050.

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This article presents two main arguments. First, it maintains that it was hard to prove that genocide occurred in Biafra. Second, against the assumption that the American campaign for Biafra was dominated by American public, it argues that the support received from America by the Biafrans was through the efforts of parties, including Biafrans resident in America, American communities, American organizations, and American political class. The article explores America’s intervention in the Nigerian Civil War. It examines the various ways through which Biafrans in America, American politicians, o
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Igwedibia, Adaoma, Greg Ekeh, and Chinyere Esimone. "IPOB sit at home order in South Eastern Nigeria: Its perlocutionary effect for peacebuilding and sustainability." UJAH: Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities 25, no. 1 (2024): 51–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v25i1.3.

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Biafra has been a crying nation since 1967. Researchers have done a lot of studies on the evils and neglect done to the people of Biafra. Biafra had previously existed as an Independent Multi-ethnic Republic consisting of the Igbo, Ijaw, Efik and Ibibio people and was declared by Lieutenant Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu for three years, 1967 through 1970. Since the creation of Biafra, the government of Nigeria has never been at peace with Biafran ideology. This has resulted to war, conflict, marginalization and negligence. Many protest groups from the South-East have emerged to defend the faith of t
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DALY, SAMUEL FURY CHILDS. "THE SURVIVAL CON: FRAUD AND FORGERY IN THE REPUBLIC OF BIAFRA, 1967–70." Journal of African History 58, no. 1 (2017): 129–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853716000347.

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AbstractOver the course of the Nigerian Civil War (1967–70), many people in the secessionist Republic of Biafra resorted to forgery, confidence scams, and other forms of fraud to survive the dire conditions created by Nigeria's blockade. Forgery of passes and other documents, fraudulent commercial transactions, and elaborate schemes involving impersonation and racketeering became common in Biafra, intensifying as the Biafran government's ability to enforce the law diminished. Using long-neglected legal records from Biafra's courts and tribunals, this study traces the process by which deception
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Daly, Samuel Fury Childs. "“Hell was let loose on the country”: The Social History of Military Technology in the Republic of Biafra." African Studies Review 61, no. 3 (2018): 99–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/asr.2018.41.

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Abstract:The problem of armed crime in late twentieth-century Nigeria was closely connected to the events of the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Legal records from the secessionist Republic of Biafra reveal how violent crime emerged as part of the military confrontation between Biafra and Nigeria. The wide availability of firearms, the Biafran state’s diminishing ability to enforce the law, and the gradual collapse of Biafra’s economy under the pressure of a Nigerian blockade made Biafran soldiers and civilians reliant on their weapons to obtain food and fuel, make claims to property, and sett
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Gomba, Obari. "Biafra and Abuse of Power in I.N.C. Aniebo’s Rearguard Actions." Matatu 49, no. 2 (2017): 280–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18757421-04902003.

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Abstract The Nigerian civil war has left a lasting impact on the politics of Nigeria. It has also provided material for I.N.C. Aniebo’s Rearguard Actions. Given the prior success of his novel The Anonymity of Sacrifice, this collection of short stories expands his creative portfolio on the subject of war. Over and above the predilection of Biafran discourse for blaming others for Biafra’s failure, Aniebo’s depiction of the war calls attention to the failings of Biafra itself. On the strength of Aniebo’s stories, this paper seeks to examine the nature of the abuse of power in Biafra and to show
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Daly, Samuel Fury Childs. "A Nation on Paper: Making a State in the Republic of Biafra." Comparative Studies in Society and History 62, no. 4 (2020): 868–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417520000316.

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AbstractWhat role did law play in articulating sovereignty and citizenship in postcolonial Africa? Using legal records from the secessionist Republic of Biafra, this article analyzes the relationship between law and national identity in an extreme context—that of the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Ideas about order, discipline, and legal process were at the heart of Biafra's sense of itself as a nation, and they served as the rhetorical justification for its secession from Nigeria. But they were not only rhetoric. In the turmoil of the ensuing civil war, Biafra's courts became the center of i
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ANTHONY, DOUGLAS. "‘RESOURCEFUL AND PROGRESSIVE BLACKMEN’: MODERNITY AND RACE IN BIAFRA, 1967–70." Journal of African History 51, no. 1 (2010): 41–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853710000022.

