Academic literature on the topic 'Biblical archaeology'

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Journal articles on the topic "Biblical archaeology"

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Bass, George F. "Nautical Archaeology and Biblical Archaeology." Biblical Archaeologist 53, no. 1 (1990): 4–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3210147.

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Craffert, Pieter F. "Biblical Archaeology as an Academic Discipline in Search of Its Academic Identity." Religion and Theology 5, no. 3 (1998): 335–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157430198x00200.

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AbstractWhile the history of the term 'biblical archaeology' shows that it has no single meaning, debates on the disciplinary status of biblical archaeology point towards its long-standing struggle to define itself as a scholarly discipline. A critical discussion of these two aspects results in a rejection of the recent trend to define biblical archaeology as a subsidiary of biblical studies. Instead, it is suggested that biblical archaeology should be defined as a subspecies of general archaeology. This argument finds support in three features of general archaeology: the impetus Of new archaeology, the nature of archaeological scholarship and its interdisciplinary features.
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Hrytsiuta, Oksana. "Development of studies in biblical archaeology in the Kyiv Theological Academy in the second half of XIX century." Materials and studies on archaeology of Sub-Carpathian and Volhynian area 23 (November 26, 2019): 396–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.33402/mdapv.2019-23-396-401.

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The article highlights the contribution of the Kyiv Theological Academy to the deployment of research in biblical archaeology. Contribution of the Academy's teachers to the development of biblical archaeology in Ukraine is revealed. An object of biblical archaeology as a science is the study of various manifestations of the life of the biblical (Old Jewish) people. They are reflected in the New and Old Testaments, civil literature and, especially, in the material evidence of ancient times. In the territory of the Russian Empire, biblical archaeology began to develop in the XIX century. On the territory of Ukraine, an authoritative centre for the development of this area was the Kyiv Theological Academy. The results of their scientific research were published on the pages of the journal “The Proceedings of the Kyiv Theological Academy” under the heading “Jewish Language and Biblical Archaeology”. It covered the study of ancient material culture as a biblical source. Thus, in 1874, in the journal was published the Russian translation of the book “A Guide to Biblical Archaeology” by K. Kayle. On the pages of his book, the author formed the basic principles of biblical archaeology science. In the 60 years of the XIX century Professor O. Olesnitsky (1842–1907) worked as a teacher of biblical archeology at the Kyiv Theological Academy. He worked as an archeologist at the excavations of the fortification wall of Jerusalem. He managed to put the study of biblical archaeology on a strictly scientific ground. A thorough study of the methods of biblical archaeology belongs to M. Makkoevsky. He had the goal to explore life and the last days of Christ. In his work, he tried to answer a number of practical theological questions. The works of Kyiv researchers have demonstrated excellent mastery of advanced methods of excavation and analysis of archaeological material, which were later widely used in other archaeological practices. Key words: biblical archaeology, Kyiv Theological Academy, A. Olesnitsky, M. Makkaevsky, K. Kayle.
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Schoville, Keith N., Leo G. Purdue, Lawrence E. Toombs, and Gary Lance Johnson. "Archaeology and Biblical Interpretation." Journal of the American Oriental Society 110, no. 3 (1990): 572. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/603228.

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Dark, Ken. "Biblical Archaeology in Galilee." Expository Times 135, no. 8 (2024): 358–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00145246241238549.

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Drinkard, Joel F. "The Position of Biblical Archaeology within Biblical Studies." Review & Expositor 86, no. 4 (1989): 603–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003463738908600410.

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Thompson, Thomas L. "Biblical Archaeology: The Hydra of Palestine’s History." Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift 78, no. 3 (2015): 243–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/dtt.v78i3.105759.

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Both Israel Finkelstein and William Dever have allegedly distanced themselves from the kind of “biblical archaeology” of William F. Albright. Their own efforts, however, to relate Palestinian archaeology and biblical narrative not only reflect Albright’s earlier methods, they create a politically oriented incoherence. In three recent works, since the turn of the millennia, Finkelstein uses archaeologically based arguments primarily to resolve problems of biblical interpretation. Dever, who also has published three biblical-archaeological studies since 2001, concentrates, rather, on archaeological issues, while using biblical narrative for his underlying historical context. A discussion of the figures of Solomon and Josiah on the one hand and a discussion of “landscapearchaeology” and site classification, on the other hand, illustrate theshortcomings of their methodology.
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Seger, Joe D., and P. R. S. Moorey. "A Century of Biblical Archaeology." Journal of the American Oriental Society 115, no. 4 (1995): 720. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/604765.

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Dever, William G., and Volkmar Fritz. "An Introduction to Biblical Archaeology." Journal of the American Oriental Society 116, no. 3 (1996): 591. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/605208.

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Hirsch, Julian, and Amy V. Margaris. "Revitalizing Legacy Biblical Archaeology Collections." Near Eastern Archaeology 86, no. 2 (2023): 158–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/724786.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Biblical archaeology"

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DAVIS, THOMAS WILLIAM. "A HISTORY OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY (PALESTINE)." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/184053.

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This is the study of the rise, dominance, and decline of a particular paradigm in Near Eastern archaeology known as Biblical archaeology. The development of the field is traced chronologically with an emphasis upon field work in Palestine because this was the arena of Biblical archaeology's field research. The first systematic explorations of Palestine were by Edward Robinson. Robinson wanted to recover the historical reality behind the biblical record, thereby making Scripture more accessible. This research for realia became a foundational motivation of Biblical archaeology. After Robinson, societies were founded dedicated to the study of the culture and history of Palestine. Up to World War I, Biblical archaeology remained in the armchair, content to interpret results gathered by professional archaeologists in the field. W. F. Albright brought Biblical archaeology actively into field work. Albright was guided in his archaeological research by the desire to ground biblical studies, in the perceived realia of archaeology. He believed archaeology was an external, objective endeavor that could provide solid support for an historical understanding of the Bible. He systematized the pottery chronology of Palestine and his field methodology became the recognized model for excavation in Palestine. A common misconception of Biblical archaeology is to see the field as a monolithic structure. In reality, the endeavor has been fragmented along theological lines and these various strains are separated and examined. After the war, Albright's successor, G. E. Wright, linked Biblical archaeology to the Biblical Theology Movement. The resulting "classical" Biblical archaeology of Albright and Wright viewed Palestinian archaeology as the field adjunct of biblical studies, limiting the research agenda to questions of biblical interest. When at Shechem, Wright was forced to recognize the subjective nature of archaeological interpretation, the entire system collapsed because Biblical archaeology depended upon the understanding of archaeology as realia. In recognition that data only speak in response to a question, Wright and his students turned to a new paradigm that could provide a wider range of questions. Despite the almost total rejection of Biblical archaeology as a paradigm for research, it has a positive legacy.
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Elliott, Mark 1948. "Archaeology, Bible and interpretation: 1900-1930." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/288877.