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ABSTRACTPropaganda from Biafra and pro-Biafran rhetoric generated by its supporters drew heavily on ideas of modernity. This continued a pattern of associations rooted in colonial-era policies and ethnic stereotypes, and also represented a deliberate rhetorical strategy aimed at both internal and external audiences. During the second half of the Nigeria–Biafra War, the concept of race assumed an increasingly prominent role in both Biafran and pro-Biafran discourse, in part because of the diminished persuasiveness of Biafran claims about Nigeria's genocidal intentions. Arguments about race dove
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Oko Omaka, Arua. "“Biafrans Are Not Nazis:” The Biafran Humanitarian Disaster and Trudeau’s Analogies." Canadian Journal of History 57, no. 2 (2022): 220–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjh-57-2-2021-0115.

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During the Nigeria-Biafra War, the Nigerian government employed shooting and economic blockade as powerful instruments of uniting the country and defending its territorial integrity. Starvation as a potent weapon was of a magnitude that arguably made it the worst catastrophe since the Second World War. The tension was between sovereignty and human rights. Public opinion in Canada strongly favored humanitarian support for Biafra, but the Canadian government argued that humanitarian aid for Biafra might be offensive to the Nigerian government. This article examines the attitude of Pierre Trudeau
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Nwofe, Emmanuel Sunday, and Mark Goodall. "Pro-Biafran Activists and the call for a Referendum: A Sentiment Analysis of ‘Biafraexit’ on Twitter after UK’s vote to leave the European Union." Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 4, no. 1 (2017): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/65.

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In a society bonded by a concatenation of diverse ethno-nationalism, the struggle for inclusion and exclusion becomes particularly unavoidable. Common among the findings of researchers of ethnic identities is the potential for conflicts when inequalities and injustices, rooted in ethnicity and religious identities are the basis for allocation of powers and resources. This is more threatening when a particular ethnic group is signposted as a threat to other group and targeted for ill-treatment. In Nigeria, the Igbo ethnic group is characterized as an endangered group and has risen at one point
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Biafra"

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Lanasri, Ammaria. "La guerre du biafra et la litterature nigeriane." Lille 3, 1986. http://www.theses.fr/1986LIL30016.

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Comme le suggere le titre de notre these, nous nous sommes proposes d'etudier l'impact de cet evenement historique sur la production litteraire nigeriane. Notre travail se divise en trois parties principales. La premiere partie est consacree au contexte socio-historique ou nous avons veille a montrer que les differences ethniques, religieuses et linguistiques existant entre les trois ethnies les plus importantes du nigeria : les haoussas, les yorubas et les ibos, ont ete aggravees par d'autres facteurs tels que la politique coloniale et l'ingerence des puissances etrangeres dans le conflit. La
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Lanasri, Ammaria. "La Guerre du Biafra et la littérature nigériane." Lille 3 : ANRT, 1988. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb37598969f.

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Okigbo, Karen Amaka. "Ghostly Narratives : A Case Study on the Experiences and Roles of Biafran Women during the Nigeria-Biafra War." Thesis, North Dakota State University, 2011. https://hdl.handle.net/10365/29720.

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Since the end of the Nigcria-Biafra war in 1970, political and social theorists, journalists, and scholars have discussed the significance of the war and the major players. Yet one perspective is often omitted, and that is the experiences of women and the roles they played during the war. This thesis begins to unearth some of those hidden narratives through the use of in-depth interviews with seven Biafran women who lived during and survived the Nigeria-Biafra war. Their stories about the importance of their ethnic and religious identities, their roles and experiences during the war, their enc
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Davies, Patrick Ediomi. "Use of propaganda in civil war : the Biafra experience." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1997. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1460/.

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This study examines the effect of propaganda in the Biafran war. Nigeria, the show case of British colonial rule and Empire, and transfer to independence, was at the point of disintegration in 1967. A section of the country, the Eastern region had dared to do the unthinkable at that time, to secede. The British and Nigerian governments were determined that it would not happen. The break away region, which called itself Biafra was blockaded by land, air and sea, and starved of weapons and the means of livelihood. The only means available to it was propaganda. In the opinion of many commentators
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Freitas, João Felipe Assis de. "Half of a Yellow Sun : a experiência dos cronotopos no contexto da Guerra de Biafra." Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 2014. http://ri.ufmt.br/handle/1/328.