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This is a study of the interpretation of archaeological data by Anglo-American Bible scholars, though the emphasis is primarily American, in scholarly and popular publications from 1900-1930. The major archaeological research interest for many Anglo-American biblical scholars was its direct reflection on the biblical record. Many were devout and reared on a literal reading of Scripture. Traditional scholars insisted that the function of archaeology was to provide evidence to validate the Bible and to disprove higher criticism. They were clearly motivated by theological concerns and created an archaeology of faith that authenticated the word of the Lord and protected Christian doctrines. Liberal or mainstream scholars rejected conservative methods that simply collated archaeological data to attack the documentary hypothesis and its supporters. Several eminent Bible scholars developed important studies on the interpretation of archaeological results from Palestine. They participated eagerly in analyzing archaeological material and refused to concede the field of biblical archaeology to theologically-motivated conservative scholars and theologians. They were determined to conduct important investigations of the archaeological evidence free from theological bias. Palestinian excavations lacked the spectacular architectural and inscriptural remains unearthed in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The popular press did occasionally report on the progress of several excavations from Palestine, but, for the most part, Palestinian excavations concentrated on tells and pottery and the results were disappointing. However, by the 1920s the New York Times was a major source of information concerning archaeological news and frequently carried stories that indicated that archaeology was confirming the biblical record and many of the Bible's revered figures. The Times played a vital role in popularizing biblical archaeology and contributed many illustrations of amazing archaeological discoveries that "proved" the historicity of the biblical text. W. F. Albright's scholarly conclusions in the 1920s were moderate. Albright's scholarship was not motivated by theological concerns as many have assumed. Though his religious convictions were assuredly conservative, his scholarship had little in common with the tendentious archaeological assumptions created by conservative Bible scholars and theologians. Albright's interpretations were based on the archaeological data and not on theological dogma.
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Willett, Elizabeth Ann Remington. "Women and household shrines in ancient Israel." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/288986.

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High infant mortality and short female life span threatened Israelite women, who were respected as household administrators and educators. The concept of a personal god first observed in second millennium BCE Mesopotamian texts and house shrines involved apotropaic measures against a malevolent goddess who sickened and stole newborn children. Protective blessing inscriptions and deemphasis on the sexual aspect of Israelite figurines indicate that the personal goddess Asherah's function in Israelite religion was connected with protection more than with fertility. Offering benches and incense burners that define semi-public cult rooms in Syria-Palestine accompany female figurines in Israelite houses at Tell Masos, Tell el-Far'ah, Beer-sheba, and Tell Halif. Eye amulets such as those from the eighth century Lachish houses as well as the large-breasted pillar-figurines reflect a long-standing Near Eastern tradition of using eye and breast motifs to protect against the evil eye and child-stealing demons. The figurines' occurrence with women's textile and food preparation implements in female domains indicates that women set up a household shrine with an Asherah figurine near an entrance. The figurines interpreted as votives that mean "this is me" or "this is you" represent a covenant relationship between the breast-feeding mother of a newborn infant and a nurturing and protecting female deity. Israelite women dedicated votive gifts to Asherah and burned incense or oil with prayers and incantations on a regular basis during the vulnerable neonatal stage of a child's life, or at signs of illness. Ancient and modern Near Eastern parallels attest that women burn incense and oil to invoke the presence of a deity they contract with for protection. Pronouncing the deity's name is essential, and in iconic cultures, visual images empowered by prayers form important parts of these rituals.
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Ortiz, Steven Michael. "The 11/10th century B.C.E. transition in the Aijalon Valley Region: New evidence from Tel Miqne-Ekron Stratum IV." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/289139.

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Recent deconstructionist trends within Syro-Palestinian archaeology and biblical studies have now converged on the Israelite Monarchy causing two major ceramic reappraisals of the Iron Age I and II Periods. The result is a proposal for a new low chronology in Syro-Palestinian archaeology. These trends are creating more problems than they are solving by naively assuming ceramic change was consistent throughout Syro-Palestine and manipulating the archaeological data to fit the new models. The dissertation addresses the radical archaeological and historical reconstructions of the current trend by focusing on the Iron Age I-II transition in the northern parts of the Philistine coast and Shephelah (foothills)--Aijalon Valley Region. Excavations at Tel Miqne-Ekron provide new evidence for an evaluation of recent chronological proposals and aide in the development of a ceramic corpus of the Aijalon Valley Region. As a border site between the coastal region and the hills, Tel Miqne is an important site to isolate and compare regional variations and the complex socioeconomic variables that pattern the archaeological record. The dissertation is divided into three parts. Part I includes a review of current work in Syro-Palestinian Iron Age research and an overview of ceramic theory development. Part II contains the core database: (1) development of the Tel Miqne Stratum IV typology, and (2) a comparanda, with other sites in the region and attempt to isolate the chronological and spatial patterns of the Iron Age transition (11/10th century B.C.E.). Part III contains the results and interpretations. This study concludes that: (1) ceramic change is not chronologically homogeneous and therefore regional variation must be incorporated in all ceramic analyses; (2) the proposed new Low Chronology for the Iron Age in the southern Levant cannot be supported by the archaeological evidence; and (3) the Aijalon Valley Region reflects the complexity of the Iron Age transition as many ethnic elements and political groups vied for control of the important crossroads and access to coastal ports.
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Rodrigues, Gabriella B. [Verfasser], and Manfred [Akademischer Betreuer] Oeming. "GERMAN BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY: RETROSPECTIVE OF A NEGLECTED LEGACY; A Study of the German contribution to the Archaeology of Palestine in its longue durée, from 1871 to 1945 / Gabriella B. Rodrigues ; Betreuer: Manfred Oeming." Heidelberg : Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg, 2017. http://d-nb.info/1180985451/34.