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Submitted by Valquíria Barbieri (kikibarbi@hotmail.com) on 2017-06-01T21:23:46Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2014_João Felipe Assis de Freitas.pdf: 1260880 bytes, checksum: 9981df3635cce75a4c3b1642d4c36ebe (MD5)<br>Approved for entry into archive by Jordan (jordanbiblio@gmail.com) on 2017-06-05T16:33:45Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2014_João Felipe Assis de Freitas.pdf: 1260880 bytes, checksum: 9981df3635cce75a4c3b1642d4c36ebe (MD5)<br>Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-05T16:33:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DISS_2014_João Felipe Assis de Freitas.pdf: 1260880 bytes, checksum: 9981df3635cc
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Omenka, Nicholas. ""Blaming the Gods: Religious Propaganda in the Nigeria-Biafra War"." Bulletin of Ecumenical Theology, 2009. http://digital.library.duq.edu/u?/bet,3358.

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Omenka, Nicholas. "Book Review: Tony Byrne, "Airlift to Biafra: Breaching the Blockade"." Bulletin of Ecumenical Theology, 1999. http://digital.library.duq.edu/u?/bet,715.

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Luepke, Anna-Katharina. "'The other side' of the Nigeria-Biafra War : a transnational history." Thesis, Bangor University, 2018. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-other-side-of-the-nigeriabiafra-war(fc5da1c7-2ed7-472e-9d07-29046eb959a7).html.

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During the civil war between Nigeria and the separatist south-eastern state of Biafra, a famine developed that became a global media event in the summer of 1968. Graphic images of starving children captured the public imagination and became a hallmark of the media coverage of famines and humanitarian crises to come. Biafra committees sprang up all over the world and began to support Biafra’s bid for independence and to protest the inactivity of foreign states in the face of what they believed to be a genocide. Expatriate Biafrans and Nigerians in Europe or North America lobbied governments to
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Johansson, Maria. "Den stumma nöden : Den svenska dagspressens representation av humanitära aktioner i det svältande Afrika." Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Institutionen för journalistik, medier och kommunikation (JMK), 2011. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-69184.

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Sammanfattning Intensiva fallstudier av dagspressens representationer av humanitära aktioner Biafra 1968 och på Afrikas horn 2011 möjliggör en jämförelse i hur skildringen av det svältande Afrika förändrats över tid. Uppsatsens syfte har, med denna komparativa ansats, fokuserat på hur den utrikesjournalistiska diskursen skapar Oss och de Andra. Detta har undersökts med följande frågeställningar: Hur framställs de behövande och de som hjälper? Legitimeras humanitära aktioner? I så fall: hur? Vad har detta med utrikesjournalistikens diskursiva praktiker att göra? Hur kan detta kopplas till ideol
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Cassano, Dora. "The Biafra War: Cultural Memory in two novels of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Chinelo Okparanta." Thesis, Högskolan Dalarna, Afrikanska studier, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-28167.

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Recently new novels about the Biafra war have appeared, proving the ongoing impact of the Nigerian civil war on writers’ interest, and the importance of memory in our life. For all these reasons, I decided to write the present thesis on how memory function in a literary work. The objective is to analyse the literary representation of the Biafra war, with a special focus on individual and collective memory production through two fictional novels: Half of a Yellow Sun, by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Under the Udala Trees, by Chinelo Okparanta. In analysing the literary representations of Biafr
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Books on the topic "Biafra"

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Akuneme, Ndubueze C. I saw Biafra. Book Co., 2004.

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Onuoha, Ernest N. Biafra, the victims. Moorhen Books, 2012.

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Gbulie, Ben. The fall of Biafra. Benlie, 1989.

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Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. For love of Biafra. Spectrum Books, 1998.

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Clergerie, Jean-Louis. La crise du Biafra. Presses universitaires de France, 1994.

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Anagbogu, Ifeanyi. The origins of Biafra. Mercury Bright Press, 2001.

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Ikechukwu, Orjinta, Caron Gilles, and Bonneville F. de, eds. The death of Biafra. Snaap Press Ltd., 2000.

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Anagbogu, Ifeanyi. The fall of Biafra. Sellyoak Internationl Co., 2002.

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Srhoj, Vinko. Grupa Biafra, 1970-1978. Art studio Azinović, 1999.

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Oparah, Peter Claver. The man of Biafra. Posterity Books and Publications, 2003.

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Book chapters on the topic "Biafra"

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Uche, U. U. "Biafra." In Annual Survey of African Law. Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315862606-5.

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Adebajo, Adekeye. "Remembering Biafra." In The Splendid Tapestry of African Life. Routledge, 2025. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003642114-58.

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Heerten, Lasse, and A. Dirk Moses. "The Nigeria-Biafra War." In Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315229294-1.

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Okonta, Ike. "‘Biafra of the Mind’." In Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315229294-16.

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Chuku, Gloria. "Women and the Nigeria-Biafra War." In Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315229294-15.

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Smith, Karen E. "The UK and ‘Genocide’ in Biafra." In Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315229294-6.

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Hannig, Florian. "West German Sympathy for Biafra, 1967–1970." In Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide. Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315229294-10.

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Smith, Karen E. "Biafra and the Politics of Naming Genocide." In A Modern History of Forgotten Genocides and Mass Atrocities. Routledge, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003365754-6.

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Bruyère-Ostells, Walter. "Les acteurs de « l’arrière » dans la guerre du Biafra : circulations d’armes, contrats mercenaires et géopolitique." In L’Europe et l’Afrique. Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2020. https://doi.org/10.4000/13vtc.

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La présence de mercenaires au Biafra est rendue possible par la mise en place par les réseaux Foccart d’une chaîne logistique en faveur de la sécession. L’approvisionnement en armes se fait via la Côte d’Ivoire ou le Gabon : rôles de Maurice Robert, Maurice Delaunay ou Philippe Letteron avec la SOGEXI. Pour le transport, de petites sociétés appartenant à des Anglo-Saxons (Hank Wharton ou Jack Malloch) utilisent Sao Tomé comme principal hub. Ils embarquent notamment les hommes recrutés en Europe au Portugal avant de les emmener jusqu’au Biafra. Cette organisation est rendue possible par le reco
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Godlewski, Joseph. "Introduction." In The Architecture of the Bight of Biafra. Routledge, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781032708256-1.

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Conference papers on the topic "Biafra"

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Azeez, Oseni. "PROPAGANDA DURING THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR: THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA AND CULTURAL NARRATIVE." In IV Міжнародна науково -практична конференція "Міжкультурна комунікація в контексті глобалізаційного діалогу: стратегії розвитку ". ОНМУ, 2025. https://doi.org/10.47049/2226-mk-sd-2025-02-2.

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Abstracts: The article analyses the role of information and propaganda strategies in the course of the Nigerian civil war (1967-1970), highlighting how both sides of the conflict - the government of Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra - used the media, cultural narratives and symbolic means for political mobilisation. Particular attention is paid to the functioning of the media, visual propaganda and ethno-cultural discourse in the context of the struggle for national identity and international support. The experience of the conflict demonstrates the importance of culture and information as ins
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Ugochukwu, Françoise. "Le Biafra en mal d’archives : le suintement d’une littérature de témoignage." In Archives matérielles, traces mémorielles et littérature des Afriques. Fabula, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.58282/colloques.7151.

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Salles, Sandra Mara. "Arte em tempos de guerra: a Guerra Nigéria-Biafra e o genocídio Igbo na perspectiva dos artistas." In Encontro da História da Arte. Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.20396/eha.13.2018.4598.

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Ao investigar as narrativas sobre a produção visual do período das independências africanas (ocorridas entre as décadas de 1950 e 1970), percebe-se que ainda são pouco exploradas, no que se refere ao cenário artístico-cultural da Nigéria, as conexões entre a constituição do nacionalismo nigeriano, o lugar dos igbos na identidade nacional e a produção artística no país.
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Yang, Zhou, Muhammad Hilmi Asyrofi, and David Lo. "BiasRV: uncovering biased sentiment predictions at runtime." In ESEC/FSE '21: 29th ACM Joint European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering. ACM, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3468264.3473117.

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"Fürstin ohne Ort. Vom Scheitern der Bianca Maria Sforza." In Visions of Community. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1553/0x0034d4ca.

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Li, Jun. "Nigerian Experience VS. Biafran Experience: the Politics of Experience in Chinua Achebe and Chimananda Adichie’s Novels." In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Art Studies: Science, Experience, Education (ICASSEE 2018). Atlantis Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/icassee-18.2018.52.