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Birkan, Amy. "The bronze serpent, a perplexing remedy : an analysis of Num. 21:4-9 in the light of Near Eastern serpent emblems, archaeology and inner Biblical exegesis." Thesis, McGill University, 2005. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=82684.

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In Num. 21: 4-9, after complaining against God, the Israelites were punished with a plague of venomous serpents. Following their apology, God commanded Moses to fashion a bronze serpent and mount it on a standard; the bitten were to look at it to recover. The use of the serpent form is striking, as it seems to boldly negate the fundamental Torah law, which prohibits the use of any images or statues. To gain better insight into the narrative, the first section of this work explores a possible context for it, based on archaeological findings. The second section focuses on the two prominent Egyptian elements contained in the narrative, the serpent and the standard, whose local symbolism is evaluated. The third section explores whether there are ancient Near Eastern parallels for the healing serpent. The narrative, in the fourth section, is examined according to its inner-Biblical interpretation. As the episode is the last of the ten wilderness complaint sequences, each is analyzed for a comprehensive understanding of Num. 21: 4-9; what elements, if any, are unique to it, and might have contributed the narrative's use of this peculiar remedy?
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Reusch, Kathryn. ""That which was missing" : the archaeology of castration." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:b8118fe7-67cb-4610-9823-b0242dfe900a.

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Castration has a long temporal and geographical span. Its origins are unclear, but likely lie in the Ancient Near East around the time of the Secondary Products Revolution and the increase in social complexity of proto-urban societies. Due to the unique social and gender roles created by castrates’ ambiguous sexual state, human castrates were used heavily in strongly hierarchical social structures such as imperial and religious institutions, and were often close to the ruler of an imperial society. This privileged position, though often occupied by slaves, gave castrates enormous power to affect governmental decisions. This often aroused the jealousy and hatred of intact elite males, who were not afforded as open access to the ruler and virulently condemned castrates in historical documents. These attitudes were passed down to the scholars and doctors who began to study castration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, affecting the manner in which castration was studied. Osteometric and anthropometric examinations of castrates were carried out during this period, but the two World Wars and a shift in focus meant that castrate bodies were not studied for nearly eighty years. Recent interest in gender and sexuality in the past has revived interest in castration as a topic, but few studies of castrate remains have occurred. As large numbers of castrates are referenced in historical documents, the lack of castrate skeletons may be due to a lack of recognition of the physical effects of castration on the skeleton. The synthesis and generation of methods for more accurate identification of castrate skeletons was undertaken and the results are presented here to improve the ability to identify castrate skeletons within the archaeological record.
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Hirsch, Julian. "The Oberlin Near East Study Collection in Context." Oberlin College Honors Theses / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=oberlin1590254692197989.

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Bianchi, D. "UN PARADIGMA DEVOZIONALE NEL PERIODO BIZANTINO E PRIMO ISLAMICO: RIVALUTANDO IL COMPLESSO MONASTICO DEL MEMORIALE DI MOSÈ SUL MONTE NEBO." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Milano, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2434/489224.