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Kao, Ju-Hsien, Han Tong Loh, and Fritz B. Prinz. "Least-Square Biarc Curve Fitting for CNC Machining." In ASME 1997 Design Engineering Technical Conferences. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc97/cie-4286.

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Abstract For CNC cutter path generation of nonlinear curves or surfaces, curve fitting using circular arc segments can be more efficient than linear segments. This paper presents a new algorithm for approximating large sets of points using a spline of biarcs, each of which consists of two circular arcs connected in tangent-continuous manner. The approach proposed in this paper differs from the previous work in that it does not require to pre-determine the number of arc segments, and yet all the family of biarcs between two points can be used, not only the ones which minimize the curvature diff
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CHIN, J. "Spray research in BIAA." In 22nd Joint Propulsion Conference. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.1986-1730.

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Diana, Shinta Rahma. "Biaya dan Manfaat Keanggotaan Indonesia pada Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO)." In Seminar Nasional Kebijakan Penerbangan dan Antariksa I. In Media, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.30536/p.sinaskpa.i.9.

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Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) adalah organisasi kerjasama keantariksaan di luar sistem PBB untuk kawasan Asia-Pasifik yang diinisiasi oleh Republik Rakyat Tiongkok. Indonesia ikut menandatangani Konvensi APSCO pada tanggal 28 Oktober 2005, akan tetapi sampai saat ini Indonesia belum menjadi anggota penuh APSCO. Permasalahan dalam penelitian ini adalah bagaimana posisi Indonesia dalam keanggotaannya pada APSCO, yang ditinjau dari aspek biaya dan manfaat. Metode Penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif, dengan melakukan perhitungan manfa
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Sukarminah, E., Y. Cahyana, T. Rialita, Silvia Oktavia N. Yudiastuti, and H. G. Sobarsa. "Pengaruh Perbandingan Rumput Laut dan Susu Terhadap Karakteristik Yoghurt Probiotik Rumput Laut." In Seminar Nasional Semanis Tani Polije 2020. Politeknik Negeri Jember, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.25047/agropross.2020.49.

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Yogurt probiotik rumput laut adalah produk makanan fermentasi bakteri asam laktat yang menggunakan susu dan rumput laut merah Eucheuma cottonii sebagai bahan bakunya. Rumput laut memberikan efek fungsional pada inang dan berdampak pada tekstur yogurt. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui rumusan keseimbangan rumput laut dan susu skim yang mempengaruhi karakteristik yoghurt untuk disukai oleh panelis. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode eksperimen menggunakan analisis rancangan acak kelompok dengan 5 perlakuan dan 3 ulangan. perlakuan yang diberikan adalah formulasi keseimbangan
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Reports on the topic "Biafra"

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Akresh, Richard, Sonia Bhalotra, Marinella Leone, and Una Osili. First and Second Generation Impacts of the Biafran War. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w23721.

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Prabowo, Adithya, and Muhamad Pudjianto. Biaya Logistik Beras dan Kedelai: Isu, Tantangan, dan Dampak Kebijakan. Center for Indonesian Policy Studies, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.35497/563022.

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timan, Su. PENGARUH BIAYA OPERASIONAL TERHADAP PROFITABILITAS (STUDI KASUS PADA PT GEMILANG ABADI). Jurnal Madani: Ilmu Pengetahuan, Teknologi, dan Humaniora, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.33753/madani.v1i2.20.

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Amanta, Felippa. Biaya Hambatan Non-Tarif pada Perdagangan Pangan dan Pertanian di Indonesia. Center for Indonesian Policy Studies, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35497/345259.

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Sokołowski, Krzysztof. Biała Księga, czerwone bezpieczeństwo? Omówienie białej księgi dot. bezpieczeństwa narodowego Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej. Łukasiewicz Research Network - ITECH Institute of Innovation and Technology, 2025. https://doi.org/10.36735/iztg8443.

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‘Relative Age and Specific Learning Disorder Diagnosis’ – In Conversation with Dr. Bianca Arrhenius. ACAMH, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.13056/acamh.15518.

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Abstract:
With the launch of our third journal, JCPP Advances, we're bringing you a series of podcasts that focus on the papers and editors featured in the publication. In this podcast we speak to Dr. Bianca Arrhenius, medical doctor from Helsinki, Finland, and PhD student at the University of Turku, who is lead author on the paper 'Relative Age and Specific Learning Disorder Diagnosis'.
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