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The aim of my PhD dissertation is to reassess the previous interpretations related to the monastic complex of the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo, Jordan. This analysis was possible due to new archaeological surveys promoted by the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, on which I cooperated as archaeological field assistant. My research was conducted into those parts of the basilica that had never been investigated archaeologically. Excavations in the central nave of the church have unearthed a burial tomb, completely intact. It was found to be empty, adorned with alabaster marble and placed on the highest point of the mountain. The tomb structure, which can probably be considered a cenotaph, was built in the oldest sacred building erected on Mount Nebo, in the place where, according to biblical tradition, the memory of the death of the Prophet Moses was worshipped. The thesis is divided into two different parts. The first two chapters are devoted to the last discoveries and to the reassessment of previously published data, in order to suggest a new approach to the first building constructed on Mount Nebo and a revised interpretation of the several layers of construction carried out on the monument over the centuries. The historical and topographic context of the coenobium is discussed in the second part. The monastery of Mount Nebo was indeed part of the variegated framework of monastic complexes linked to the worship of the biblical figures widespread in Transjordan. After discussing this important correlation, I examined the different economic aspects that have contributed to the evolution of the monastery in its joint production and livelihood. The fine mosaic floors demonstrate the evergetism of the abbots, lay donors and local bishops, while the agricultural facilities show the hegemonic role of the monastery over the colony of monks who dwelled in the surrounding valleys. Finally, I analyzed the various factors that led to the monastic decline. Particular attention was paid to the excavations under the synthronon and in one room of the monastery, which have provided additional data on the last renovation of the building, occurred during the transition between the Umayyad period and the early ‘Abbāsid era.
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Xavier, Janaina Silva. "Plano museológico: uma discussão para o Museu de Arqueologia Bíblica Paulo Bork do Centro Universitário Adventista de São Paulo." Universidade de São Paulo, 2015. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/103/103131/tde-07072015-152340/.

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Esta dissertação apresenta os resultados de um trabalho de pesquisa desenvolvido no Programa de Pós Graduação Interunidades em Museologia, da Universidade de São Paulo. O estudo discute o Plano Museológico como instrumento de gestão adotado pelo Governo Federal brasileiro em 2006, apresenta as origens desse modelo de planejamento, suas propostas e estrutura e levanta dados sobre sua disseminação e aplicação nos museus brasileiros. Analisa, também, exemplos de Planos Museológicos, identificando aspectos positivos e negativos, procurando compreender sua utilidade na gestão dos museus e, por fim, propõe parâmetros para a elaboração de um Plano Museológico para o Museu de Arqueologia Bíblica Paulo Bork, do Centro Universitário Adventista de São Paulo (UNASP EC), adequado as suas especificidades universitárias e capaz de nortear de forma objetiva as ações dessa instituição em face da sociedade.<br>This dissertation presents the results of a research work in the Graduate Program in Interunits Museology, of the University of São Paulo. The study discusses the Museological Plan as a management instrument adopted by the Brazilian Federal Government in 2006, presents the origins of this planning model, its proposals and structure and raises data on its dissemination and use in Brazilian museums. It also analyzes examples of Museological Plans, identifying positive and negative aspects, trying to understand its usefulness in the management of museums and finally proposes parameters for the development of a Museological Plan for the Museum of Biblical Archaeology Paul Bork, the University Center São Paulo (UNASP EC) matches your specific university and able to guide objectively the actions of the institution in the face of society.
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Books on the topic "Biblical archaeology"

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Society, Biblical Archaeology, ed. Biblical archaeology review. Biblical Archaeology Society, 2004.

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R, Bartlett John, ed. Archaeology and biblical interpretation. Routledge, 1997.

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-1905, Christie Peter, Crombie, Frederick, 1826 or 1827-1889, and Cusin A. (Alexander), eds. Manual of biblical archaeology. T. & T. Clark, 1989.

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1950-, Haramati Moni, and Gibson Shimon, eds. Flights into biblical archaeology. Albatross, 2007.

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Moorey, P. R. S. A century of biblical archaeology. Lutterworth Press, 1991.

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ṿe-ʻatiḳoteha, Hevrah la-ḥaḳirat Erets-Yiśraʼel, Aḳademyah ha-leʼumit ha-Yiśreʼelit le-madaʻim, and American Schools of Oriental Research., eds. Biblical archaeology today: Proceedings of the International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, April 1984. Israel Exploration Society, 1985.

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Horn, Siegfried H. Biblical archaeology: A generation of discovery. Biblical Archaeology Soc., 1985.

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Oxford, University of, ed. Studia biblica: Essays in biblical archaeology and criticism and kindred subjects. Clarendon Press, 1989.

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Society, Biblical Archaeology. Who's who in biblical studies and archaeology. 2nd ed. Biblical Archaeology Society, 1993.

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Wolf, Morris. Biblical archaeology from words of lesser frequency. Morris Wolf, 1999.

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Book chapters on the topic "Biblical archaeology"

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Cobbing, Felicity J. "Biblical archaeology." In The Biblical World, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315678894-28.

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Dever, William G. "Biblical and Syro-Palestinian Archaeology." In The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781405166560.ch8.

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Rogers, C. F. "BAPTISM AND CHRISTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY." In Studies in Biblical and Patristic Criticism, edited by S. R. Driver, T. K. Cheyne, and W. Sanday. Gorgias Press, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463211769-004.

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Knorr, Brooke Sherrard. "Conclusion." In American Biblical Archaeology and Zionism. Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/b22935-9.

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Knorr, Brooke Sherrard. "“No Preconceptions”." In American Biblical Archaeology and Zionism. Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/b22935-8.

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Sharon, Ilan. "BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY." In Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Elsevier, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012373962-9.00032-7.

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Diaz-Andreu, Margarita. "Biblical Archaeology." In A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199217175.003.0013.

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The increase of interest that the study of ancient monuments had raised, mainly from the eighteenth century, attracted many individuals to the classical lands. There, as explained in the last chapter, a search for the roots of Western civilization and of the flourishing nineteenth-century empires took place. In addition, however, in some of those countries—mainly in Egypt and Mesopotamia—this concern would not be the only one which boosted scholars’ interests. These lands had witnessed some of the accounts related in the Christian Holy Book, the Bible, and therefore the search for classical antiquity came together with—and was sometimes overshadowed by—research on the biblical past. Work focused first on Egypt, then on Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and parts of Iran), and then moved to other areas: Palestine, and to a certain degree Lebanon and Turkey. After the first travellers who managed to overcome the difficulties of access imposed by the Ottoman Empire, there followed diplomats in the area working for the various imperial countries as well as more specialized explorers, including geographers and antiquarians. Later on, especially in Palestine, many of those who looked for ancient remains were in one way or another connected with religious institutions. Therefore, imperialism will not be the only factor to consider in the development of archaeology in the area described in this chapter, for religion also had an essential role. As explained in the following pages, these were overlapping, complementary forces. The influence of religion on the archaeology of the biblical lands can be seen both in the religious beliefs of those who undertook it, as well as, more importantly, in how it had an effect on research. The aim of most of the archaeologists working in the biblical land—especially in the core area of Palestine and Lebanon—was to illustrate, confirm, or challenge the biblical account, and they were not interested in any period dated either before or after the events related in the Holy Book. Thus, an interest in the Islamic archaeology of the area would only appear at the end of the period dealt with in this book (Ettinghausen 1951; Vernoit 1997: 4–5), and pre-biblical archaeology would develop later.
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"Biblical Archaeology." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58292-0_20348.

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Cobbing, Felicity J. "Biblical Archaeology." In The Biblical World. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203309490-21.

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Smith, Neil, and Thomas E. Levy. "Biblical Archaeology." In Reference Module in Social Sciences. Elsevier, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-90799-6.00198-1.

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